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Well it is a myth that unbelievers own science and are smarter.Th truth is Israel is leader in all the field science, due that God is with them.Watch this:Science and technology in Israel is one of the country's most developed sectors. Israel spent 4.2% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on civil research and development in 2013, one of the highest ratios in the world.[1][2] Israel ranks fifth among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index.[3][4] It ranks thirteenth in the world for scientific output as measured by the number of scientific publications per million citizens.[5] In 2014, Israel's share of scientific articles published worldwide (0.9%) was much higher than its share of the global population (0.1%).[6][2] It also has one of the highest per capita rates of filed patents.[7]Israel counts 140 scientists and technicians per 10,000 employees, one of the highest ratios in the world. In comparison, there are 85 per 10,000 in the United States and 83 per 10,000 in Japan.[8] In 2012, Israel counted 8,337 full-time equivalent researchers per million inhabitants.[2] This compares with 3,984 in the USA, 6,533 in the Republic of South Korea and 5,195 in Japan. Israel's high technology industry has benefited from both the country's highly educated and technologically skilled workforce coupled with the strong presence of foreign high-tech firms and sophisticated research centres.[9][2]Israel is home to major players in the high-tech industry and has one of the world's most technologically literate populations.[10] In 1998, Tel Aviv was named by Newsweek as one of the ten most technologically influential cities in the world.[11] Since 2000, Israel has been a member of EUREKA, the pan-European research and development funding and coordination organization, and held the rotating chairmanship of the organization for 2010–2011.[12][13] In 2010, American journalist David Kaufman wrote that the high tech area of Yokneam, Israel, has the "world's largest concentration of aesthetics-technology companies".[14] Google Chairman Eric Schmidt has complimented the country during a visit there, saying that “Israel has the most important high-tech center in the world after the US.”[15]ContentsHistory EditJewish settlement in Mandate Palestine was ideologically motivated. Return to the homeland was perceived as contingent on a return to the soil. To establish the rural villages that formed the core of Zionist ideology and produce self-supporting Jewish farmers, agronomic experiments were conducted.[16] The foundations of agricultural research in Israel were laid by the teachers and graduates of the Mikveh Yisrael School, the country's first agricultural school, established by the Alliance Israelite Universelle in 1870.[17] On a field trip to Mount Hermon in 1906, the agronomist Aaron Aaronsohn discovered Triticum dicoccoides, or emmer wheat, believed to be the "mother of all wheat."[18] In 1909, he founded an agricultural research station in Atlit where he built up an extensive library and collected geological and botanical samples.[19] The Agricultural Station, founded in Rehovot in 1921, engaged in soil research and other aspects of farming in the country's difficult climatic conditions.[20] This station, which became the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), is now Israel’s major institution of agricultural research and development.Albert Einstein at the Technion; c. 1925In 1912, the first cornerstone of the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology was laid at a festive ceremony in Haifa, which was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire. The Technion would become a unique university worldwide in its claim to precede and create a nation. As Jews were often barred from technical education in Europe,[21] the Technion claims to have brought the skills needed to build a modern state.[22]Established before World War I, the Hebrew Health Station in Jerusalem, founded by Nathan Straus engaged in medical and public health research, operating departments for public hygiene, eye diseases and bacteriology.[23] The station manufactured vaccines against typhus and cholera, and developed methods of pest control to eliminate field mice. The Pasteur Institute affiliated with the station developed a rabies vaccine.[23] Departments for microbiology, biochemistry, bacteriology, and hygiene were opened at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, founded on Mount Scopus in 1925. In 1936, Jewish workers in the center of the country donated two-days' pay toward the establishment of the "Hospital of Judea and Sharon," later renamed Beilinson Hospital. In 1938, Beilinson established the country's first blood bank.[24] The Rothschild-Hadassah University Hospital on Mount Scopus opened in 1939 and was the first teaching hospital and medical center in the country. Since renamed the Hadassah Medical Center, it has become a leader in medical research.[25]WEIZAC, the first modern computer in the Middle EastIndustrial research began at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, was also initiated at the Daniel Sieff Research Center (later the Weizmann Institute of Science), established in 1934 in Rehovot. The Dead Sea Laboratories opened in the 1930s. The first modern electronic computer in Israel and the Middle East, and one of the first large-scale, stored-program, electronic computers in the world, called WEIZAC, was built at the Weizmann Institute during 1954–1955, based on the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) architecture developed by John von Neumann.