Ged Testing Program: 2013 Adult Education Application For: Fill & Download for Free

(Wikipedia’s list.)17th century[edit]The 1698 Savery Engine1605Bacon’s cipher, a method of steganography (hiding a secret message), is devised by Sir Francis Bacon.[5]1614John Napier publishes his work Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio introducing the concept of logarithms which simplifies mathematical calculations.[6][7]1620The first navigable submarine is designed by William Bourne and built by Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel.1625Early experiments in water desalination are conducted by Sir Francis Bacon.[8]1657Anchor escapement for clock making is invented by Robert Hooke.[9]1667A tin can telephone is devised by Robert Hooke.[10]1668Sir Isaac Newton invents the first working reflecting telescope.[11]1698The first commercial steam-powered device, a water pump, is developed by Thomas Savery.[12]18th century[edit]The Watt steam engine was conceived in 1765. James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.1701An improved seed drill is designed by Jethro Tull.[13] It is used to spread seeds around a field with a rotating handle which makes seed planting a lot easier.1705Edmond Halley makes the first prediction of a comet's return.[14]1712The first practical steam engine is designed by Thomas Newcomen.[12][15]1718Edmond Halley discovers stellar motion.[16]1730The Rotherham plough, the first plough to be widely built in factories and commercially successful, is patented by Joseph Foljambe.[17]1737Andrew Rodger invents the winnowing machine.1740The first electrostatic motors are developed by Andrew Gordon in the 1740s.[18]1744The earliest known reference to baseball is made in a publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of "base-ball" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases.[19]1753Invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple who died in 1753.[20]1765James Small advances the design of the plough using mathematical methods to improve on the Scotch plough of James Anderson of Hermiston.[21]1767Adam Ferguson (1767), often known as ‘The Father of Modern Sociology’, publishes his work An Essay on the History of Civil Society.[22]1776Scottish economist Adam Smith, often known as 'The father of modern economics',[23] publishes his seminal text The Wealth of Nations.[24][25]The Watt steam engine, conceived in 1765, goes into production. It is the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric.1781The Iron Bridge, the first arch bridge made of cast iron, is built by Abraham Darby III.[12]1783A pioneer of selective breeding and artificial selection, Robert Bakewell, forms the Dishley Society to promote and advance the interests of livestock breeders.[26][27]1786The threshing machine is invented by Andrew Meikle.[28]1798Edward Jenner invents the first vaccine.19th century[edit]A trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, first described by Charles Babbage in 1837[29]1802Sir Humphry Davy creates the first incandescent light by passing a current from a battery, at the time the world's most powerful, through a thin strip of platinum.1804The world's first locomotive-hauled railway journey is made by Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive.[30]1807Alexander John Forsyth invents percussion ignition, the foundation of modern firearms.1814Robert Salmon patents the first haymaking machine.c1820John Loudon McAdam develops the Macadam road construction technique.1822Charles Babbage proposes the idea for a Difference engine, an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".[31]1823An improved system of soil drainage is developed by James Smith.[32]1824William Aspdin obtains a patent for Portland cement (concrete).1825William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.1828A mechanical reaping machine is invented by Patrick Bell.[33]1831Electromagnetic induction, the operating principle of transformers and nearly all modern electric generators, is discovered by Michael Faraday.1835Scotsman James Bowman Lindsay invents the incandescent light bulb.[34]1836The Marsh test for detecting arsenic poisoning is developed by James Marsh.[35]1837Charles Babbage describes an Analytical Engine, the first mechanical, general-purpose programmable computer.[36][37]The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, first commercially successful electric telegraph, is designed by Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke.[38][39][40]1839A pedal bicycle is invented by Kirkpatrick Macmillan.[41]1840Sir Rowland Hill reforms the postal system with Uniform Penny Post and introduces the first postage stamp, the Penny Black, on 1 May.[42]1841Alexander Bain patents his design produced the prior year for an electric clock.[43]1842Superphosphate, the first chemical fertiliser, is patented by John Bennet Lawes.[citation needed]1843SS Great Britain, the world's first steam-powered, screw propeller-driven passenger liner with an iron hull is launched. Designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, it was at the time the largest ship afloat.Alexander Bain (inventor) patents a design for a facsimile machine.1846A design for a chemical telegraph is patented by Alexander Bain. Bain's telegraph is installed on the wires of the Electric Telegraph Company on one line. Later, in 1850, it was used in America by Henry O'Reilly.[44]1847Boolean algebra, the basis for digital logic, is introduced by George Boole in his book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic.[45]1851Improvements to the facsimile machine are demonstrated by Frederick Bakewell at the 1851 World's Fair in London.1852A steam-driven ploughing engine is invented by John Fowler.[46][47]1853English physician Alexander Wood develops a medical hypodermic syringe with a needle fine enough to pierce the skin.[48]1854The Playfair cipher, the first literal digraph substitution cipher, is invented by Charles Wheatstone and later promoted for use by Lord Playfair.[40]1868Mushet steel, the first commercial steel alloy, is invented by Robert Forester Mushet.Thomas Humber develops a bicycle design with the pedals driving the rear wheel.The first manually operated gas-lamp traffic lights are installed outside the Houses of Parliament on 10 December.1869A bicycle design is developed by Thomas McCall.1873Discovery of the photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith. This led to the invention of photoelectric cells (solar panels), including those used in the earliest television systems.1876Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone in the U.S.[49]The first safety bicycle is designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson (also called Henry). Unlike the penny-farthing, the rider's feet were within reach of the ground, making it safer to stop.1878Demonstration of an incandescent light bulb by Joseph Wilson Swan.[50][51]1883The Fresno scraper, which became a model for modern earth movers, is invented in California by Scottish emigrant James Porteous.[52]1884The light switch is invented by John Holmes.1885The first commercially successful safety bicycle, called the Rover, is designed by John Kemp Starley. The following year Dan Albone produces a derivative of this called the Ivel Safety cycle.1886Walter Parry Haskett Smith, often called the Father of Rock Climbing in Britain, completes his first ascent of the Napes Needle, solo and without any protective equipment.1892Sir Francis Galton devises a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science.[53]1897Sir Joseph John Thomson discovers the electron.[54]The world's first wireless station is established on the Isle of Wight.[55][56]20th century[edit]A Colossus computer, developed by British codebreakers in 1943–19451901The first wireless signal across the Atlantic is sent from Cornwall in England and received in Newfoundland in Canada (a distance of 2,100 miles) by Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi.[57]The first commercially successful light farm tractor is patented by Dan Albone.[58][59]1902Edgar Purnell Hooley develops Tarmac1907Henry Joseph Round discovers electroluminescence, the principle behind LEDs.1910The first formal driving school, the British School of Motoring, is founded in London.[60]Frank Barnwell establishes the fundamentals of aircraft design at the University of Glasgow,[61] having made the first powered flight in Scotland the previous year.1918The Royal Air Force becomes the first independent air force in the world[62]1922In Sorbonne, France, Englishman Edwin Belin demonstrates a mechanical scanning device, an early precursor to modern television.1926John Logie Baird makes the first public demonstration of a mechanical television on 26 January (the first successful transmissions were in early 1923 and February 1924). Later, in July 1928, he demonstrated the first colour television.[63][64]1930The jet engine is patented by Sir Frank Whittle.[65]1932The Anglepoise lamp is patented by George Carwardine, a design consultant specialising in vehicle suspension systems.1933The Cat's eye road marking is invented by Percy Shaw and patented the following year.1936English economist John Maynard Keynes publishes his work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money which challenged the established classical economics and led to the Keynesian Revolution in the way economists thought.The world's first public broadcasts of high-definition television are made from Alexandra Palace, North London, by the BBC Television Service. It is the first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting.[66]1937First available in the London area, the 999 telephone number is introduced as the world's first emergency telephone service.1939The initial design of the Bombe, an electromechanical device to assist with the deciphering of messages encrypted by the Enigma machine, is produced by Alan Turing at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS).[67]1943Colossus computer begins working, the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.[68]1949The Manchester Mark 1 computer, significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers, ran its first programme error free. Its chief designers are Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn.1951The concept of microprogramming is developed by Maurice Wilkes from the realisation that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer program in high-speed ROM.LEO is the first business application (a payroll system) on an electronic computer.1952Autocode, regarded as the first compiled programming language, is developed for the Manchester Mark 1 by Alick Glennie.1953Englishman Francis Crick and American James Watson of Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, analysed X-ray crystallography data taken by Rosalind Franklin of King's College, to decipher the double helical structure of DNA. They share the 1962 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work.[69]1955The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, is built by Louis Essen at the National Physical Laboratory. This clock enabled further development of general relativity, and started a basis for an enhanced SI unit system.[70]1956Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer, is built by the Metropolitan-Vickers company.1961The first electronic desktop calculators, the ANITA Mk7 and ANITA Mk8, are manufactured by the Bell Punch Company and marketed by its Sumlock Comptometer division.1963High strength carbon fibre is invented by engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.[71]The Lava lamp is invented by British accountant Edward Craven Walker.1964The first theory of the Higgs boson is put forward by Peter Higgs, a particle-physics theorist at the University of Edinburgh, and five other physicists.[72][73] The particle is discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider and its existence is confirmed in 2013.1965A pioneer of the development of dairy farming systems, Rex Paterson, set out his principles for labour management.[74]The Touchscreen was invented by E.A.Johnson working at the Radar Research Establishment, Malvern, Worcestershire. [75]1966The cash machine and personal identification number system are patented by James Goodfellow.[76]1969The first carbon fibre fabric in the world is weaved in Stockport, England.[77]1970One of the first handheld televisions, the MTV-1, is developed by Sir Clive Sinclair.1973Clifford Cocks develops the algorithm for the RSA cipher while working at the Government Communications Headquarters, approximately three years before it was independently developed by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman at MIT. The British government declassified the 1973 invention in 1997.[78]1977Steptoe and Edwards successfully carried out a pioneering conception which resulted in the birth of the world's first baby to be conceived by IVF, Louise Brown on 25 July 1978, in Oldham General Hospital, Greater Manchester, UK.[79][80][81]1979The tree shelter is invented by Graham Tuley to protect tree seedlings.[82]One of the first laptop computers, the GRiD Compass, is designed by Bill Moggridge.1984DNA profiling is discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester.One of the world's first computer games to use 3D graphics, Elite, is developed by David Braben and Ian Bell.1989Sir Tim Berners-Lee writes a proposal for what will become the World Wide Web. The following year, he specified HTML, the hypertext language, and HTTP, the protocol.[83]The Touchpad pointing device is first developed for Psion computers.1991A patent for an iris recognition algorithm is filed by John Daugman while working at the University of Cambridge which became the basis of all publicly deployed iris recognition systems.[84][85]The source code for the world's first web browser, called WorldWideWeb (later renamed Nexus to avoid confusion with the World Wide Web), is released into the public domain by Sir Tim Berners-Lee.1992The first SMS message in the world is sent over the UK's GSM network.1995The world's first national DNA database is developed.[86]1996Animal cloning, a female domestic sheep became the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, by scientists at the Roslin institute.[87]1997Scottish scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, produce the first mammal cloned from an adult cell.[88]The ThrustSSC jet-propelled car, designed and built in England, sets the land speed record.21st century[edit]2003Beagle 2, a British landing spacecraft that forms part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission lands on the surface of Mars but fails to communicate. It is located twelve years later in a series of images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter that suggest two of Beagle's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna.2004Graphene is isolated from graphite at the University of Manchester by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.[89]2005The design for a machine to lay rail track, the "Trac Rail Transposer", is patented and goes on to be used by Network Rail in the United Kingdom and the New York City Subway in the United States.[90][91][92]2012Raspberry Pi, a single-board computer, is launched and quickly becomes popular for education in programming and computer science.[93]2014The European Space Agency's Philae lander leaves the Rosetta spacecraft and makes the first ever landing on a comet. The Philae lander was built with significant British expertise and technology, alongside that of several other countries.[94][95]Ceramics[edit]Bone china – Josiah Spode[96]Ironstone china – Charles James Mason[97]Jasperware – Josiah WedgwoodClock making[edit]Anchor escapement – Robert Hooke[98][99]Balance wheel – Robert Hooke[100]Coaxial escapement – George Daniels[101]Grasshopper escapement, H1, H2, H3 and H4 watches (a watch built to solve the longitude measurement problem)[102] – John HarrisonGridiron pendulum – John Harrison[100]Lever escapement The greatest single improvement ever applied to pocket watches – Thomas Mudge[100]Longcase clock or grandfather clock – William Clement[103]Marine chronometer – John Harrison[100]Self-winding watch – John Harwood[104]Clothing manufacturing[edit]Derby Rib (stocking manufacture) – Jedediah StruttFlying shuttle – John KayMauveine, the first synthetic organic dye – William Henry PerkinPower loom – Edmund CartwrightSpinning frame – John KaySpinning jenny – James HargreavesSpinning mule – Samuel CromptonSewing machine – Thomas Saint in 1790[105]Water frame – Richard ArkwrightStocking frame – William LeeWarp-loom and Bobbinet – John HeathcoatCommunications[edit]Christmas card [106] – Sir Henry ColeValentines card [107] – Modern card 18th century EnglandPencil – Cumbria, EnglandMechanical pencil – Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in 1822.