[26] WEIZAC has been recognized by the IEEE as a milestone in the history of electrical engineering and computing.[27] IBM Israel, registered on June 8, 1950, was the country's first high-tech firm. The company, located on Allenby Street in Tel Aviv, assembled and repaired punch card machines, sorting machines and tabulators. In 1956, a local plant was opened to produce punch cards, and a year later, the first service center opened, offering computerized data processing services.[28]Scientific and technological research in Israel was boosted by the appointment of a chief scientist for the Industry and Trade Ministry at the recommendation of a committee headed by Ephraim Katzir, later president of Israel.[29] The Israeli government provided grants that covered 50–80 percent of the outlay for new start-ups, with no conditions, no shareholding and no participation in management.[29] In the early 1980s, Control Data Corporation, a partner in Elron Electronic Industries, formed the country's first venture capital firm.[29]Origin of Israeli high-tech industry EditIsrael’s high-tech industries are a spin-off of the rapid[clarification needed] development of computer science and technology in the 1980s in such places as Silicon Valley and Massachusetts Route 128 in the USA, which ushered in the current high-tech era. Up until that point, Israel’s economy had been essentially based on agriculture, mining and secondary sectors such as diamond polishing and manufacturing in textiles, fertilizers and plastics.The key factor which enabled high-tech industries based on information and communication technologies to take root and flourish in Israel was the heavy[clarification needed] investment by the defence and aerospace industries, which spawned new technologies and know-how. Israel devoted 17.1% of its GDP to military expenditure in 1988. Even though this share had dropped to 5.8% of GDP by 2016, Israel military spending remains among the highest in the world. For the purposes of comparison, the United States devoted 5.7% of its GDP to military expenditure in 1988 and 3.3% in 2016.[30] This heavy investment in defence and aerospace formed the basis for Israel’s high-tech industries in medical devices, electronics, telecommunications, computer software and hardware.The massive[clarification needed] Russian immigration of the 1990s reinforced this phenomenon, doubling the number of engineers and scientists in Israel overnight. Between 1989 and 2006, about 979 000 Russian Jews and their relatives migrated to Israel, which had a population of just 4.5 million in 1989.[2]Today, Israel has the world’s most research-intensive business sector; in 2013, it alone performed 3.49% of GDP. Competitive grants and tax incentives are the two main policy instruments supporting business research and development. Thanks to government incentives and the availability of highly trained human capital, Israel has become an attractive location for the research centres of leading multinationals. The country’s national innovation ecosystem relies on both foreign multinationals and large corporate investors in research and development, as well as on start-ups. According to the Israel Venture Capital Database, 264 foreign research centres are currently active in Israel. Many of these centres are owned by large multinational firms that have acquired Israeli companies, technology and know-how and transformed them through mergers and acquisitions into their own local research facilities. The activity of some research centres even spans more than three decades, such as those of Intel, Applied Materials, Motorola and IBM.[2]In 2011, foreign research centres employed 33,700 workers through local subsidiaries, two-thirds of whom (23,700) worked in research and development. The same year, these research centres spent a total of NIS 14.17 billion on research and development across the full spectrum of industry, up from 17% over the previous year.[2]Higher education policy EditSixth Higher Education Plan EditIsrael’s higher education system is regulated by the Council for Higher Education and its Planning and Budgeting Committee. The Israeli higher education system operates under a multi-year plan agreed upon by the Planning and Budgeting Committee (PBC) and the Ministry of Finance. Each plan determines policy objectives and, accordingly, the budgets to be allocated in order to achieve these objectives.[2]The annual government allocation to universities totalled about US$1 750 million in 2015, providing 50–75% of their operating budgets. Much of the remainder of their operating budget (15–20%) comes from annual student tuition fees, which are uniform at about US$2 750 per year. The Sixth Higher Education Plan (2011–2016) makes provision for a 30% rise in the Council for Higher Education’s budget. The Sixth Plan changes the budgeting model of the PBC by placing greater emphasis on excellence in research, along with quantitative measures for the number of students. Under this model, 75% of the committee’s budget (NIS 7 billion over six years) is being allocated to institutions offering higher education. The Sixth Higher Education Plan launched the Israeli Centres of Research Excellence (I-CORE) programme in October 2011. This reflects a renewed interest in funding academic research and constitutes a strong indication of a reversal in government policy.[2]Israeli Centres of Research Excellence EditThe Israeli Centres of Research Excellence (I-CORE) programme, which dates from 2011, envisions the establishment of cross-institutional clusters of top researchers in specific fields and returning young Israeli scientists from abroad, with each centre being endowed with state-of-the-art research infrastructure. The Sixth Higher Education Plan invests NIS 300 million over six years in upgrading and renovating academic infrastructure and research facilities.[2]I-CORE is run jointly by the Council for Higher Education’s Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation. By 2015, 16 centres had been established in two waves across a wide spectrum of research areas: six specialize in life sciences and medicine, five in the exact sciences and engineering, three in social sciences and law and two in humanities. Each centre of excellence has been selected via a peer review process conducted by the Israel Science Foundation. By May 2014, around 60 young researchers had been absorbed into these centres, many of whom had previously worked abroad.[2]The research topics of each centre are selected through a broad bottom-up process consisting of consultations with the Israeli academic community, in order to ensure that they reflect the genuine priorities and scientific interests of Israeli researchers.[2]I-CORE is funded by the Council for Higher Education, the host institutions and strategic business partners, with a total budget of NIS 1.35 billion (US$365 million). The original goal was to set up 30 centres of research excellence in Israel by 2016. However, the establishment of the remaining 14 centres has provisionally been shelved, for lack of sufficient external capital.[2]In 2013–2014, the Planning and Budgeting Committee’s budget for the entire I-CORE programme amounted to NIS 87.9 million, equivalent to about 1% of the total for higher education that year. This budget appears to be insufficient to create the critical mass of researchers in various academic fields and thus falls short of the programme’s objective. The level of government support for the centres of excellence has grown each year since 2011 as new centres have been established and is expected to reach NIS 93.6 million by 2015–2016 before dropping to 33.7 million in 2017–2018. According to the funding model, government support should represent one-third ofall funding, another third being funded by the participating universities and the remaining third by donors or investors.[2]University recruitment targets EditIn the 2012–2013 academic year, there were 4,066 faculty members. The targets fixed by the Planning and Budgeting Committee for faculty recruitment are ambitious: universities are to recruit another 1 600 senior faculty within the six-year period – about half of whom will occupy new positions and half will replace faculty expected to retire. This will constitute a net increase of more than 15% in university faculty. In colleges, another 400 new positions are to be created, entailing a 25% net increase. The new faculty will be hired via the institutions’ regular recruitment channels, some in specific research areas, through the Israeli Centers of Research Excellence program.[2]The increase in faculty numbers will also reduce the student-to-faculty ratio, the target being to achieve a ratio of 21.5 university students to every faculty member, compared to 24.3 at present, and 35 students for every faculty member in colleges, compared to 38 at present. This increase in the number of faculty positions, alongside the upgrading of research and teaching infrastructure and the increase in competitive research funds, should help Israel to staunch brain drain by enabling the best Israeli researchers at home and abroad to conduct their academic work in Israel, if they so wish, at institutions offering the highest academic standards.[2]The new budgeting scheme described above is mainly concerned with the human and research infrastructure in universities. Most of the physical development (e.g. buildings) and scientific infrastructure (e.g. laboratories and expensive equipment) of universities comes from philanthropic donations, primarily from the American Jewish community (CHE, 2014). This latter source of funding has greatly compensated for the lack of sufficient government funding for universities up until now but it is expected to diminish significantly in the years to come. Unless the government invests more in research infrastructure, Israel’s universities will be ill-equipped and insufficiently funded to meet the challenges of the 21st century.[2]Expanding access to higher education EditIsrael has offered virtually universal access to its universities and academic colleges since the wave of Jewish immigration from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s prompted the establishment of numerous tertiary institutions to absorb the additional demand. However, the Arab and ultra-orthodox minorities still attend university in insufficient numbers. The Sixth Higher Education Plan places emphasis on encouraging minority groups to enroll in higher education. Two years after the Mahar program was implemented in late 2012 for the ultra-orthodox population, student enrollment had grown by 1400. Twelve new programs for ultra-orthodox students have since been established, three of them on university campuses. Meanwhile, the Pluralism and Equal Opportunity in Higher Education program addresses the barriers to integration of the Arab minority in the higher education system. Its scope ranges from providing secondary-school guidance through preparation for academic studies to offering students comprehensive support in their first year of study, a stage normally characterized by a high drop-out rate. The program renews the Ma’of fund supporting outstanding young Arab faculty members. Since the introduction of this program in 1995, the Ma’of fund has opened tenure track opportunities for nearly 100 Arab lecturers, who act as role models for younger Arab students embarking on their own academic careers.