[108]Clockwork radio [109] – Trevor BaylisRadio, the first transmission using a Spark Transmitter, achieving a range of approximately 500 metres. – David E. HughesElectromagnetic induction & Faraday's law of induction Began as a series of experiments by Faraday that later became some of the first ever experiments in the discovery of radio waves and the development of radio – Michael Faraday [110]Pioneer in the development of radio communication – William EcclesPioneering work on the development of the long-lasting materials that made today's liquid crystal displays possible – Team headed by Sir Brynmor Jones and Developed by Scotsman George Gray and Englishman Ken Harrison In conjunction with the Royal Radar Establishment and the University of Hull [111]Pioneering development of stereo in the form of 'binaural sound' – Alan Blumlein [112]Shorthand – Timothy Bright (1550/1-1615). Invented first modern shorthandPitman Shorthand – Isaac PitmanProposed the existence of the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, a layer of ionised gas that reflects radio waves around the Earth's curvature – Oliver HeavisideTypewriter – First patent for a device similar to a typewriter granted to Henry Mill in 1714.[113]the world's first automatic totalisator – George Juliuspioneer in the use of fiber optics in telecommunications – Charles K. Kao and George HockhamThe originator of the concept of geostationary satellites for the use of telecommunications relays – Arthur C ClarkeTeletext Information Service – The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)Print stereotyping – William Ged (1690–1749) [114]Roller printing – Thomas Bell (patented 1783) [115]The adhesive postage stamp and the postmark – James Chalmers (1782–1853) [116]Universal Standard Time: Sir Sandford Fleming (1827–1915) [117]Light signalling between ships: Admiral Philip H. Colomb (1831–1899) [118]The teleprinter – Frederick G. Creed (1871–1957) [119]Radar – Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973)[120]The underlying principles of Radio – James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [121]Computing[edit]ACE and Pilot ACE [67] – Alan TuringARM architecture The ARM CPU design is the microprocessor architecture of 98% of mobile phones and every smartphone.[122]First programmer – Ada LovelaceFirst Programming Language Analytical Engine ordercode – Charles Babbage and Ada LovelaceArgo system the world's first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (also called at the Argo Clock) – Arthur PollenSumlock ANITA calculator the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator – Bell Punch CoThe world's first 'slimline' pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive amongst other electrical/electronic innovations – Sir Clive SinclairOsborne 1 The first commercially successful portable computer, the precursor to the Laptop computer – Adam OsborneHeavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel – Andrew Morton & Alan CoxFlip-flop circuit, which became the basis of electronic memory (Random-access memory) in computers – William Eccles and F. W. JordanUniversal Turing machine – The UTM model is considered to be the origin of the "stored program computer" used by John von Neumann in 1946 for his "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears von Neumann's name: the von Neumann architecture, also UTM is considered the first operating system – Alan TuringThe development of packet switching co-invented by British engineer Donald Davies and American Paul Baran – National Physical Laboratory, London EnglandThe first person to conceptualise the Integrated Circuit – Geoffrey W.A. DummerThe first modern computer, the Manchester Baby, was the world's first electronic stored-program computer. Developed by Frederic Calland Williams & Tom Kilburn[123]Williams tube – a cathode ray tube used to electronically store binary data (Can store roughly 500 to 1,000 bits of data) – Freddie Williams & Tom KilburnFerranti Mark 1 – Also known as the Manchester Electronic Computer was the first computer to use the principles of early CPU design (Central processing unit) – Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn – Also the world's first successful commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer – Christopher StracheyEDSAC was the first complete, fully functional computer to use the von Neumann architecture, the basis of every modern computer – Maurice WilkesEDSAC 2 the successor to the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator or EDSAC. It was the first computer to have a microprogrammed (Microcode)control unit and a bit slice hardware architecture – Team headed by Maurice WilkesThe first graphical computer game OXO on the EDSAC at Cambridge University – A.S. DouglasAtlas Computer, it was arguably the world's first supercomputer and was the fastest computer in the world until the release of the American CDC 6600 Also This machine introduced many modern architectural concepts: spooling, interrupts, pipelining, interleaved memory, virtual memory and paging – Team headed by Tom KilburnDigital audio player (MP3 Player) – Kane KramerCo-Inventor of the world's first trackball device – developed by Tom Cranston, Fred Longstaff and Kenyon TaylorThe world's first handheld computer (Psion Organiser) – Psion PLCThe first rugged computer – Husky (computer)First PC-compatible palmtop computer (Atari Portfolio) – Ian H. S. CullimoreDenotational semantics – Christopher Strachey pioneer in programming language designWolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine – Stephen WolframEngineering[edit]Adjustable spanner – Edwin Beard BuddingBackhoe loader – Joseph Cyril BamfordCavity magnetron – John Randall and Harry Boot critical component for Microwave generation in Microwave ovens and high powered Radios (Radar)[124]Carey Foster bridge – Carey Foster[125]Electric transformer – Michael Faraday[126]First coke-consuming blast furnace – Abraham Darby I[12]First working universal joint – Robert HookeCrookes tube the first cathode ray tubes – William Crookes[12]First working and volume productionbrushless alternator – Newage EngineersFirst compression ignition engine aka the Diesel Engine – Herbert Akroyd StuartHydrogen Fuel Cell – William Robert GroveModified version of the Newcomen steam engine (Pickard engine) – James PickardCompound steam turbine – Charles Algernon Parsons[12]Francis turbine – James B. FrancisGas turbine – John Barber (engineer)Microturbines – Chris and Paul Bladon of Bladon JetsThe world's first oil refinery and a process of extracting paraffin from coal laying the foundations for the modern oil industry – James Young (1811–1883)[127]Pendulum governor – Frederick LanchesterContributed to the development of Radar – Scotsman Robert Watson-Watt and Englishman Arnold Frederic WilkinsInternal combustion engine – Samuel BrownFourdrinier machine – Henry FourdrinierMicrochip – Geoffrey W.A. Dummerlight-emitting diode (did not invent the first visible light, only theorised) – H. J. RoundHydraulic accumulatorTwo-stroke engine – Joseph DayPioneer of radio guidance systems – Archibald LowScrew-cutting lathe – Henry HindleyThe first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe – Henry MaudslayThe first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope – William GilbertRectilinear Slide rule – William Oughtred[100]Devised a standard for screw threads leading to its widespread acceptance – Joseph WhitworthThe Wimshurst machine is an Electrostatic generator for producing high voltages – James WimshurstHot bulb engine or heavy oil engine – Herbert Akroyd StuartHydraulic crane – William George ArmstrongVacuum diode also known as a vacuum tube – John Ambrose FlemingLinear motor is a multi-phase alternating current (AC) electric motor – Charles Wheatstone then improved by Eric Laithwaite[40]Lynch Motor – Cedric LynchDesigned water and sewerage systems for over 30 cities across Europe – William LindleyConcrete Canvas – Will Crawford and Peter BrewinThe world's first house powered with hydroelectricity – Cragside, Northumberland[128]Stirling engine – Robert StirlingSupercharger – Dugald ClerkWind tunnel – Francis Herbert Wenham[100]Household appliances[edit]Perambulator – William Kent designed a baby carriage in 1733[129]Collapsible baby buggy – Owen MaclarenDomestic dishwasher – key modifications by William Howard Livens [130]"Bagless" vacuum cleaner – James Dyson[131]"Puffing Billy" – First powered vacuum cleaner – Hubert Cecil Booth[132][133][134]Fire extinguisher – George William Manby[129]Folding carton – Charles Henry FoyleLawn mower – Edwin Beard Budding[135]Rubber band – Stephen Perry[136]Daniell cell – John Frederic Daniell[137]Tin can – Peter DurandCorkscrew – Reverend Samuell HenshallMouse trap – James Henry AtkinsonModern flushing toilet – John Harington[138]The pay toilet – John Nevil Maskelyne, Maskelyne invented a lock for London toilets, which required a penny to operate, hence the euphemism "spend a penny".Electric toaster – Rookes Evelyn Bell CromptonTeasmade – Albert E. RichardsonMagnifying glass – Roger BaconThermosiphon, which forms the basis of most modern central heating systems – Thomas FowlerAutomatic electric kettle – Russell HobbsThermos Flask – James Dewar [139]Toothbrush – William Edward AddisSunglasses – James Ayscough[140]The Refrigerator – William Cullen (1748) [141]The Flush toilet: Alexander Cummings (1775) [142]The first distiller to triple distill Irish whiskey:[143]John Jameson (Whisky distiller)The first automated can-filing machine John West (1809–1888) [144]The waterproof Mackintosh – Charles Macintosh (1766–1843) [145]The kaleidoscope: Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) [146]Keiller's marmalade Janet Keiller (1797) – The first recipe of rind suspended marmalade or Dundee marmalade produced in Dundee.The modern lawnmower – Edwin Beard Budding (1830) [147]The Lucifer friction match: Sir Isaac Holden (1807–1897) [148]The self filling pen – Robert Thomson (1822–1873) [149]Cotton-reel thread – J & J Clark of Paisley [150]Lime Cordial – Peter Burnett in 1867 [151]Bovril beef extract – John Lawson Johnston in 1874 [152]Wellington BootsCan Opener – Robert Yeates 1855Ideas, Religion and Ethics[edit]Malthusianism and the groundwork for the study of population dynamics – Thomas Robert Malthus with his work An Essay on the Principle of Population.Classical Liberalism – John Locke known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism".[153][154]Utilitarianism by Jeremy BenthamAnglicanism by Henry VIII of EnglandMethodism by John Wesley and Charles WesleyQuakerism by George FoxAgnosticism by Thomas Henry HuxleyIndustrial processes[edit]English crucible steel – Benjamin HuntsmanSteel production Bessemer process – Henry BessemerHydraulic press – Joseph BramahParkesine, the first man-made plastic – Alexander ParkesPortland cement – Joseph AspdinSheffield plate – Thomas BoulsoverWater frame – Richard ArkwrightStainless steel – Harry BrearleyRubber Masticator – Thomas HancockPower Loom – Edmund CartwrightParkes process – Alexander ParkesLead chamber process – John RoebuckDevelopment of the world's first commercially successful manufacture of high quality flat glass using the float glass process – Alastair PilkingtonThe first commercial electroplating process – George ElkingtonThe Wilson Yarn Clearer – Peter WilsonFloat Glass – Alastair Pilkington – Modern Glass manufacturing processContact ProcessFroth Flotation – William Haynes and A H Higgins.Extrusion – Joseph BramahMedicine[edit]First correct description of circulation of the blood – William Harvey[155]Smallpox vaccine – Edward Jenner with his discovery is said to have "saved more lives (...) than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[156][157]Surgical forceps – Stephen Hales[158]Antisepsis in surgery – Joseph ListerArtificial intraocular lens transplant surgery for cataract patients – Harold Ridley[159]Clinical thermometer – Thomas Clifford Allbutt.[160]isolation of fibrinogen ("coagulable lymph"), investigation of the structure of the lymphatic system and description of red blood cells by the surgeon William Hewson (surgeon)Credited with discovering how to culture embryonic stem cells in 1981 – Martin EvansFirst blood pressure measurement and first cardiac catheterisation-Stephen Hales[161]Pioneer of anaesthesia and father of epidemiology for locating the source of cholera – John Snow (physician)[162]pioneered the use of sodium cromoglycate as a remedy for asthma – Roger Altounyan[citation needed]The first scientist to demonstrate that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen and one of the founders of orthopedy – Percivall Pott[163]Performed the first successful blood transfusion – James Blundell[164]Discovered the active ingredient of Aspirin – Edward StoneDiscovery of Protein crystallography – Dorothy Crowfoot HodgkinThe world's first successful stem cell transplant[165] – John Raymond Hobbs[166]First typhoid vaccine – Almroth Wright[167]Pioneer of the treatment of epilepsy – Edward Henry Sievekingdiscovery of Nitrous oxide (entonox/"laughing gas") and its anaesthetic properties – Humphry Davy[168]Computed Tomography (CT scanner) – Godfrey Newbold HounsfieldGray's Anatomy widely regarded as the first complete human anatomy textbook – Henry GrayDiscovered Parkinson's disease – James Parkinson[169]General anaesthetic – Pioneered by Scotsman James Young Simpson and Englishman John Snow[162]Contributed to the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – Sir Peter MansfieldStatistical parametric mapping – Karl J. FristonNasal cannula – Wilfred JonesThe development of in vitro fertilization – Patrick Christopher Steptoe and Robert Geoffrey Edwards[170]First baby genetically selected to be free of a breast cancer – University College LondonViagra – Peter Dunn, Albert Wood, Dr Nicholas Terrett[citation needed]Acetylcholine – Henry Hallett DaleEKG (underlying principles) – various[vague]Discovery of vitamins – Frederick Gowland HopkinsEarliest pharmacopoeia in English[171]The hip replacement operation, in which a stainless steel stem and 22mm head fit into a polymer socket and both parts are fixed into position by PMMA cement – pioneered by John CharnleyIn vitro fertilisation – Developed by Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards with a first successful birth in 1978 as a result of natural cycle IVF where no stimulation was made.Description of Hay fever – John Bostock (physician) in 1819Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [172]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) – James Braid (1795–1860) [173]Identifying the mosquito as the carrier of malaria: Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) [174]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [175]Discovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [176]Discovering insulin – John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [177]Ambulight PDT: light-emitting sticking plaster used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treating non-melanoma skin cancer. Developed by Ambicare Dundee's Ninewells Hospital and St Andrews University. (2010)[178]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe – Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [179]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [180]Glasgow Coma Scale: Graham Teasdale and Bryan J. Jennett (1974) [181]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [182]Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [172]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) – James Braid (1795–1860) [173]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [183]Development of ibuprofenDiscovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [184]Discovering insulin – John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [177]The earliest disvcovery of an antibiotic, penicillin: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) [185]Discovering an effective tuberculosis treatment: Sir John Crofton in the 1950s [186]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe – Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [187]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [188]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [189]Discovering secretin, the first hormone, and its role as a chemical messenger: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling.[190]Military[edit]Percussion ignitionTurret ship – Although designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century, HMS Trusty was the first warship to be outfitted with one.Battle Tank/The tank – Developed and first used in combat by the British during World War I as a means to break the deadlock of trench warfare. Attributed to Ernest Dunlop SwintonFighter aircraft – The Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus of 1914 was the first of its kind.Congreve rocket – William CongreveHarrier Jump Jet – VTOL (Vertical take-off and landing aircraft)Aircraft carrier – HMS ArgusDreadnought battleship – HMS DreadnoughtBailey bridge – Donald BaileyChobham armourLivens Projector – William Howard Livens[191]H2S radar (airborne radar to aid bomb targeting) – Alan BlumleinBouncing bomb – Barnes WallisSafety fuse – William BickfordFairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife – William Ewart Fairbairn and Eric A. SykesArmstrong Gun – Sir William ArmstrongHigh explosive squash head – Sir Charles Dennistoun BurneyNuclear fission chain reaction – Leo Szilard whilst crossing the road near Russell Square.Shrapnel shell – Henry ShrapnelBullpup firearm configuration – Thorneycroft carbinePuckle Gun – James PuckleThe side by side Boxlock action, AKA the double barreled shotgun – Anson and DeeleyStun grenades – invented by the Special Air Service in the 1960s.Mills bomb – the first modern fragmentation grenade.Smokeless propellant to replace gunpowder with the use of Cordite – Frederick AbelRubber bullet and Plastic bullet – Developed by the Ministry of Defence during The Troubles in Northern Ireland.Depth chargeTorpedo – Robert WhiteheadThe Whitworth rifle, considered the first sniper rifle. During the American Civil War the Whitworth rifle had been known to kill at ranges of about 800 yards (730 m) – Sir Joseph WhitworthThe world's first practical underwater active sound detection apparatus, the ASDIC Active Sonar – Developed by Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and English physicist Albert Beaumont WoodThe first self-powered machine gun Maxim gun – Sir Hiram Maxim, Although the Inventor is American, the Maxim gun was financed by Albert Vickers of Vickers Limited company and produced in Hatton Garden LondonSteam catapult-Commander Colin C. Mitchell RNVRSelf-propelled gun - The Gun Carrier Mark I was the first piece of Self-propelled artillery ever to be produced.Special forces – SAS Founded by Sir David Stirling.Mining[edit]Tunnel boring machine – James Henry Greathead and Isambard Kingdom BrunelDavy lamp – Humphry DavyGeordie lamp – George StephensonBeam engine – Used for pumping water from minesMusical instruments[edit]Concertina – Charles Wheatstone[40]Theatre organ – Robert Hope-JonesLogical bassoon, an electronically controlled version of the bassoon – Giles BrindleyNorthumbrian smallpipesTuning fork – John ShoreThe piano footpedal – John Broadwood (1732–1812) [192]Photography[edit]Ambrotype – Frederick Scott Archer[193]Calotype – William Fox Talbot[194]Phtographic negative - William Fox TalbotCollodion process – Frederick Scott Archer[193]Collodion-albumen process – Joseph Sidebotham in 1861Stereoscope – Charles Wheatstone[39][40]Thomas Wedgwood – pioneer of photography, devised the method to copy visible images chemically to permanent media.Dry plate process also known as gelatine process, is the first economically successful durable photographic medium – Richard Leach MaddoxKinemacolor was the first successful colour motion picture process, used commercially from 1908 to 1914 – George Albert SmithCinematography – William Friese-GreeneMotion picture camera, the Kinetoscope – William Kennedy Laurie DicksonThe first movie projector, the Zoopraxiscope – Eadweard MuybridgeThe first experimental film called "The Horse in Motion" in 1872 – Eadweard MuybridgePublishing firsts[edit]Oldest publisher and printer in the world (having been operating continuously since 1584): Cambridge University Pressfirst book printed in English: "The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye" by Englishman William Caxton in 1475The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1768–81) [195]The first English textbook on surgery(1597) [196]The first modern pharmacopaedia, William Cullen (1776) The book became 'Europe's principal text on the classification and treatment of disease' [197]The first postcards and picture postcards in the UK [198]Science[edit]Modern atomic theory – Considered the father of modern chemistry, John Dalton's experiments with gases led to the development of what is called the modern atomic theory.[12][199]Equals sign Robert Recorde, WelshmanCell biology – Credit for the discovery of the first cells is given to Robert Hooke who described the microscopic compartments of cork cells in 1665[199]Compound microscope with 30x magnification – Robert HookeUniversal joint – Robert Hooke[citation needed]Coggeshall slide rule – Henry CoggeshallThe Iris diaphragm – Robert HookeCorrect theory of combustion – Robert HookePartition chromatography – Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer J.P. Martin[200]Arnold Frederic Wilkins – pioneer in the development of RadarAtwood machine used for illustrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion – George AtwoodMarine Barometer – Robert Hooke[100]Hooke's Law (equation describing elasticity) – Robert Hooke[100]Electrical generator (dynamo) – Michael Faraday[126]Faraday cage – Michael Faraday[126]Magneto-optical effect – Michael Faraday[126]Calculus – Sir Isaac NewtonInfrared radiation – discovery commonly attributed to William Herschel.Holography – First developed by Dennis Gabor in Rugby, England. Improved by Nicholas J. Phillips who made it possible to record multi-colour reflection hologramsDiscovery of the pion (pi-meson) – Cecil Frank PowellWheatstone bridge – Samuel Hunter ChristieTriple achromatic lens – Peter DollondNewtonian telescope – Sir Isaac NewtonHawking radiation – Stephen HawkingDemonstrated that electric circuits obey the law of the conservation of energy and that electricity is a form of energy First Law of Thermodynamics. Also the unit of energy, the Joule is named after him – James Prescott JouleMicrometer – William Gascoignethe first bench micrometer that was capable of measuring to one ten thousandth of an inch – Henry MaudslaySinclair Executive, the world's first small electronic pocket calculator – Sir Clive SinclairDiscovered the element argon – John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh with Scotsman William RamsayStandard deviation – Francis GaltonSlide rule – William Oughtred [201]Synthesis of coumarin, one of the first synthetic perfumes, and cinnamic acid via the Perkin reaction – William Henry PerkinThe Law of Gravity – Sir Isaac NewtonNewton's laws of motion – Sir Isaac NewtonPre-empting elements of General Relativity theory – William Kingdon CliffordGeological Timescale – Arthur Holmes[202]Electromagnet – William Sturgeon in 1823.[199]Helium – Norman LockyerWeather map [203] – Sir Francis GaltonIntroduced the symbol for "is less than" and "is greater than" – Thomas Harriot 1630Introduced the "×" symbol for multiplication as well as the abbreviations "sin" and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions – William OughtredDew Point Hygrometer – John Frederic DaniellPeriodic Table – John Alexander Reina NewlandsSplitting the atom – John Cockcroft and Irish physicist Ernest WaltonFirst full-scale commercial Nuclear Reactor at Calder Hall, opened in 1956.[204]Seismograph – John MilneDiscovery of oxygen gas (O2) – Joseph PriestleyDiscovery of the Atom(nuclear model of) – Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Proton – Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Electron, isotopes and the inventor of the Mass spectrometer – J. J. ThomsonDiscovery of the Neutron – James ChadwickNuclear transfer – Is a form of cloning first put into practice by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell to clone Dolly the SheepTheory of Evolution – Charles DarwinDiscovery of alpha and beta rays - Ernest RutherfordAstronomy[edit]Discovery of the "White Spot" on Saturn – Will HayDiscovery of Proxima Centauri, the closest known star to the Sun, by Robert Innes (1861–1933) [205]Discovery of the planet Uranus[206] and the moons Titania, Oberon, Enceladus, Mimas [207] by Sir William Herschel (German born astronom, later in life British)Discovery of Triton[208] and the moons Hyperion, Ariel and Umbriel – William Lassell[209]Planetarium – John Theophilus DesaguliersPredicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus – John Couch Adams [210]Important contributions to the development of radio astronomy – Bernard Lovell [211]Newtonian telescope – Sir Isaac Newton [212]Achromatic doublet lens – John Dollond [213]Coining the phrase 'Big Bang' – Fred Hoyle [214]First theorised existence of black holes, binary stars; invented torsion balance – John Michell[215]Stephen Hawking – World-renowned theoretical physicist made many important contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holesSpiral galaxies – William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse [216]Discovery of Halley's Comet – Edmond Halley [217]Discovery of pulsars – Antony Hewish [218]Discovery of Sunspots and was the first person to make a drawing of the Moon through a telescope – Thomas Harriot [219]The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object – Arthur Stanley Eddington [220]Aperture synthesis, used for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources in the field of Radio astronomy – Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish [221]Chemistry[edit]Dalton's law and Law of multiple proportions – John Dalton [222]The structure of DNA and pioneering the field of molecular biology – co-developed by Francis Crick [223] and the American James WatsonDNA sequencing by chain termination – Frederick Sanger [224]Discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing – Richard J. Roberts [225]Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene – Sir Harry Kroto [226]Discovery of thallium – William Crookes[12]Discovered the structure of ferrocene – Geoffrey Wilkinson & others [227]Discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air – Henry Cavendish [228]Proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the Periodic Law – John Newlands [229]Bragg's law and establish the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances – William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg [230]Introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight – Henry Moseley [231]First isolation of sodium – Humphry Davy [232]First isolation of potassium – Humphry Davy[12]First isolation of boron – Humphry Davy[12]First isolation of benzene, the first known aromatic hydrocarbon – Michael Faraday[233]Publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder – Roger Bacon [234]Publishes several Aristotelian commentaries, an early framework for the scientific method – Robert Grosseteste [235]Baconian method, an early forerunner of the scientific method – Sir Francis Bacon[236]The first discovery of aluminium – Sir Humphry DavyPioneer in early Solar Power – Weston cell – Edward Weston (chemist)[citation needed]Proposes the concept of isotopes, elements with the same chemical properties may have differing atomic weights – Frederick Soddy[12]The synthesising of xenon hexafluoroplatinate the first time to show that noble gases can form chemical compounds – Neil BartlettCallendar effect the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature (Global warming) – Guy Stewart CallendarPioneer of the fuel cell – Francis Thomas Bacon[237]Pioneer of meteorology by developing a nomenclature system for clouds in 1802 – Luke Howard[238]Rayleigh scattering explains why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of the surface waves – John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh[239]Discovered the chemical composition of water: Henry Cavendish.[240]Discovered electrolysis and electrochemistry: William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle.[241]Discovered valence: Edward Frankland.[242]Developed the Kinetic theory of gases: James Maxwell.[243]Discovered silicones: Frederic Kipping.[244]Established chemical oceanography: Robert Boyle.[245]Invented kerosene: Abraham Gesner and James Young.Invented the chemical fertilizer: John LawesSport[edit]Football – The rules as we know them today were established in 1848 at Cambridge University, Sheffield F.C. is acknowledged by The Football Association and FIFA as the world's first and oldest football club.[246]Rugby – William Webb EllisCricket – the world's second-most popular sport can be traced back to the 13th century[247]Tennis – widely known to have originated in England.[248]Boxing – England played a key role in the evolution of modern boxing. Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport in Ancient Greece in 688 BCGolf – Modern game invented in ScotlandBilliardsBadmintonDarts – a traditional pub game, the numbering layout was devised by Brian GamlinTable-Tennis – was invented on the dinner tables of Britain as an indoor version of tennisSnooker – Invented by the British Army in India[249]Ping pong – The game has its origins in England, in the 1880sBowls – has been traced to 13th century England[250]Field hockey – the modern game grew from English public schools in the early 19th centuryNetball – the sport emerged from early versions of women's basketball, at Madame Österberg's College in England during the late 1890s.[251]Rounders – the game originates in England most likely from an older game known as stool ballThe Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, the first race was in 1829 on the River Thames in London [252]Thoroughbred Horseracing – Was first developed in 17th and 18th century EnglandPolo – its roots began in Persia as a training game for cavalry units, the formal codification of the rules of modern Polo as a sport were established in 19th century EnglandThe format of Modern Olympics – William Penny BrookesThe first Paralympic games competition were held in England in 1948 – Ludwig Guttmann[253]Hawk-Eye ball tracking system.Transport[edit]Pedal driven bicycle - Kirkpatrick MacmillanAviation[edit]Aeronautics and flight. As a pioneer of glider development & first well-documented human flight he discovered and identified the four aerodynamic forces of flight – weight, lift, drag, and thrust. Modern airplane design is based on those discoveries including cambered wings. He is sometimes called the "Father of aviation" – George Cayley[254]Steam-powered flight with the Aerial Steam Carriage – John Stringfellow – The world's first powered flight took place at Chard in Somerset 55 years before the Wright brothers attempt at Kitty Hawk[255]VTOL (vertical take-off and landing) fighter-bomber aircraft – Hawker P.1127, designed by Sydney Camm[256]The first commercial jet airliner (de Havilland Comet)[257]The first Supersonic Airliner – Concorde. Developed by the British Aircraft Corporation in partnership with Aérospatiale 1969The first aircraft capable of supercruise – English Electric LightningAilerons – Matthew Piers Watt BoultonHead-up display (HUD) – The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) designed the first equipment and it was built by Cintel with the system first integrated into the Blackburn Buccaneer.Pioneer of parachute design – Robert CockingThe first human-powered aircraft to make an officially authenticated take-off and flight (SUMPAC) – The University of Southampton[258]Hale rockets, improved version of the Congreve rocket design that introduced Thrust vectoring – William HaleSABRE engine- The first hypersonic jet/rocket capable of working in air and space to allow the possibility of HOTOL.Air Force – Royal Air ForceRailways[edit]Great Western Railway – Isambard Kingdom BrunelStockton and Darlington Railway the world's first operational steam passenger railwayFirst inter-city steam-powered railway – Liverpool and Manchester RailwayLocomotives[edit]Blücher – George StephensonPuffing Billy -William HedleyLocomotion No 1 – Robert StephensonSans Pareil – Timothy HackworthStourbridge Lion – Foster, Rastrick and CompanyStephenson's Rocket – George and Robert StephensonSalamanca – Matthew MurrayFlying Scotsman- Sir Nigel Gresley [259]Other railway developments[edit]Displacement lubricator, Ramsbottom safety valve, the water trough, the split piston ring – John RamsbottomMaglev (transport) rail system – Eric LaithwaiteWorld's first underground railway and the first rapid transit system. It was also the first underground railway to operate electric trains – London UndergroundAdvanced Passenger Train (APT) was an experimental High Speed Train that introduced tilting – British RailRoads[edit]Bowden cable – Frank BowdenHansom cab – Joseph HansomSeat belt – George Cayley[260]Sinclair C5 – Sir Clive SinclairTarmac – E. Purnell HooleyTension-spoke wire wheels – George Cayley[254]LGOC B-type – the first mass-produced busPneumatic tyre – Robert William Thomson is deemed to be inventor, despite John Boyd Dunlop being initially creditedDisc brakes – Frederick W. Lanchester[12]Belisha beacon – Leslie Hore-BelishaLotus 25: considered the first modern F1 race car, designed for the 1962 Formula One season; a revolutionary design, the first fully stressed monocoque chassis to appear in Formula One – Colin Chapman, Team LotusHorstmann suspension, tracked armoured fighting vehicle suspension – Sidney HorstmannSteam fire engine – John BraithwaitePenny-farthing – James StarleyDynasphere – John Archibald PurvesCaterpillar track – Richard Lovell EdgeworthMini-roundabout – Frank BlackmoreQuadbike – Standard Motor Company patented the 'Jungle Airborne Buggy' (JAB) in 1944[261]Sea[edit]Plimsoll Line – Samuel PlimsollHovercraft – Christopher CockerellLifeboat – Lionel LukinResurgam – George GarrettTransit (ship) – Richard Hall GowerTurbinia, the first steam turbine powered steamship, designed by the engineer Sir Charles Algernon Parsons and built in Newcastle upon TyneDiving Equipment/Scuba Gear – Henry FleussDiving bell – Edmund HalleySextant – John BirdOctant (instrument) – Independently developed by Englishman John Hadley and the American Thomas GodfreyWhirling speculum, This device can be seen as a precursor to the gyroscope – John SersonScrew propeller – Francis Pettit SmithThe world's first patent for an underwater echo ranging device (Sonar) – Lewis Richardsonhydrophone Before the invention of Sonar convoy escort ships used them to detect U-boats, greatly lessening the effectiveness of the submarine – Research headed by Ernest RutherfordHydrofoil – John Isaac ThornycroftInflatable boatHMS Warrior The world's first iron armoured and iron hulled warship.Scientific innovations[edit]The theory of electromagnetism – James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [262]The Gregorian telescope – James Gregory (1638–1675) [263]The concept of latent heat – Joseph Black (1728–1799) [264]The pyroscope, atmometer and aethrioscope scientific instruments: Sir John Leslie (1766–1832) [265]Identifying the nucleus in living cells – Robert Brown (1773–1858) [266]Hypnotism – James Braid (1795–1860) [267]Transplant rejection: Professor Thomas Gibson (1940s) the first medical doctor to understand the relationship between donor graft tissue and host tissue rejection and tissue transplantation by his work on aviation burns victims during World War II.