[2]Science, technology and innovation policy EditPolicy framework EditAlthough Israel does not have an ‘umbrella type’ policy for science, technology and innovation optimizing priorities and allocating resources, it does implement, de facto, an undeclared set of best practices combining bottom-up and top-down processes via government offices, such as those of the Chief Scientist or the Minister of Science, Technology and Space, as well as ad hoc organizations like the Telem forum. The procedure for selecting research projects for the Israeli centers for research excellence is one example of this bottom-up process.[2]Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry. Nevertheless, the Israeli government influences policy formulation by universities and technology transfer by providing incentives and subsidies through programmes such as Magnet and Magneton, as well as through regulation. There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.[2]The Israeli economy is driven by industries based on electronics, computers and communication technologies, the result of over 50 years of investment in the country’s defence infrastructure. Israeli defence industries have traditionally focused on electronics, avionics and related systems. The development of these systems has given Israeli high-tech industries a qualitative edge in civilian spin-offs in the software, communications and Internet sectors. However, the next waves of high technologies are expected to emanate from other disciplines, including molecular biology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology, material sciences and chemistry, in intimate synergy with information and communication technologies. These disciplines are rooted in the basic research laboratories of universities rather than the defence industries. This poses a dilemma. In the absence of a national policy for universities, let alone for the higher education system as a whole, it is not clear how these institutions will manage to supply the knowledge, skills and human resources needed for these new science-based industries.[2]Evaluation of science policy instruments EditThe country’s various policy instruments are evaluated by the Council for Higher Education, the National Council for Research and Development, the Office of the Chief Scientist, the Academy of Sciences and Humanities and the Ministry of Finance. In recent years, the Magnet administration in the Office of the Chief Scientist has initiated several evaluations of its own policy instruments, most of which have been carried out by independent research institutions. One such evaluation was carried out in 2010 by the Samuel Neaman Institute; it concerned the Nofar programme within the Magnet directorate. Nofar tries to bridge basic and applied research, before the commercial potential of a project has caught the eye of industry. The main recommendation was for Nofar to extend programme funding to emerging technological domains beyond biotechnology and nanotechnology. The Office of the Chief Scientist accepted this recommendation and, consequently, decided to fund projects in the fields of medical devices, water and energy technology and multidisciplinary research.[2]An additional evaluation was carried out in 2008 by Applied Economics, an economic and management research-based consultancy, on the contribution of the high-tech sector to economic productivity in Israel. It found that the output per worker in companies that received support from the Office of the Chief Scientist was 19% higher than in ‘twin’ companies that had not received this support. The same year, a committee headed by Israel Makov examined the Office of the Chief Scientist’s support for research and development in large companies. The committee found economic justification for providing incentives for these companies.[2]Research funding programmes EditThe Israeli Science Foundation is the main source of research funding in Israel and receives administrative support from the Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The foundation provides competitive grants in three areas: exact sciences and technology; life sciences and medicine; and humanities and social sciences. Complementary funding is provided by binational foundations, such as the USA–Israel Binational Science Foundation (est. 1972) and the German–Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development (est. 1986).[2]The Ministry of Science, Technology and Space funds thematic research centres and is responsible for international scientific co-operation. The Ministry’s National Infrastructure Programme aims to create a critical mass of knowledge in national priority fields and to nurture the younger generation of scientists. Investment in the programme mainly takes the form of research grants, scholarships and knowledge centres. Over 80% of the ministry’s budget is channelled towards research in academic institutions and research institutes, as well as towards revamping scientific infrastructure by upgrading existing research facilities and establishing new ones. In 2012, the ministry resolved to invest NIS 120 million over three years in four designated priority areas for research: brain science; supercomputing and cybersecurity; oceanography; and alternative transportation fuels. An expert panel headed by the Chief Scientist in the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space chose these four broad disciplines in the belief that they would be likely to exert the greatest practical impact on Israeli life in the near future.