[268]Colloid chemistry – Thomas Graham (1805–1869) [269]The kelvin SI unit of temperature – William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) [270]Devising the diagramatic system of representing chemical bonds – Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922) [271]Criminal fingerprinting – Henry Faulds (1843–1930) [272]The noble gases: Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) [273]The Cloud chamber – Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959) [274]Pioneering work on nutrition and poverty – John Boyd Orr (1880–1971) [275]The ultrasound scanner – Ian Donald (1910–1987) [276]Ferrocene synthetic substances – Peter Ludwig Pauson in 1955 [277]The MRI body scanner – John Mallard and James Huchinson from (1974–1980) [278]The first cloned mammal (Dolly the Sheep): Was conducted in The Roslin Institute research centre in 1996 [279]Seismometer innovations thereof – James David Forbes [280]Metaflex fabric innovations thereof – University of St. Andrews (2010) application of the first manufacturing fabrics that manipulate light in bending it around a subject. Before this such light manipulating atoms were fixed on flat hard surfaces. The team at St Andrews are the first to develop the concept to fabric.[281]Macaulayite: Dr Jeff Wilson of the Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen.[282]Miscellaneous[edit]Oldest police force in continuous operation: Marine Police Force founded in 1798 and now part of the Metropolitan Police ServiceOldest life insurance company in the world: Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office founded 1706First Glee Club, founded in Harrow School in 1787.[283]Oldest arts festival – Norwich 1772 [284]Oldest music festival – The Three Choirs FestivalOldest literary festival – The Cheltenham Literature FestivalBayko – Charles PlimptonLinoleum – Frederick Walton [285]Chocolate bar – J. S. Fry & Sons [286]Meccano – Frank HornbyCrossword puzzle – Arthur WynneGas mask – (disputed) John Tyndall and othersGraphic telescope – Cornelius VarleySteel-ribbed Umbrella – Samuel FoxPlastic – Alexander ParkesPlasticine – William HarbuttCarbonated soft drink – Joseph PriestleyFriction Match – John WalkerInvented the rubber balloon – Michael FaradayThe proposal of a new decimal metrology which predated the Metric system – John Wilkins[287]Edmondson railway ticket – Thomas EdmondsonThe world's first Nature Reserve – Charles Waterton *Public Park – Joseph PaxtonScouts – Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-PowellSpirograph – Denys FisherThe Young Men's Christian Association YMCA was founded in London – George Williams[288]The Salvation Army, known for being one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid – Methodist minister William BoothPrime meridian – George Biddell AiryProduced the first complete printed translation of the Bible into English – Myles CoverdaleFounder of the Bank of Scotland – John HollandVenn diagram – John VennVulcanisation of rubber – Thomas HancockSilicone – Frederick KippingPykrete – Geoffrey PykeVantablack – The world's blackest known substanceStamp collecting – John Edward Gray bought penny blacks on first day of issue in order to keep themlorgnette – George Adams (optician)Boys' Brigade [289]Bank of England devised by William PatersonBank of France devised by John LawColour photography: the first known permanent colour photograph was taken by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [290]BarnardosBoy ScoutsGirl GuidesRSPCARSPBRNLI

BIG NO.Here let me tell you a real life story of a woman Samra Zafar(https://www.linkedin.com/in/samrazafar/). it is very long, but believe me it will worth itSource: I was forced to marry a stranger when I was 16. Ten years later, I made my escapeWhen I was a kid, my only goal was to get a good education. I dreamed of attending Harvard or Stanford, and planned to become a doctor one day. I was the eldest of four daughters in a Pakistani Muslim family. We lived in Ruwais, a small town in the United Arab Emirates, where my father worked in an oil plant and my mother was a teacher. At school, I always stood out among the girls in my class—I was brash, clever, outspoken. I took pride in acing every test. When I brought home top marks, my father would celebrate by handing out sweets.One day, when I was in Grade 10, I was in my bedroom doing math homework. My mother walked in. She told me I’d received a marriage proposal. I laughed. “Mom, what are you talking about?” I asked. She didn’t crack a smile, and I realized she was serious. “I’m only 16,” I said. 
“I’m not ready for marriage.” She told me that I was lucky. The offer came from a nice man who lived in Canada. He was 28 years old and worked in IT. His sister was a friend of hers. The woman thought I’d make a perfect match for her brother—I was very tall, and he was six foot two. “They’re going to look so great together in pictures,” she had said to my mother.For weeks, I pleaded with my mom not to make me go through with it. I’d sit at the foot of her bed, begging. She would tell me it was for my own good, and that a future in Canada would give me opportunities I wouldn’t have here at home. She assured me that she’d spoken to his family about my desire to continue my education. “You can go to school in Canada. And we don’t have to worry about you being alone,” she said. The next thing I knew, his parents were measuring my wrist for wedding bangles. The date was set for five months later, in July 1999.My friends would talk about their own dream weddings—the gowns they would wear, how they planned to be dutiful wives and homemakers. When I told them about my doubts, they thought I was crazy, that I was a fool, that Allah would punish me for being ungrateful. Marriage was their ultimate goal in life. But I didn’t want it. I just didn’t know how to get away.The author, top centre, at age seven, shown with her father and three younger sisters at their home in the United Arab EmiratesFor the next few months, I had recurring nightmares about my impending marriage. In my dreams, I was trapped inside a house, watching from the window as students made their way along the sidewalk to school. I’d wake up sweating and scared in the middle of the night. My mother would try to calm me down, telling me I was being hysterical. One night, when I woke up screaming, she decided to do something about it. She phoned my future husband in Canada and allowed me to speak to him for the first time. All I knew about him were those few details my mom had shared with me the night he proposed. When I picked up the phone, I was meek. I only had one question: “Will you let me go to school?” He reassured me: “Yeah, yeah, I’ll let you go to school. Don’t worry.”The first time I saw him was on July 22, 1999, the day before the wedding, at his family’s home in Karachi. As we sat sipping tea, I snuck furtive glances at the man who was going to be my husband. I felt dwarfed by him.The author was just 16 when she learned she would be marrying a 28-year-old IT worker in CanadaThe next day, we were at my grandfather’s house for the wedding. As my mother adjusted my gown, I pulled back. I told her I wanted to run away. “Don’t be silly,” she said. “All the guests are here.” Someone put the marriage licence in front of me, I was told to sign it, and I did. Later we held a celebration at a high-end restaurant in the city. Strings of lights and red ribbons decorated the room, and 200 of our parents’ friends came. There were piles of food, and everybody laughed and sang and danced long into the night. I wore a long red lehenga sari. I was told to sit there quietly and look down at my hands, playing the demure bride.This was the first of two ceremonies—we had to make it official so that my husband could apply for my sponsorship in Canada. The second ceremony was still months away, as was my wedding night. In the meantime, I continued to live with my parents and attend school. My new husband stayed in Pakistan for a month. We saw each other a few times, but never for long and usually with others around. One evening, we went to Pizza Hut with his older brother and his brother’s wife. It was my first date, and I was so shy 
I barely spoke. We talked regularly online, over MSN Messenger, and occasionally on the phone. Slowly, I grew more comfortable with the marriage. Nothing about him struck me as special. He wasn’t smart or funny or warm, but he was a normal enough guy. He told me how pleased he was that his wife was so smart. He suggested university programs I should consider in Canada. He agreed to wait to have kids until I finished school. He said all the right things.The author on her wedding day at age 17When my immigration papers came through in August 2000, we both flew to Abu Dhabi for our second, smaller celebration. After it was over, we slept together for the first time. I was petrified. I knew nothing about sex or birth control, and neither did he. My aunt had told me about ovulation, explaining that I couldn’t get pregnant if I had sex on certain days of the month. I thought our wedding night was one of those days. I’d never even seen a condom before.Later that week, we flew to Canada and I moved into his two-bedroom condo in Mississauga. I missed my parents, my friends, my school. I was so unhappy that I stopped eating, and I spent most of my days watching TV while my husband was at work. I stopped getting my period right away. At first, I thought it was because of the move, the abrupt change in environment. But a month passed, then another. I was getting sick every morning. My nausea was so severe that I was afraid to go outside in case I fainted. Finally I told my husband that I needed to see a doctor. I sat in the doctor’s office, listening to him ask me if I understood what being pregnant meant. All I knew was that it meant I couldn’t go to school. This can’t be happening, I thought. This isn’t happening. I was only 17.During the first few months of my pregnancy, my husband was kind and thoughtful. He took late-night trips to the grocery store to satisfy my cravings. He’d call a couple of times a day from work to ask how I was feeling, and every night we cooked dinner together. I discovered an adult learning centre near our condo and enrolled in an ESL course. I thought our marriage was going well. Then, two months before our daughter was born, he told me his parents would be moving to Canada and staying with us. He had planned for them to live with us all along, but this was the first I’d heard of it. We moved out of the master bedroom into the smaller one so his parents would be more comfortable.Everything changed when they arrived. My husband and I stopped spending time alone together. His mother got upset when he paid attention to me, so he didn’t show me any affection. When I would ask if I could call my parents in Ruwais, he or his mother would tell me we couldn’t afford international calls.In May 2001, I gave birth to our daughter. When we returned from the hospital, my husband slept on the couch while I stayed with the baby in the second bedroom. I’d never felt so alone. I fantasized about stealing money from my husband’s wallet and taking a cab to the airport, calling my parents and asking them to buy me a plane ticket home. But I didn’t want to leave my daughter behind.When she was a few months old, we bought a four-bedroom house in Streetsville with his parents. I was rarely allowed to leave. I never had a penny to my name. My mother-in-law gave me her cast-off clothing to wear. I didn’t have a cellphone. I wasn’t allowed to go to the grocery store on my own. If I didn’t iron my husband’s shirts or make his lunch or finish my chores, he and my in-laws told me that I was a bad wife who couldn’t keep my family happy. I walked on eggshells all the time. If I asked my husband something, he would reply, “Bitch, get out of here.”Two years in, the abuse got physical. He would grab my wrist and shove me around. I’d be sitting on the couch and he’d slap me upside the head, or grab me so hard on my upper arms that my skin would bruise. Once he tossed a glass of water in my face; I slipped on the floor and threw out my back. Another time he punched a hole in the wall next to my head and told me, “Next time, it’s going to be you.” On several occasions, he picked up a knife and said he was going to kill me and then himself.I was having suicidal thoughts all the time. I was convinced my life was over. One time, I took a razor blade into the shower and thought about cutting myself, stopping only when I heard my baby cry. I believed my unhappiness was my fault—that the secret to perfect wifehood was eluding me. 
If I’d just done the dishes better, been quieter, anticipated that he wanted a cup of coffee or a glass of water, then none of this would have happened.When my daughter turned three, I learned about a parent drop-in centre called Ontario Early Years, funded by the Ministry of Education. Located in a Streetsville strip mall, the space was bright and cheerful. My daughter would make crafts or play with Play-Doh, and the parents would gather in a song circle with their children and recite nursery rhymes. My husband took my daughter and me there a couple of times. Eventually, he let me walk over on my own. I looked forward to those two afternoons a week, when I’d be allowed to step outside by myself without fear, when I’d feel fresh air on my face.The woman who ran the centre was Pakistani, and she recognized some of the signs of abuse even before I knew what to call it. She saw how jittery I would get if the sessions were running long, or how I’d have to ask permission from my husband if there were any changes to the schedule. She let me use the phone to call my parents. I tearfully told my father what was happening, that I felt imprisoned and helpless. He was horrified, but advised me to wait until I got my Canadian citizenship. “That way you won’t risk losing your daughter,” he said. And so I waited another year. Throughout this period, I resumed my education, taking high school courses by correspondence. I applied to university several times. I was always accepted, but my husband would never pay the tuition.In 2005, I told my husband that I wanted to go home to visit my family for four months. It had been five years since I’d last seen them. When he told me he didn’t have the money, my father sent plane tickets for me and my daughter, who was four by then. On my way to the airport, I asked my husband for $10 to buy myself a coffee and my daughter a snack. “Bitch, go ask your father for that too,” he told me, as he dropped me off at Pearson. When my parents picked me up at the airport, they almost didn’t recognize me. I’d lost so much weight I looked skeletal.My family were shocked. The bright, confident girl they knew had been replaced with a skittish, scared young woman. It took a couple of months for me to realize I could go to the mall on my own, or to the grocery store. These were small triumphs, but they helped build up my confidence. By the end of my visit, I was resolved not to go back to Canada. As soon as I delivered the news to my husband over the phone, he unleashed a flood of apologies. He told me he’d never hurt me again. He promised we’d move out of the house, that we’d live alone together like we used to.He wore me down. In August 2005, I returned to Canada. We moved into a new apartment, and my husband was paying both his parents’ mortgage and our rent, leaving little money for anything else. 
At first, he was kind again. But within a few months, I got pregnant with our second daughter, and the abuse resumed. I needed an escape plan, so I began tutoring and babysitting children in our apartment building, slowly saving money for five months until I had enough for my daughter and me to fly to Karachi, where my sister was getting married. This time I wasn’t coming back.My father had been diagnosed with kidney failure before I’d arrived in December, and over the next few months I watched helplessly as his condition deteriorated. One day, I sat with him in the ICU. “Papa, if something happens to you, what am I going to do?” I asked him. “Realize the strength you have inside of you,” he told me. “Go back to Canada and find a way to get out of your marriage.” He died two days later. My husband arrived in Karachi that week for the funeral. Sex was the first thing he wanted. It wasn’t until he’d finished that he asked me how I was feeling. I said I was fine, got up and walked to the bathroom. I turned on the shower so he wouldn’t hear me cry.When I asked my mother what to do, she told me I should go back with him. After all, she had two more daughters to marry off, she said, and she didn’t have the money to support me. I couldn’t work. I had no education or experience. And I was pregnant. Resigned and defeated, I went back with him. While I’d been away, he’d moved back into his parents’ house. This time I got a small room in the basement, with bare walls and a little window in the corner. My daughter slept in her crib in the room next door. In June 2006, I gave birth to my second daughter. I was miserable.And yet my father’s words had ignited something in me. I knew I was smart, and I knew the only way out was through school. I studied in my room every night, finishing the last course I needed for my GED, a Grade 13 economics credit. A few months after my younger daughter was born, I earned my diploma, and decided to apply to university again. I knew my husband would never let me leave the house to earn money for tuition, so I resurrected my babysitting service, telling him I was earning money for the family. I co-opted my mother-in-law with the promise that she’d earn easy money taking care of kids, and my husband even let me buy a van to drive my charges around. I was making between $2,000 and $3,000 every month, and though I had to turn over my earnings to my husband, I managed to sock away a few hundred dollars here and there. It took me two years to save enough for one year of school.In 2008, I applied to U of T’s economics program. I was accepted. Nothing was going to stop me from going. “Who’s going to pay for your tuition?” my husband asked. “I am,” I responded. My in-laws were so angry about my decision that no one in the house spoke to me for six months. I didn’t care. This was my chance to get out. It had taken me nearly 10 years, but I’d gone from victim to survivor.My first day of school in September 2008 was one of the best of my life. I got to school 15 minutes before my class started and walked through the Kaneff Centre at U of T Mississauga. After everything I’d been through, I’d finally achieved my dream. I sat in the hall, tears running down my cheeks. If only my father could have seen this, I thought to myself.I thrived in my new environment. I aced every class, and other students gravitated toward me, asking to study or socialize. My success changed my thinking. If I was the scum on the bottom of my husband’s shoe, like I’d been told all these years, why were my marks so high? Why did classmates want to be my friend? I could feel vestiges of confidence I hadn’t had in years. One day in October I was walking to the campus bookstore to buy textbooks. Just around the corner, outside the health and counselling centre, a flyer on a bulletin board caught my eye. On it was a list of questions. “Do you feel intimidated? Do you feel like you don’t have a voice? Do you feel like you’ve lost your identity?” As my eyes ran quickly down the list, my brain screamed over and over again: yes, yes, yes. “Come in and make an appointment,” the poster read. I opened the door and walked inside.A few days later, I sat across from a counsellor, describing what was going on at home. “I don’t know what to do,” I told her. “I’m trying to keep my husband happy and I’m still not good enough. He keeps telling me I’m worthless. All I want to do is fix it.” She grabbed my hand. “It’s not your fault,” she said. It was the first time anyone had said that to me. As I continued my counselling, I realized that what had happened to me was wrong. My agency had been stripped away. I learned about the cycle of abuse that characterizes so many unhealthy relationships.Our marriage was becoming more toxic every day. He once bought me a cellphone as a present, but installed spyware on it so he could monitor my calls. He kicked me in the stomach. He kept threatening to kill me. A year after I started counselling, I told him I wanted a divorce. “What are you talking about?” he asked me. “I love you. I can’t live without you.”One January night in 2011, he picked a fight. I wasn’t doing enough housework, he said. As he loomed over me, tightening his fist, I picked up my phone. “If you touch me, I’m going to call 911,” I shouted. And then he spat out the word divorce, in Urdu, three times: talaq, talaq, talaq. According to some Islamic scholars, uttering those words means the marriage is over.I thought I’d be thrilled when he left, but I was terrified. I’d never lived on my own, and I was bracing myself for the shame I believed I would bring to my family. He sold our house out from under me, leaving me and the kids with three weeks to pack up. We had nowhere to go. I even registered at a couple of shelters, expecting to be homeless. One day, I was at the U of T tuition office, and a woman overheard me lamenting my situation. She suggested I look into campus housing; luckily, the university had one family unit left. Two days later, I had the keys to my very own shabby three-bedroom townhouse.I couldn’t afford movers. I packed all my belongings into garbage bags and made 10 trips back and forth every day for five days, in the van I used to drive the kids who attended my home daycare. I used my last $100 to pay a couple of students to help me move my furniture. I was relieved not to be out on the streets. I slept in one room with my youngest daughter. My eldest had the second bedroom, with enough space just for a single bed. I rented out the third room to a Pakistani student who watched my girls while I worked in the evenings. It was tiny, but it was ours. That year, I juggled five jobs to stay afloat. I worked as a TA, a researcher with the City of Mississauga and a student mentor. I did night shifts at the student information centre on campus. I even ran a small catering business out of my apartment.One day it dawned on me that my husband was a man willing to put his own kids out on the street to teach me a lesson. I drove to the police station and reported everything. I gave a three-hour-long videotaped statement, offering as much detail as I could about the decade of abuse I’d endured. The officer said he likely wouldn’t be able to lay charges because there weren’t any bruises on my body. But it didn’t matter. Just telling the authorities was a huge relief. It was my way of acknowledging everything to myself, of finally saying, it wasn’t my fault—none of it was my fault.The officers interviewed my doctor and counsellors, and two days later they arrested my husband for assault. He pleaded guilty. We finalized our divorce, and he got joint custody. My older daughter refused to see him, but my younger daughter visited him every other week.There were many times over the next year that I thought I’d made a mistake, that I couldn’t do it on my own. I thought the shame would never go away. After my marriage ended, none of my old friends would speak to me. My mother refused to tell people back home. I had no family in Canada, no friends at school who knew what was going on. I was completely isolated. I’d always been told that women are responsible for upholding the family’s honour. A woman living alone is a sin. A woman travelling alone is a sin. When everybody around you says you’re in the wrong, that your dreams aren’t valid, you start to believe that. And there were many times that I’d fall into those sinkholes.Zafar graduated from U of T at the top of her classEducation was my only refuge from my dark thoughts. I focused all my energy on school. In my fourth year, I was promoted to head TA. 
I worked as a senior mentor for the school’s first-year transition program. I carried an eight-course load and earned a 3.99 GPA. One day, I got an email from my department advisor. In it was a description of the university’s highest honour, the John H. Moss Scholarship, a $16,000 award that’s given to an outstanding student who intends to pursue graduate work—the Rhodes scholarship of U of T. My advisor encouraged me to apply. No one from U of T Mississauga campus had ever won it, she said. The deadline was only a few days away, but she convinced me to hustle up the paperwork.A few weeks later, I got an email saying that I was one of five finalists. I arrived for my interview on February 6, 2013. The committee ran through questions about my academic record and leadership experience. I’d written about my abusive marriage in my application, too, and at the end of the interview, the panel asked me how I go on after everything I’ve been through. My polish wore off in that moment. “Every day I feel like giving up,” I told them. “But I don’t want my daughters to grow up thinking that being abused is normal.”Forty-five minutes after my interview concluded, I got a phone call. John Rothschild, chair of the selection committee and the CEO of Prime Restaurants, was on the other end of the line with a few other panellists. “Congratulations,” they said. “You’re our winner this year.” I couldn’t believe it. I grabbed my daughters’ hands and danced wildly around the house with them. I wanted to tell the whole world. Since then, John has become a friend, a mentor, and the closest thing I have to a father figure. He taught me how to believe in myself again. He says if I ever get married again, he wants to walk me down the aisle.Businessman John Rothschild funded her NPO for abused womenIn September of that year, I started my master’s in economics. By the time I graduated, I was surviving off OSAP, and my debt load was piling up. I wanted to stop borrowing money as soon as possible, so I decided not to pursue a PhD. Instead, I accepted a job at the Royal Bank of Canada, where I work today as a commercial account manager.Around the time of my graduation, I was named the top economics student at U of T. At the award ceremony, a journalist introduced herself to me (her daughter was in my class). I told her my story, and she published an article about it in a Pakistan newspaper. As my story circulated through the community, I received hundreds of messages from women all over the world trapped in forced marriages and looking for help. So many of them sounded like me five years earlier, isolated and helpless. Women who show up at shelters or call assault hotlines or leave their homes find themselves completely alone. Without any help, they return to their abusers or fall into new relationships that are just as bad. Once, while I was TAing at U of T, a father barged into my office yelling. “You’re pushing my daughter to get her master’s degree!” I couldn’t believe it. To me, it was natural to offer encouragement—his daughter was the top student in my class. “She’s supposed to marry a boy in Egypt. Stop poisoning her with your Canadian bullshit,” he barked.Years ago, a woman wrote to me asking if we could talk on Skype. She was a Canadian university graduate whose parents forced her into a marriage in Pakistan after she finished school. Brutally abused for three years, she returned to Canada to have her baby. She wanted to leave her marriage. After we finished talking, I drove to her house and encouraged her to do it. “No one will ever love me again,” she said. Three years later, she graduated from a master’s program and got a job working full-time in Toronto. I realized I couldn’t stop abuse from happening. But I could offer friendship to women in similar positions to my own. I started a non-profit called Brave Beginnings that will help women rebuild their lives after escaping abusive relationships. John Rothschild, my mentor, provided our start-up funding, and we’re piloting the project this year.Zafar lives with her two daughters, age 15 and 10, in a condo in MississaugaFor the past three years, I’ve lived in a three-bedroom condo in Mississauga with my daughters, who are now 15 and 10. I serve as an alumni governor at the University of Toronto, and I speak about my experience for organizations like Amnesty Inter-national. I’m happier than I ever imagined I could be. I want women to know that they deserve a life of respect, dignity and freedom—that it’s never too late to speak up. It infuriates me that many women are expected to uphold their family’s honour, yet they don’t have any themselves.Last April, I called my ex. I wanted to help him repair his relationship with our older daughter. It had been four years since we had spoken in person. I decided to meet with him. Despite everything, I believed that my girls deserved to have their father in their lives. I sat in a coffee shop at Eglinton and Creditview Road, desperately hoping that I was no longer scared of him.I saw him walking across the parking lot, and waited for an avalanche of fear to hit me. It never came. Sitting across from me, he was just another person. To my surprise, he apologized. “I cannot believe after everything that you’re still willing to help me repair my relationship with our kids,” he said. That day in the coffee shop, I finally felt free.A few weeks ago, I lay in bed cuddling with my youngest daughter. Every night, we snuggle for 10 minutes before she goes to bed, just the two of us, unpacking the day. Out of the blue, she said, “Mom, I think Daddy’s family picked you because you were only 16. They thought you were just going to do whatever they told you to do and they’d be able to make you into whoever they wanted you to be.” And then she paused. “Man,” she said. “They picked the wrong girl.”