[2]The main ongoing programmes managed by the Office of the Chief Scientist within the Ministry of the Economy are: the Research and Development Fund; Magnet Tracks (est. 1994; Tnufa (est. 2001) and the Incubator Programme (est.1991). Between 2010 and 2014, the Office of the Chief Scientist initiated several new programmes:[2]Grand Challenges Israel (since 2014): an Israeli contribution to the Grand Challenges in Global Health programme, which is dedicated to tackling global health and food security challenges in developing countries; Grand Challenges Israel is offering grants of up to NIS 500 000 at the proof of concept/feasibility study stage.Research and development in the field of space technology (2012): encourages research to find technological solutions in various fields.Technological Entrepreneurship Incubators (2014): encourages entrepreneurial technology and supports start-up technology companies.Magnet – Kamin programme (2014) provides direct support for applied research in academia that has potential for commercial application.Cyber – Kidma programme (2014): promotes Israel’s cybersecurity industry.Cleantech – Renewable Energy Technology Centre (2012): supports research through projects involving private–public partnerships in the field of renewable energy.Life Sciences Fund (2010): finances the projects of Israeli companies, with emphasis on biopharmaceuticals, established together with the Ministry of Finance and the private sector.Biotechnology – Tzatam programme (2011): provides equipment to support research and development in life sciences. The Chief Scientist supports industrial organizations and the PBC provides research institutions with assistance.Investment in high-tech industries (2011): encourages financial institutions to invest in knowledge-based industries, through a collaboration between the Office of the Chief Scientist and the Ministry of Finance.Another source of public research funding is the Forum for National Research and Development Infrastructure (Telem). This voluntary partnership involves the Office of the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of the Economy and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Space, the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Ministry of Finance. Telem projects focus on establishing infrastructure for research and development in areas that are of common interest to most Telem partners. These projects are financed by the Telem members’ own resources.[2]Trends in research funding EditIn 2014, Israel topped the world for research intensity, reflecting the importance of research and innovation for the economy. Since 2008, however, Israel’s research intensity has weakened somewhat (4.21% of GDP in 2013), even as this ratio has experienced impressive growth in the Republic of Korea (4.15% in 2014), Denmark (3.06% in 2013) and Germany (2.94% in 2013). The OECD average was 2.40% of GDP in 2014. Business expenditure on research and development (BERD) continues to account for ~84% of GERD, or 3.49% of GDP.[2]The share of higher education in gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) has decreased since 2003 from 0.69% of GDP to 0.59% of GDP (2013). Despite this drop, Israel ranks 8th among OECD countries for this indicator. The lion’s share of GERD (45.6%) in Israel is financed by foreign companies, reflecting the large scale of activity by foreign multinational companies and research centres in the country.[2]The share of foreign funding in university-performed research is also quite significant (21.8%). By the end of 2014, Israel had received €875.6 million from the European Union’s (EU’s) Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2007–2013), 70% of which had gone to universities. Its successor, Horizon 2020 (2014–2020), has been endowed with nearly €80 billion in funding, making it the EU’s most ambitious research and innovation programme ever. As of February 2015, Israel had received €119.8 million from the Horizon 2020 programme.[2]In 2013, more than half (51.5%) of government spending was allocated to university research and an additional 29.9% to the development of industrial technologies. Research expenditure on health and the environment has doubled in absolute terms in the past decade but still accounts for less than 1% of total government GERD. Israel is unique among OECD countries in its distribution of government support by objective. Israel ranks at the bottom in government support of research in health care, environmental quality and infrastructure development.[2]There has been insufficient government funding for universities in recent years. University research in Israel is largely grounded in basic research, even though it also engages in applied research and partnerships with industry. Basic research in Israel only accounted for 13% of research expenditure in 2013, compared to 16% in 2006. There has since been an increase in General University Funds and those destined for non-oriented research.[2]Trends in human resources EditIn 2012, there were 77 282 full-time equivalent researchers in Israel, 82% of whom had acquired an academic education, 10% of whom were practical engineers and technicians and 8% of whom held other qualifications. Eight out of ten (83.8%) were employed in the business sector, 1.1% in the government sector, 14.4% in the higher education sector and 0.7% in non-profit institutions.[2]In 2011, 28% of senior academic staff were women, up by 5% over the previous decade (from 25% in 2005). Although the representation of women has increased, it remains very low in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) relative to education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%).