17th century[edit]The 1698 Savery Engine1605Bacon's cipher, a method of steganography (hiding a secret message), is devised by Sir Francis Bacon.[5]1614John Napier publishes his work Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio introducing the concept of logarithms which simplifies mathematical calculations.[6][7]1620The first navigable submarine is designed by William Bourne and built by Dutchman Cornelius Drebbel.1625Early experiments in water desalination are conducted by Sir Francis Bacon.[8]1657Anchor escapement for clock making is invented by Robert Hooke.[9]1667A tin can telephone is devised by Robert Hooke.[10]1698The first commercial steam-powered device, a water pump, is developed by Thomas Savery.[11]18th century[edit]The Watt steam engine was conceived in 1765. James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.1701An improved seed drill is designed by Jethro Tull.[12] It is used to spread seeds around a field with a rotating handle which makes seed planting a lot easier.1712The first practical steam engine is designed by Thomas Newcomen.[11][13]1730The Rotherham plough, the first plough to be widely built in factories and commercially successful, is patented by Joseph Foljambe.[14]1737Andrew Rodger invents the winnowing machine.1740The first electrostatic motors are developed by Andrew Gordon in the 1740s.[15]1744The earliest known reference to baseball is made in a publication, A Little Pretty Pocket-Book, by John Newbery. It contains a rhymed description of "base-ball" and a woodcut that shows a field set-up somewhat similar to the modern game—though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration, and with posts instead of ground-level bases.[16]1753Invention of hollow-pipe drainage is credited to Sir Hugh Dalrymple who died in 1753.[17]1765James Small advances the design of the plough using mathematical methods to improve on the Scotch plough of James Anderson of Hermiston.[18]1767Adam Ferguson (1767), often known as ‘The Father of Modern Sociology’, publishes his work An Essay on the History of Civil Society.[19]1776Scottish economist Adam Smith, often known as 'The father of modern economics',[20] publishes his seminal text The Wealth of Nations.[21][22]The Watt steam engine, conceived in 1765, goes into production. It is the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric.1781The Iron Bridge, the first arch bridge made of cast iron, is built by Abraham Darby III.[11]1783A pioneer of selective breeding and artificial selection, Robert Bakewell, forms the Dishley Society to promote and advance the interests of livestock breeders.[23][24]1786The threshing machine is invented by Andrew Meikle.[25]1798Edward Jenner invents the first vaccine.19th century[edit]A trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, first described by Charles Babbage in 1837[26]1802Sir Humphry Davy creates the first incandescent light by passing a current from a battery, at the time the world's most powerful, through a thin strip of platinum.1804The world's first locomotive-hauled railway journey is made by Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive.[27]1807Alexander John Forsyth invents percussion ignition, the foundation of modern firearms.1814Robert Salmon patents the first haymaking machine.1822Charles Babbage proposes the idea for a Difference engine, an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".[28]1823An improved system of soil drainage is developed by James Smith.[29]1825William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.1828A mechanical reaping machine is invented by Patrick Bell.[30]1831Electromagnetic induction, the operating principle of transformers and nearly all modern electric generators, is discovered by Michael Faraday.1835Scotsman James Bowman Lindsay invents the incandescent light bulb.[31]1836The Marsh test for detecting arsenic poisoning is developed by James Marsh.[32]1837Charles Babbage describes an Analytical Engine, the first mechanical, general-purpose programmable computer.[33][34]The Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, first commercially successful electric telegraph, is designed by Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke.[35][36][37]1839A pedal bicycle is invented by Kirkpatrick Macmillan.[38]1840Sir Rowland Hill reforms the postal system with Uniform Penny Post and introduces the first postage stamp, the Penny Black, on 1 May.[39]1841Alexander Bain patents his design produced the prior year for an electric clock.[40]1842Superphosphate, the first chemical fertiliser, is patented by John Bennet Lawes.[41]1843SS Great Britain, the world's first steam-powered, screw propeller-driven passenger liner with an iron hull is launched. Designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, it was at the time the largest ship afloat.Alexander Bain (inventor) patents a design for a facsimile machine.1846A design for a chemical telegraph is patented by Alexander Bain. Bain's telegraph is installed on the wires of the Electric Telegraph Company on one line. Later, in 1850, it was used in America by Henry O'Reilly.[42]1847Boolean algebra, the basis for digital logic, is introduced by George Boole in his book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic.[43]1851Improvements to the facsimile machine are demonstrated by Frederick Bakewell at the 1851 World's Fair in London.1852A steam-driven ploughing engine is invented by John Fowler.[44][45]1853English physician Alexander Wood develops a medical hypodermic syringe with a needle fine enough to pierce the skin.[46]1854The Playfair cipher, the first literal digraph substitution cipher, is invented by Charles Wheatstone and later promoted for use by Lord Playfair.[37]1868Mushet steel, the first commercial steel alloy, is invented by Robert Forester Mushet.Thomas Humber develops a bicycle design with the pedals driving the rear wheel.The first manually operated gas-lamp traffic lights are installed outside the Houses of Parliament on 10 December.1869A bicycle design is developed by Thomas McCall.1873Discovery of the photoconductivity of the element selenium by Willoughby Smith. This led to the invention of photoelectric cells (solar panels), including those used in the earliest television systems.1876Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone in the U.S.[47]The first safety bicycle is designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson (also called Henry). Unlike the penny-farthing, the rider's feet were within reach of the ground, making it safer to stop.1878Demonstration of an incandescent light bulb by Joseph Wilson Swan.[48][49]1883The Fresno scraper, which became a model for modern earth movers, is invented in California by Scottish emigrant James Porteous.[50]1884The light switch is invented by John Holmes.1885The first commercially successful safety bicycle, called the Rover, is designed by John Kemp Starley. The following year Dan Albone produces a derivative of this called the Ivel Safety cycle.1886Walter Parry Haskett Smith, often called the Father of Rock Climbing in Britain, completes his first ascent of the Napes Needle, solo and without any protective equipment.1892Sir Francis Galton devises a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science.[51]1897The world's first wireless station is established on the Isle of Wight.[52][53]20th century[edit]A Colossus computer, developed by British codebreakers in 1943-19451901The first wireless signal across the Atlantic is sent from Cornwall in England and received in Newfoundland in Canada (a distance of 2,100 miles) by Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi.[54]1901The first commercially successful light farm tractor is patented by Dan Albone.[55][56]1907Henry Joseph Round discovers electroluminescence, the principle behind LEDs.1908American Samuel Franklin Cody makes the first official flight of a piloted heavier than air machine in Britain.1910The first formal driving school, the British School of Motoring, is founded in London.[57]Frank Barnwell establishes the fundamentals of aircraft design at the University of Glasgow,[58] having made the first powered flight in Scotland the previous year.1918The Royal Air Force becomes the first independent air force in the world[59]1922In Sorbonne, France, Englishman Edwin Belin demonstrates a mechanical scanning device, an early precursor to modern television.1926John Logie Baird makes the first public demonstration of a mechanical television on 26 January (the first successful transmissions were in early 1923 and February 1924). Later, in July 1928, he demonstrated the first colour television.[60][61]1926The first traffic lights in Britain were deployed in Piccadilly Circus (over a decade after their first use in America).[62][64]1930The jet engine is patented by Sir Frank Whittle.[65]1932The Anglepoise lamp is patented by George Carwardine, a design consultant specialising in vehicle suspension systems.1933The Cat's eye road marking is invented by Percy Shaw and patented the following year.1936English economist John Maynard Keynes publishes his work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money which challenged the established classical economics and led to the Keynesian Revolution in the way economists thought.The world's first public broadcasts of high-definition television are made from Alexandra Palace, North London, by the BBC Television Service. It is the first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting.[66]1937First available in the London area, the 999 telephone number is introduced as the world's first emergency telephone service.1939The initial design of the Bombe, an electromechanical device to assist with the deciphering of messages encrypted by the Enigma machine, is produced by Alan Turing at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS).[67]1943Colossus computer begines working, the world's first electronic digital programmable computer.[68]1949The Manchester Mark 1 computer, significant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers, ran its first programme error free. Its chief designers are Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn.1951The concept of microprogramming is developed by Maurice Wilkes from the realisation that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer program in high-speed ROM.LEO is the first business application (a payroll system) on an electronic computer.1952Autocode, regarded as the first compiled programming language, is developed for the Manchester Mark 1 by Alick Glennie.1953Englishman Francis Crick and American James Watson of Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, analyise X-ray crystallography data taken by Rosalind Franklin of King's College, to decipher the double helical structure of DNA. They share the 1962 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their work.[69]1955The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, is built by Louis Essen at the National Physical Laboratory. This clock enabled further development of general relativity, and started a basis for an enhanced SI unit system.[70]1959Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer, is built by the Metropolitan-Vickers company.1963High strength carbon fibre is invented by engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.[71]The Lava lamp is invented by British accountant Edward Craven Walker.1964The first theory of the Higgs boson is put forward by Peter Higgs, a particle-physics theorist at the University of Edinburgh, and five other physicists.[72][73] The particle is discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider and its existence is confirmed in 2013.1965A pioneer of the development of dairy farming systems, Rex Paterson, set out his principles for labour management.[74]1966The cash machine and personal identification number system are patented by James Goodfellow.[75]1969The first carbon fibre fabric in the world is weaved in Stockport, England.[76]1970One of the first handheld televisions, the MTV-1, is developed by Sir Clive Sinclair.1973Clifford Cocks develops the algorithm for the RSA cipher while working at the Government Communications Headquarters, approximately three years before it was independently developed by Rivest, Shamir and Adleman at MIT. The British government declassified the 1973 invention in 1997.[77]1977Steptoe and Edwards successfully carried out a pioneering conception which resulted in the birth of the world's first baby to be conceived by IVF, Louise Brown on 25 July 1978, in Oldham General Hospital, Greater Manchester, UK.[78][79][80]1979The tree shelter is invented by Graham Tuley to protect tree seedlings.[81]One of the first laptop computers, the GRiD Compass, is designed by Bill Moggridge.1984DNA profiling is discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester.One of the world's first computer games to use 3D graphics, Elite, is developed by David Braben and Ian Bell.1989Sir Tim Berners-Lee writes a proposal for what will become the World Wide Web. The following year, he specified HTML, the hypertext language, and HTTP, the protocol.[82]The Touchpad pointing device is first developed for Psion computers.1991A patent for an iris recognition algorithm is filed by John Daugman while working at the University of Cambridge which became the basis of all publicly deployed iris recognition systems.[83][84]The source code for the world's first web browser, called WorldWideWeb (later renamed Nexus to avoid confusion with the World Wide Web), is released into the public domain by Sir Tim Berners-Lee.1992The first SMS message in the world is sent over the UK's GSM network.1995The world's first national DNA database is developed.[85]1996Animal cloning, a female domestic sheep became the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell, by scientists at the Roslin institute.[86]1997Scottish scientists at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, produce the first mammal cloned from an adult cell.[87]The ThrustSSC jet-propelled car, designed and built in England, sets the land speed record.21st century[edit]2003Beagle 2, a British landing spacecraft that forms part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission lands on the surface of Mars but fails to communicate. It is located twelve years later in a series of images from NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter that suggest two of Beagle's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna.2004Graphene is isolated from graphite at the University of Manchester by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.[88]2005The design for a machine to lay rail track, the "Trac Rail Transposer", is patented and goes on to be used by Network Rail in the United Kingdom and the New York Subway in the United States.[89][90][91]2012Raspberry Pi, a single-board computer, is launched and quickly becomes popular for education in programming and computer science.[92]2014The European Space Agency's Philae lander leaves the Rosetta spacecraft and makes the first ever landing on a comet. The Philae lander was built with significant British expertise and technology, alongside that of several other countries.[93][94]Ceramics[edit]Bone china - Josiah Spode[95]Ironstone china - Charles James Mason[96]Jasperware - Josiah WedgwoodClock making[edit]Anchor escapement - Robert Hooke[97][98]Balance wheel - Robert Hooke[99]Coaxial escapement - George Daniels[100]Grasshopper escapement, H1, H2, H3 and H4 watches (a watch built to solve the longitude measurement problem)[101] - John HarrisonGridiron pendulum - John Harrison[99]Lever escapement The greatest single improvement ever applied to pocket watches - Thomas Mudge[99]Longcase clock or grandfather clock - William Clement[102]Marine chronometer - John Harrison[99]Self-winding watch - John Harwood[103]Clothing manufacturing[edit]Derby Rib (stocking manufacture) - Jedediah StruttFlying shuttle - John KayMauveine, the first synthetic organic dye - William Henry PerkinPower loom - Edmund CartwrightSpinning frame - John KaySpinning jenny - James HargreavesSpinning mule - Samuel CromptonSewing machine - Thomas Saint in 1790[104]Water frame - Richard ArkwrightStocking frame - William LeeWarp-loom and Bobbinet - John HeathcoatCommunications[edit]Christmas card [105] - Sir Henry ColeValentines card [106] - Modern card 18th century EnglandPencil - Cumbria, EnglandMechanical pencil - Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in 1822.[107]Clockwork radio [108] - Trevor BaylisRadio, the first transmission using a Spark Transmitter, achieving a range of approximately 500 metres. - David E. HughesElectromagnetic induction & Faraday's law of induction Began as a series of experiments by Faraday that later became some of the first ever experiments in the discovery of radio waves and the development of radio - Michael Faraday [109]Pioneer in the development of radio communication - William EcclesPioneering work on the development of the long-lasting materials that made today's liquid crystal displays possible - Team headed by Sir Brynmor Jones and Developed by Scotsman George Gray and Englishman Ken Harrison In conjunction with the Royal Radar Establishment and the University of Hull [110]Pioneer of stereo - Alan Blumlein [111]Shorthand - Timothy Bright (1550/1-1615). Invented first modern shorthandPitman Shorthand - Isaac PitmanProposed the existence of the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, a layer of ionised gas that reflects radio waves around the Earth's curvature - Oliver HeavisideTypewriter - First patent for a device similar to a typewriter granted to Henry Mill in 1714.[112]the world's first automatic totalisator - George Juliuspioneer in the use of fiber optics in telecommunications - Charles K. Kao and George HockhamThe originator of the concept of geostationary satellites for the use of telecommunications relays - Arthur C ClarkeTeletext Information Service - The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)Print stereotyping - William Ged (1690–1749) [113]Roller printing - Thomas Bell (patented 1783) [114]The adhesive postage stamp and the postmark - James Chalmers (1782–1853) [115]Universal Standard Time: Sir Sandford Fleming (1827–1915) [116]Light signalling between ships: Admiral Philip H. Colomb (1831–1899) [117]The teleprinter - Frederick G. Creed (1871–1957) [118]Radar - Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973)[119]The underlying principles of Radio - James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [120]Computing[edit]ACE and Pilot ACE [67] - Alan TuringARM architecture The ARM CPU design is the microprocessor architecture of 98% of mobile phones and every smartphone.[121]First programmer - Ada LovelaceFirst Programming Language Analytical Engine ordercode - Charles Babbage and Ada LovelaceArgo system the world's first electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (also called at the Argo Clock) - Arthur PollenSumlock ANITA calculator the world's first all-electronic desktop calculator - Bell Punch CoThe world's first 'slimline' pocket calculator, the Sinclair Executive amongst other electrical/electronic innovations - Sir Clive SinclairOsborne 1 The first commercially successful portable computer, the precursor to the Laptop computer - Adam OsborneHeavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel - Andrew Morton & Alan CoxFlip-flop circuit, which became the basis of electronic memory (Random-access memory) in computers - William Eccles and F. W. JordanUniversal Turing machine - The UTM model is considered to be the origin of the "stored program computer" used by John von Neumann in 1946 for his "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears von Neumann's name: the von Neumann architecture, also UTM is considered the first operating system - Alan TuringThe development of packet switching co-invented by British engineer Donald Davies and American Paul Baran - National Physical Laboratory, London EnglandThe first person to conceptualise the Integrated Circuit - Geoffrey W.A. DummerThe first modern computer Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine - (SSEM), nicknamed Baby. Was the world's first stored-program computer. Developed by Frederic Calland Williams & Tom Kilburn[122]Williams tube - a cathode ray tube used to electronically store binary data (Can store roughly 500 to 1,000 bits of data) - Freddie Williams & Tom KilburnFerranti Mark 1 - Also known as the Manchester Electronic Computer was the first computer to use the principles of early CPU design (Central processing unit) - Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn - Also the world's first successful commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer - Christopher StracheyEDSAC was the first complete, fully functional computer to use the von Neumann architecture, the basis of every modern computer - Maurice WilkesEDSAC 2 the successor to the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator or EDSAC. It was the first computer to have a microprogrammed (Microcode)control unit and a bit slice hardware architecture - Team headed by Maurice WilkesThe first graphical computer game OXO on the EDSAC at Cambridge University - A.S. DouglasAtlas Computer, it was arguably the world's first supercomputer and was the fastest computer in the world until the release of the American CDC 6600 Also This machine introduced many modern architectural concepts: spooling, interrupts, pipelining, interleaved memory, virtual memory and paging - Team headed by Tom KilburnDigital audio player (MP3 Player) - Kane KramerCo-Inventor of the world's first trackball device - developed by Tom Cranston, Fred Longstaff and Kenyon TaylorThe world's first handheld computer (Psion Organiser) - Psion PLCThe first rugged computer - Husky (computer)First PC-compatible palmtop computer (Atari Portfolio) - Ian CullimoreDenotational semantics - Christopher Strachey pioneer in programming language designWolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine - Stephen WolframEngineering[edit]Adjustable spanner - Edwin Beard BuddingBackhoe loader - Joseph Cyril BamfordCavity magnetron - John Randall and Harry Boot critical component for Microwave generation in Microwave ovens and high powered Radios (Radar)[123]Carey Foster bridge - Carey Foster[124]Electric transformer - Michael Faraday[125]First coke-consuming blast furnace - Abraham Darby I[11]First working universal joint - Robert HookeCrookes tube the first cathode ray tubes - William Crookes[11]First compression ignition engine aka the Diesel Engine - Herbert Akroyd StuartHydrogen Fuel Cell - William Robert GroveModified version of the Newcomen steam engine (Pickard engine) - James PickardCompound steam turbine - Charles Algernon Parsons[11]Francis turbine - James B. FrancisGas turbine - John Barber (engineer)Microturbines - Chris and Paul Bladon of Bladon JetsThe world's first oil refinery and a process of extracting paraffin from coal laying the foundations for the modern oil industry - James Young (1811–1883)[126]Pendulum governor - Frederick LanchesterContributed to the development of Radar - Scotsman Robert Watson-Watt and Englishman Arnold Frederic WilkinsInternal combustion engine - Samuel BrownFourdrinier machine - Henry FourdrinierMicrochip - Geoffrey W.A. Dummerlight-emitting diode (did not invent the first visible light, only theorised)- H. J. RoundHydraulic accumulatorTwo-stroke engine - Joseph DayPioneer of radio guidance systems - Archibald LowScrew-cutting lathe - Henry HindleyThe first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe - Henry MaudslayThe first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope - William GilbertRectilinear Slide rule - William Oughtred[99]Devised a standard for screw threads leading to its widespread acceptance - Joseph WhitworthThe Wimshurst machine is an Electrostatic generator for producing high voltages - James WimshurstHot bulb engine or heavy oil engine - Herbert Akroyd StuartHydraulic crane - William George ArmstrongVacuum diode also known as a vacuum tube - John Ambrose FlemingLinear motor is a multi-phase alternating current (AC) electric motor - Charles Wheatstone then improved by Eric Laithwaite[37]Lynch Motor - Cedric LynchDesigned water and sewerage systems for over 30 cities across Europe - William LindleyConcrete Canvas - Will Crawford and Peter BrewinThe world's first house powered with hydroelectricity - Cragside, Northumberland[citation needed]Stirling engine - Robert StirlingSupercharger - Dugald ClerkWind tunnel - Francis Herbert Wenham[99]Household appliances[edit]Perambulator - William Kent designed a baby carriage in 1733[127]Collapsible baby buggy - Owen MaclarenDomestic dishwasher - key modifications by William Howard Livens [128]"Bagless" vacuum cleaner - James Dyson[129]"Puffing Billy" - First powered vacuum cleaner - Hubert Cecil Booth[130][131][132]Fire extinguisher - George William Manby[127]Folding carton - Charles Henry FoyleLawn mower - Edwin Beard Budding[133]Rubber band - Stephen Perry[134]Daniell cell - John Frederic Daniell[135]Tin can - Peter DurandCorkscrew - Reverend Samuell HenshallMouse trap - James Henry AtkinsonModern flushing toilet - John Harington[136]The pay toilet - John Nevil Maskelyne, Maskelyne invented a lock for London toilets, which required a penny to operate, hence the euphemism "spend a penny".Electric toaster - Rookes Evelyn Bell CromptonTeasmade - Albert E. RichardsonMagnifying glass - Roger BaconThermosiphon, which forms the basis of most modern central heating systems - Thomas FowlerAutomatic electric kettle - Russell HobbsThermos Flask - James Dewar [137]Toothbrush - William Edward AddisSunglasses - James Ayscough[138]The Refrigerator - William Cullen (1748) [139]The Flush toilet: Alexander Cummings (1775) [140]The first distiller to triple distill Irish whiskey:[141]John Jameson (Whisky distiller)The first automated can-filing machine John West (1809–1888) [142]The waterproof Mackintosh - Charles Macintosh (1766–1843) [143]The kaleidoscope: Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) [144]Keiller's marmalade Janet Keiller (1797) - The first recipe of rind suspended marmalade or Dundee marmalade produced in Dundee.The modern lawnmower - Edwin Beard Budding (1830) [145]The Lucifer friction match: Sir Isaac Holden (1807–1897) [146]The self filling pen - Robert Thomson (1822–1873) [147]Cotton-reel thread - J & J Clark of Paisley [148]Lime Cordial - Peter Burnett in 1867 [149]Bovril beef extract - John Lawson Johnston in 1874 [150]Wellington BootsCan Opener - Robert Yeates 1855Ideas, Religion and Ethics[edit]Malthusianism and the groundwork for the study of population dynamics - Thomas Robert Malthus with his work An Essay on the Principle of Population.Classical Liberalism - John Locke known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism".[151][152]Utilitarianism by Jeremy BenthamAnglicanism by Henry VIII of EnglandMethodism by John Wesley and Charles WesleyQuakers by George FoxAgnosticism by Thomas Henry HuxleyIndustrial processes[edit]English crucible steel - Benjamin HuntsmanSteel production Bessemer process - Henry BessemerHydraulic press - Joseph BramahParkesine, the first man-made plastic - Alexander ParkesPortland cement - Joseph AspdinSheffield plate - Thomas BoulsoverWater frame - Richard ArkwrightStainless steel - Harry BrearleyRubber Masticator - Thomas HancockPower Loom - Edmund CartwrightParkes process - Alexander ParkesLead chamber process - John RoebuckDevelopment of the world's first commercially successful manufacture of high quality flat glass using the float glass process - Alastair PilkingtonThe first commercial electroplating process - George ElkingtonThe Wilson Yarn Clearer - Peter WilsonFloat Glass - Alastair Pilkington - Modern Glass manufacturing processContact ProcessFroth Flotation - William Haynes and A H Higgins.Extrusion - Joseph BramahMedicine[edit]First correct description of circulation of the blood - William Harvey[153]Smallpox vaccine - Edward Jenner with his discovery is said to have "saved more lives (...) than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[154][155][156]Surgical forceps - Stephen Hales[157]Antisepsis in surgery - Joseph ListerArtificial intraocular lens transplant surgery for cataract patients - Harold Ridley[158]Clinical thermometer - Thomas Clifford Allbutt.[159]isolation of fibrinogen ("coagulable lymph"), investigation of the structure of the lymphatic system and description of red blood cells by the surgeon William Hewson (surgeon)Credited with discovering how to culture embryonic stem cells in 1981 - Martin EvansFirst blood pressure measurement and first cardiac catheterisation-Stephen Hales[160]Pioneer of anaesthesia and father of epidemiology for locating the source of cholera - John Snow (physician)[161]pioneered the use of sodium cromoglycate as a remedy for asthma - Roger Altounyan[citation needed]The first scientist to demonstrate that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen and one of the founders of orthopedy - Percivall Pott[162]Performed the first successful blood transfusion - James Blundell[163]Discovered the active ingredient of Aspirin - Edward StoneDiscovery of Protein crystallography - Dorothy Crowfoot HodgkinThe world's first successful stem cell transplant[164] - John Raymond Hobbs[165]First typhoid vaccine - Almroth Wright[166]Pioneer of the treatment of epilepsy - Edward Henry Sievekingdiscovery of Nitrous oxide (entonox/"laughing gas") and its anaesthetic properties - Humphry Davy[167]Computed Tomography (CT scanner) - Godfrey Newbold HounsfieldGray's Anatomy widely regarded as the first complete human anatomy textbook - Henry GrayDiscovered Parkinson's disease - James Parkinson[168]General anaesthetic - Pioneered by Scotsman James Young Simpson and Englishman John Snow[161]Contributed to the development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - Sir Peter MansfieldStatistical parametric mapping - Karl J. FristonThe development of in vitro fertilization - Patrick Christopher Steptoe and Robert Geoffrey Edwards[169]First baby genetically selected to be free of a breast cancer - University College LondonViagra - Peter Dunn, Albert Wood, Dr Nicholas Terrett[citation needed]Acetylcholine - Henry Hallett DaleEKG (underlying principles) - various[vague]Vitamins and Tryptophan - Frederick Gowland HopkinsEarliest pharmacopoeia in English[170]The hip replacement operation, in which a stainless steel stem and 22mm head fit into a polymer socket and both parts are fixed into position by PMMA cement - pioneered by John CharnleyIn vitro fertilisation - Developed by Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards with a first successful birth in 1978 as a result of natural cycle IVF where no stimulation was made.Description of Hay fever - John Bostock (physician) in 1819Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [171]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) - James Braid (1795–1860) [172]Identifying the mosquito as the carrier of malaria: Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) [173]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [174]Discovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [175]Discovering insulin - John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [176]Ambulight PDT: light-emitting sticking plaster used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treating non-melanoma skin cancer. Developed by Ambicare Dundee's Ninewells Hospital and St Andrews University. (2010)[177]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe - Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [178]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [179]Glasgow Coma Scale: Graham Teasdale and Bryan J. Jennett (1974) [180]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [181]Pioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870) [171]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841) - James Braid (1795–1860) [172]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931) [182]Discovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926) [183]Discovering insulin - John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others [176]Penicillin: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) [184]Discovering an effective tuberculosis treatment: Sir John Crofton in the 1950s [185]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe - Later Queen's physician in Scotland) [186]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964 [187]EKG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead (1911) [188]Military[edit]Percussion ignitionTurret ship - Although designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century, the HMS Trusty was the first warship to be outfitted with one.Battle Tank/The tank - Developed and first used in combat by the British during World War I as a means to break the deadlock of trench warfare. Attributed to Ernest Dunlop SwintonFighter aircraft - The Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus of 1914 was the first of its kind.Congreve rocket - William CongreveHarrier Jump Jet - VTOL (Vertical Take Off and Landing aircraft)Aircraft Carrier - HMS Argus (I49)Dreadnought Battleship - HMS Dreadnought (1906)Bailey Bridge - Donald BaileyChobham armourLivens Projector - William Howard Livens[189]H2S radar (airborne radar to aid the bomb targeting) - Alan BlumleinBouncing bomb - Barnes WallisSafety fuse - William BickfordFairbairn-Sykes Fighting Knife - William Ewart Fairbairn and Eric A. SykesArmstrong Gun - Sir William ArmstrongHigh explosive squash head - Sir Charles Dennistoun BurneyNuclear fission chain reaction - Leo Szilard whilst crossing the road near Russell Square.Shrapnel shell - Henry ShrapnelBullpup firearm configuration - Thorneycroft carbinePuckle Gun - James PuckleThe side by side Boxlock action, AKA The double barreled shotgun - Anson and DeeleyStun grenades - Invented by the SAS in the 1960s.Smokeless propellant to replace gunpowder with the use of Cordite - Frederick AbelRubber bullet and Plastic bullet - Developed by the Ministry of Defence during The Troubles in Northern Ireland.Depth chargeTorpedo - Robert WhiteheadThe Whitworth rifle, considered the first sniper rifle. During the American Civil War the Whitworth rifle had been known to kill at ranges of about 800 yards - Sir Joseph WhitworthThe world's first practical underwater active sound detection apparatus, the ASDIC Active Sonar - Developed by Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle and English physicist Albert Beaumont WoodThe first self-powered machine gun Maxim gun - Sir Hiram Maxim, Although the Inventor is American, the Maxim gun was financed by Albert Vickers of Vickers Limited company and produced in Hatton Garden LondonSteam catapult-Commander Colin C. Mitchell RNVRSpecial forces - SAS Founded by Sir David Stirling.Mining[edit]Tunnel boring machine - James Henry Greathead and Isambard Kingdom BrunelDavy lamp - Humphry DavyGeordie lamp - George StephensonBeam engine - Used for pumping water from minesMusical instruments[edit]Concertina - Charles Wheatstone[37]Theatre organ - Robert Hope-JonesEnglish horn - A version of the OboeLogical bassoon, an electronically controlled version of the bassoon - Giles BrindleyNorthumbrian smallpipesTuning fork - John ShoreThe piano footpedal - John Broadwood (1732–1812) [190]Photography[edit]Ambrotype - Frederick Scott Archer[191]Calotype - William Fox Talbot[192]Collodion process - Frederick Scott Archer[191]Collodion-albumen process - Joseph Sidebotham in 1861Stereoscope - Charles Wheatstone[36][37]Thomas Wedgwood - pioneer of photography, devised the method to copy visible images chemically to permanent media.Dry plate process also known as gelatine process, is the first economically successful durable photographic medium - Richard Leach MaddoxKinemacolor was the first successful colour motion picture process, used commercially from 1908 to 1914 - George Albert SmithCinematography - William Friese-GreeneMotion picture camera, the Kinetoscope - William Kennedy Laurie DicksonThe first movie projector, the Zoopraxiscope - Eadweard MuybridgeThe first experimental film called "The Horse in Motion" in 1872 - Eadweard MuybridgePublishing firsts[edit]Oldest publisher and printer in the world (having been operating continuously since 1584): Cambridge University Pressfirst book printed in English: "The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye" by Englishman William Caxton in 1475The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1768–81) [193]The first English textbook on surgery(1597) [194]The first modern pharmacopaedia, William Cullen (1776) The book became 'Europe's principal text on the classification and treatment of disease' [195]The first postcards and picture postcards in the UK [196]Science[edit]Modern atomic theory - Considered the father of modern chemistry, John Dalton's experiments with gases led to the development of what is called the modern atomic theory.