[2]There is a visible ageing of scientists and engineers in some fields. For instance, about three-quarters of researchers in the physical sciences are over the age of 50 and the proportion is even higher for practical engineers and technicians. The shortage of professional staff will be a major handicap for the national innovation system in the coming years, as the growing demand for engineers and technical professionals begins to outpace supply. [2]During the 2012/2013 academic year, 34% of bachelor's degrees were obtained in fields related to science and engineering in Israel. This compares well with the proportion in the Republic of Korea (40%) and most Western countries (about 30% on average). The proportion of Israeli graduates in scientific disciplines and engineering was slightly lower at the master’s level (27%) but dominated at PhD level (56%).[2]Recent statistics support the assertion that Israel may be living on the ‘fruits of the past’, that is to say, on the heavy investment made in primary, secondary and tertiary education during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. Between 2007 and 2013, the number of graduates in physical sciences, biological sciences and agriculture dropped, even though the total number of university graduates progressed by 19% (to 39 654). Recent data reveal that Israeli educational achievements in the core curricular subjects of mathematics and science are low in comparison to other OECD countries, as revealed by the exam results of Israeli 15-year olds in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment. Public spending on primary education has also fallen below the OECD average. The public education budget accounted for 6.9% of GDP in 2002 but only 5.6% in 2011. The share of this budget going to tertiary education has remained stable at 16–18% but, as a share of GDP, has passed under the bar of 1%. There is concern at the deteriorating quality of teachers at all levels of education and the lack of stringent demands on students to strive for excellence.[2]Research universities EditFurther information: List of Israeli universities and colleges, Education in Israel, and List of multinationals with research and development centres in IsraelIsrael has seven research universities: Bar-Ilan University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, the University of Haifa, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Tel Aviv University and the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot. Other scientific research institutions include the Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research in Beit Dagan, the Israel Institute for Biological Research and the Soreq Nuclear Research Center. The Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center at Sde Boker is an alternative energy research institute established in 1987 by the Ministry of National Infrastructures to study alternative and clean energy technologies.Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 academic institutions in the world in the following scientific disciplines: in chemistry (Technion);[31] in computer science (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, Tel Aviv University);[32] in mathematics and natural sciences (Hebrew University, Technion)[33] and in engineering (Technion).[34]In 2009, Mor Tzaban, an Israeli high school student from Netivot, won first prize in the First Step to Nobel Prize in Physics competition. In 2012, Yuval Katzenelson of Kiryat Gat won first prize with a paper entitled "Kinetic energy of inert gas in a regenerative system of activated carbon." The Israeli delegation won 14 more prizes in the competition: 9 Israelis students won second prize, one won third prize and one won fourth prize.[35]Scientific output EditThe number of Israeli publications stagnated between 2005 and 2014, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). Consequently, the number of Israeli publications per million inhabitants also declined: between 2008 and 2013, it dropped from 1 488 to 1 431; this trend reflects a relative constancy in scholarly output in the face of relatively high population growth (1.1% in 2014) for a developed country and near-zero growth in the number of full-time equivalent researchers in universities. Between 2005 and 2014, Israeli scientific output was particularly high in life sciences. Israeli universities do particularly well in computer science but publications in this field tend to appear mostly in conference proceedings, which are not included in the Web of Science.[2]Israeli publications have a high citation rate and a high share of papers count among the 10 percent most-cited. The share of papers with foreign co-authors is almost twice the OECD average, which is typical of small countries with a developed scientific and technological ecosystem. A team of 50 Israeli scientists work full-time at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, which operates the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. Israel was granted observer status in 1991 before becoming a fully fledged member in 2014. An Israeli delegation headed by President Shimon Peres visited the particle accelerator in 2011.[36]Israeli scientists collaborate mostly with Western countries such as the European Union and the United States but there has been strong growth in recent years in collaboration with East Asian countries such as China, Japan, and South Korea as well as India and Singapore.[2]Technology transfer EditHistory EditResearch conducted at Israeli universities and institutes is shared with the private sector through technology transfer (TT) units.[37] Israel's first university TT unit, Yeda, was established by the Weizmann Institute of Science in the 1950s.[38] Research in such fields as arid and semi-arid zone agricultural engineering was transferred to kibbutzim and private farmers on a gratis basis and agricultural knowledge was shared with developing countries.