[11][197]Equals sign Robert Recorde, WelshmanCell biology - Credit for the discovery of the first cells is given to Robert Hooke who described the microscopic compartments of cork cells in 1665[197]Compound microscope with 30x magnification - Robert HookeUniversal joint - Robert Hooke[citation needed]Coggeshall slide rule - Henry CoggeshallThe Iris diaphragm - Robert HookeCorrect theory of combustion - Robert HookePartition chromatography - Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer J.P. Martin[198]Arnold Frederic Wilkins - pioneer in the development of RadarAtwood machine used for illustrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion - George AtwoodMarine Barometer - Robert Hooke[99]Hooke's Law (equation describing elasticity) - Robert Hooke[99]Electrical generator (dynamo) - Michael Faraday[125]Faraday cage - Michael Faraday[125]Magneto-optical effect - Michael Faraday[125]Calculus - Sir Isaac NewtonInfrared radiation - discovery commonly attributed to William Herschel.Holography - First developed by Dennis Gabor in Rugby, England. Improved by Nicholas J. Phillips who made it possible to record multi-colour reflection hologramsDiscovery of the pion (pi-meson) - Cecil Frank PowellWheatstone bridge - Samuel Hunter ChristieTriple achromatic lens - Peter DollondNewtonian telescope - Sir Isaac NewtonHawking radiation - Stephen HawkingDemonstrated that electric circuits obey the law of the conservation of energy and that electricity is a form of energy First Law of Thermodynamics. Also the unit of energy, the Joule is named after him - James Prescott JouleMicrometer - William Gascoignethe first bench micrometer that was capable of measuring to one ten thousandth of an inch - Henry MaudslaySinclair Executive, the world's first small electronic pocket calculator - Sir Clive SinclairDiscovered the element argon - John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh with Scotsman William RamsayStandard deviation - Francis GaltonSlide rule - William Oughtred [199]Synthesis of coumarin, one of the first synthetic perfumes, and cinnamic acid via the Perkin reaction- William Henry PerkinThe Law of Gravity - Sir Isaac NewtonNewton's laws of motion - Sir Isaac NewtonPre-empting elements of General Relativity theory - William Kingdon CliffordGeological Timescale - Arthur Holmes[200]Electromagnet - William Sturgeon in 1823.[197]Helium - Norman LockyerWeather map [201] - Sir Francis GaltonIntroduced the symbol for "is less than" and "is greater than" - Thomas Harriot 1630Introduced the "×" symbol for multiplication as well as the abbreviations "sin" and "cos" for the sine and cosine functions - William OughtredDew Point Hygrometer - John Frederic DaniellPeriodic Table - John Alexander Reina NewlandsSplitting the atom - John Cockcroft and Irish physicist Ernest WaltonFirst full-scale commercial Nuclear Reactor at Calder Hall, opened in 1956.[202]Seismograph - John MilneDiscovery of oxygen gas (O2) - Joseph PriestleyDiscovery of the Atom(nuclear model of) - Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Proton - Ernest RutherfordDiscovery of the Electron, isotopes and the inventor of the Mass spectrometer - J. J. ThomsonDiscovery of the Neutron - James ChadwickNuclear transfer - Is a form of cloning first put into practice by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell to clone Dolly the SheepTheory of Evolution - Charles DarwinAstronomy[edit]Discovery of the "White Spot" on Saturn - Will HayDiscovery of Proxima Centauri, the closest known star to the Sun, by Robert Innes (1861–1933) [203]Discovery of the planet Uranus[204] and the moons Titania, Oberon, Enceladus, Mimas [205] by Sir William Herschel (German born astronom, later in life British)Discovery of Triton[206] and the moons Hyperion, Ariel and Umbriel - William Lassell[207]Planetarium - John Theophilus DesaguliersPredicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus - John Couch Adams [208]Important contributions to the development of radio astronomy - Bernard Lovell [209]Newtonian telescope - Sir Isaac Newton [210]Achromatic doublet lens - John Dollond [211]Coining the phrase 'Big Bang' - Fred Hoyle [212]First theorised existence of black holes, binary stars; invented torsion balance - John Michell[213]Stephen Hawking - World-renowned theoretical physicist made many important contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holesSpiral galaxies - William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse [214]Discovery of Halley's Comet - Edmond Halley [215]Discovery of pulsars - Antony Hewish [216]Discovery of Sunspots and was the first person to make a drawing of the Moon through a telescope - Thomas Harriot [217]The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object - Arthur Stanley Eddington [218]Aperture synthesis, used for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources in the field of Radio astronomy - Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish [219]Chemistry[edit]Dalton's law and Law of multiple proportions - John Dalton [220]The structure of DNA and pioneering the field of molecular biology - co-developed by Francis Crick [221] and the American James WatsonDNA sequencing by chain termination - Frederick Sanger [222]Discovery of introns in eukaryotic DNA and the mechanism of gene-splicing - Richard J. Roberts [223]Discovey of Buckminsterfullerene - Sir Harry Kroto [224]Discovery of thallium - William Crookes[11]Discovered the structure of ferrocene - Geoffrey Wilkinson & others [225]Discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air - Henry Cavendish [226]Proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the Periodic Law - John Newlands [227]Bragg's law and establish the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances - William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg [228]Introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight - Henry Moseley [229]First isolation of sodium - Humphry Davy [230]First isolation of potassium - Humphry Davy[11]First isolation of boron - Humphry Davy[11]First isolation of benzene, the first known aromatic hydrocarbon - Michael Faraday[231]Publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder - Roger Bacon [232]Publishes several Aristotelian commentaries, an early framework for the scientific method - Robert Grosseteste [233]Baconian method, an early forerunner of the scientific method - Sir Francis Bacon[234]The first discovery of aluminium - Sir Humphry DavyPioneer in early Solar Power - Weston cell - Edward Weston (chemist)[citation needed]Proposes the concept of isotopes, elements with the same chemical properties may have differing atomic weights - Frederick Soddy[11]The synthesising of xenon hexafluoroplatinate the first time to show that noble gases can form chemical compounds - Neil BartlettCallendar effect the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature (Global warming) - Guy Stewart CallendarPioneer of the fuel cell - Francis Thomas Bacon[235]Pioneer of meteorology by developing a nomenclature system for clouds in 1802 - Luke Howard[236]Rayleigh scattering explains why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of the surface waves - John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh[237]Sport[edit]Football - The rules as we know them today were established in 1848 at Cambridge University, Sheffield F.C. is acknowledged by The Football Association and FIFA as the world's first and oldest football club.[238]Rugby - William Webb EllisCricket - the world's second-most popular sport can be traced back to the 13th century[239]Tennis - widely known to have originated in England.[240]Boxing - England played a key role in the evolution of modern boxing. Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport in Ancient Greece in 688 BCGolf - Modern game invented in ScotlandBilliardsBadmintonDarts - a traditional pub game, the numbering layout was devised by Brian GamlinTable-Tennis - was invented on the dinner tables of Britain as an indoor version of tennisSnooker - Invented by the British Army in India[241]Ping pong - The game has its origins in England, in the 1880sBowls - has been traced to 13th century England[242]Field hockey - the modern game grew from English public schools in the early 19th centuryNetball - the sport emerged from early versions of women's basketball, at Madame Österberg's College in England during the late 1890s.[243]Rounders - the game originates in England most likely from an older game known as stool ballThe Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, the first race was in 1829 on the River Thames in London [244]Thoroughbred Horseracing - Was first developed in 17th and 18th century EnglandPolo - its roots began in Persia as a training game for cavalry units, the formal codification of the rules of modern Polo as a sport were established in 19th century EnglandThe format of Modern Olympics - William Penny BrookesThe first Paralympic games competition were held in England in 1948 - Ludwig Guttmann[245]Hawk-Eye ball tracking system.Transport[edit]Aviation[edit]Aeronautics and flight. As a pioneer of glider development & first well-documented human flight he discovered and identified the four aerodynamic forces of flight - weight, lift, drag, and thrust. Modern airplane design is based on those discoveries including cambered wings. He is sometimes called the "Father of aviation" - George Cayley[246]Steam Powered Flight with the Aerial Steam Carriage - John Stringfellow- The world's first powered flight took place at Chard in Somerset 55 years before the Wright brothers attempt at Kitty Hawk[247]VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) fighter-bomber aircraft - Hawker P.1127, Designed by Sydney Camm[248]The first commercial jet airliner (de Havilland Comet)[249]The first Supersonic Airliner - Concorde. Developed by the British Aircraft Corporation in partnership with Aérospatiale 1969The first aircraft capable of supercruise - English Electric LightningAilerons - Matthew Piers Watt BoultonHead-up display (HUD) - The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) designed the first equipment and it was built by Cintel with the system first integrated into the Blackburn Buccaneer.Pioneer of parachute design - Robert CockingThe first human-powered aircraft to make an officially authenticated take-off and flight (SUMPAC) - The University of Southampton[250]Hale rockets, improved version of the Congreve rocket design that introduced Thrust vectoring - William HaleSABRE engine- The first hypersonic jet/rocket capable of working in air and space to allow the possibility of HOTOL.Air Force - Royal Air ForceRailways[edit]Great Western Railway - Isambard Kingdom BrunelStockton and Darlington Railway the world's first operational steam passenger railwayFirst inter-city steam-powered railway - Liverpool and Manchester RailwayLocomotives[edit]Blücher - George StephensonPuffing Billy -William HedleyLocomotion No 1 - Robert StephensonSans Pareil - Timothy HackworthStourbridge Lion - Foster, Rastrick and CompanyStephenson's Rocket - George and Robert StephensonSalamanca - Matthew MurrayFlying Scotsman- Sir Nigel Gresley[citation needed]Other railway developments[edit]Displacement lubricator, Ramsbottom safety valve, the water trough, the split piston ring - John RamsbottomMaglev (transport) rail system - Eric LaithwaiteWorld's first underground railway and the first rapid transit system. It was also the first underground railway to operate electric trains - London undergroundAdvanced Passenger Train (APT) was an experimental High Speed Train that introduced tilting - British RailRoads[edit]Bowden cable - Frank BowdenHansom cab - Joseph HansomSeat belt - George Cayley[251]Sinclair C5 - Sir Clive SinclairTarmac - E. Purnell HooleyTension-spoke Wire wheels - George Cayley[246]Pneumatic Tyre - Robert William Thomson is deemed to be inventor, despite John Boyd Dunlop being initially credited.Disc brakes - Frederick W. Lanchester[11]Belisha beacon - Leslie Hore-BelishaLotus 25 Considered the first modern F1 race car designed for the 1962 Formula One season. It was a revolutionary design the first fully stressed monocoque chassis to appear in Formula One - Colin Chapman, Team LotusHorstmann suspension, tracked armoured fighting vehicle suspension - Sidney HorstmannSteam fire engine - John BraithwaitePenny-farthing - James StarleyDynasphere - John Archibald PurvesCaterpillar Track - Richard Lovell EdgeworthMini-roundabout - Frank BlackmoreQuadbike - Standard Motor Company patented the 'Jungle Airborne Buggy' (JAB) in 1944[252]Sea[edit]Plimsoll Line - Samuel PlimsollHovercraft - Christopher CockerellLifeboat - Lionel LukinResurgam - George GarrettTransit (ship) - Richard Hall GowerTurbinia, the first steam turbine powered steamship, designed by the engineer Sir Charles Algernon Parsons and built in Newcastle upon TyneDiving Equipment/Scuba Gear - Henry FleussDiving bell - Edmund HalleySextant - John BirdOctant (instrument) - Independently developed by Englishman John Hadley and the American Thomas GodfreyWhirling speculum, This device can be seen as a precursor to the gyroscope - John SersonScrew propeller - Francis Pettit SmithThe world's first patent for an underwater echo ranging device (Sonar) - Lewis Richardsonhydrophone Before the invention of Sonar convoy escort ships used them to detect U-boats, greatly lessening the effectiveness of the submarine - Research headed by Ernest RutherfordHydrofoil - John Isaac ThornycroftHMS Warrior The world's first Iron armoured and iron hulled warship.Scientific innovations[edit]The theory of electromagnetism - James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [253]The Gregorian telescope - James Gregory (1638–1675) [254]The concept of latent heat - Joseph Black (1728–1799) [255]The pyroscope, atmometer and aethrioscope scientific instruments: Sir John Leslie (1766–1832) [256]Identifying the nucleus in living cells - Robert Brown (1773–1858) [257]Hypnotism - James Braid (1795–1860) [258]Transplant rejection: Professor Thomas Gibson (1940s) the first medical doctor to understand the relationship between donor graft tissue and host tissue rejection and tissue transplantation by his work on aviation burns victims during World War II.[259]Colloid chemistry - Thomas Graham (1805–1869) [260]The kelvin SI unit of temperature - William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) [261]Devising the diagramatic system of representing chemical bonds - Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922) [262]Criminal fingerprinting - Henry Faulds (1843–1930) [263]The noble gases: Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) [264]The Cloud chamber - Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959) [265]Pioneering work on nutrition and poverty - John Boyd Orr (1880–1971) [266]The ultrasound scanner - Ian Donald (1910–1987) [267]Ferrocene synthetic substances - Peter Ludwig Pauson in 1955 [268]The MRI body scanner - John Mallard and James Huchinson from (1974–1980) [269]The first cloned mammal (Dolly the Sheep): Was conducted in The Roslin Institute research centre in 1996 [270]Seismometer innovations thereof - James David Forbes [271]Metaflex fabric innovations thereof - University of St. Andrews (2010) application of the first manufacturing fabrics that manipulate light in bending it around a subject. Before this such light manipulating atoms were fixed on flat hard surfaces. The team at St Andrews are the first to develop the concept to fabric.[272]Macaulayite: Dr Jeff Wilson of the Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen.[273]Miscellaneous[edit]Oldest police force in continuous operation: Marine Police Force founded in 1798 and now part of the Metropolitan Police ServiceOldest life insurance company in the world: Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office founded 1706First Glee Club, founded in Harrow School in 1787.[274]Oldest arts festival - Norwich 1772 [275]Oldest music festival - The Three Choirs FestivalOldest literary festival - The Cheltenham Literature FestivalBayko - Charles PlimptonLinoleum - Frederick Walton [276]Chocolate bar - J. S. Fry & Sons [277]Meccano - Frank HornbyCrossword puzzle - Arthur WynneGas mask - (disputed) John Tyndall and othersGraphic telescope - Cornelius VarleySteel-ribbed Umbrella - Samuel FoxPlastic - Alexander ParkesPlasticine - William HarbuttCarbonated soft drink - Joseph PriestleyFriction Match - John WalkerInvented the rubber balloon - Michael FaradayEarliest known concept of a Metric system - John Wilkins[278]Edmondson railway ticket - Thomas EdmondsonThe world's first Nature Reserve - Charles Waterton *Public Park - Joseph PaxtonScouts - Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-PowellSpirograph - Denys FisherThe Young Men's Christian Association YMCA was founded in London - George Williams[279]The Salvation Army, known for being one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid - Methodist minister William BoothPrime meridian - George Biddell AiryProduced the first complete printed translation of the Bible into English - Myles CoverdaleFounder of the Bank of Scotland - John HollandVenn diagram - John VennVulcanisation of rubber - Thomas HancockSilicone - Frederick KippingPykrete - Geoffrey PykeVantablack - The world's blackest known substanceStamp collecting - John Edward Gray bought penny blacks on first day of issue in order to keep themlorgnette - George Adams (optician)Boys' Brigade [280]Bank of England devised by William PatersonBank of France devised by John LawColour photography: the first known permanent colour photograph was taken by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) [281]BarnardosBoy ScoutsGirl GuidesRSPCARSPBRNLI