[39]In 1964, Yissum, the technology transfer company of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, was founded.[40]Since the 1990s, the traditional dual mission of universities of teaching and research has broadened to include a third mission: engagement with society and industry. This evolution has been a corollary of the rise of the electronics industry and information technology services, along with a surge in the number of research personnel following the wave of immigration from the former Soviet Union.[2]Israel has no specific legislation regulating the transfer of knowledge from the academic sector to the general public and industry. There were attempts in 2004 and 2005 to introduce bills encouraging the transfer of knowledge and technology for the public benefit but, as these attempts failed, each university has since defined its own policy.[2]University-industry collaboration EditAll Israeli research universities have technology transfer offices. Recent research conducted by the Samuel Neaman Institute has revealed that, between 2004 and 2013, the universities’ share of patent applications constituted 10–12% of the total inventive activity of Israeli applicants. This is one of the highest shares in the world and is largely due to the intensive activity of the universities’ technology transfer offices. The Weizmann Institute’s technology transfer office, Yeda, has been ranked the third-most profitable in the world. Through exemplary university–industry collaboration, the Weizmann Institute of Science and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries have discovered and developed the Copaxone drug for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Copaxone is Teva’s biggest-selling drug, with US$1.68 billion in sales in the first half of 2011. Since the drug’s approval by the US Food and Drug Administration in 1996, it is estimated that the Weizmann Institute of Science has earned nearly US$2 billion in royalties from the commercialization of its intellectual property.[2]International technology transfer EditIn 2007, the United Nations General Assembly's Economic and Financial Committee adopted an Israeli-sponsored draft resolution on agricultural technology transfer to developing countries. The resolution called on developed countries to make their knowledge and know-how accessible to the developing world as part of the UN campaign to eradicate hunger and dire poverty by 2015. The initiative is an outgrowth of Israel's many years of contributing its know-how to developing nations, especially Africa, in the spheres of agriculture, fighting desertification, rural development, irrigation, medical development, computers and the empowerment of women.[41]Venture capital EditAs new technology companies require money and seed capital to grow and thrive, Israel's science and technology sector is backed by a strong venture capital industry. Between 2004 and 2013, the Israeli venture capital industry played a fundamental role in funding the development of Israel’s high-tech sector. In 2013, Israeli companies had raised more venture capital as a share of GDP than companies in any other country as it attracted US$2 346 million alone during that year. Today, Israel is considered one of the biggest venture capital centers in the world outside the United States of America. Several factors have contributed to this growth. These include tax exemptions on Israeli venture capital, funds established in conjunction with large international banks and financial companies and the involvement of major organizations desirous to capitalize on the strengths of Israeli high-tech companies. These organizations include some of the world’s largest multinational technology companies, including Apple, Cisco, Google, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, Oracle, Siemens and Samsung. In recent years, the share of venture capital invested in the growth stages of enterprises has flourished at the expense of early stage investments.[2]Intellectual property rights EditIntellectual property rights in Israel protect copyright and performers’ rights, trademarks, geographical indicators, patents, industrial designs, topographies of integrated circuits, plant breeds and undisclosed business secrets. Both contemporary Israeli legislation and case law are influenced by laws and practices in modern countries, particularly Anglo-American law, the emerging body of EU law and proposals by international organizations.[2]Israel has made a concerted effort to improve the economy’s ability to benefit from an enhanced system of intellectual property rights. This includes increasing the resources of the Israel Patent Office, upgrading enforcement activities and implementing programmes to bring ideas funded by government research to the market. Between 2002 and 2012, foreigners accounted for nearly 80% of the patent applications filed with the Israel Patent Office. A sizeable[clarification needed] share of foreign applicants seeking protection from the Israel Patent Office are pharmaceutical companies such as F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Janssen, Novartis, Merck, Bayer-Schering, Sanofi-Aventis and Pfizer, which happen to be the main business competitors of Israel’s own Teva Pharmaceutical Industries.[2]Israel ranks tenth in the world for the number of patent applications filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) by country of residence of the first-named inventor. Israeli inventors file far more applications with USPTO (5 436 in 2011) than with the European Patent Office (EPO). Moreover, the number of Israeli filings with EPO dropped from 1400 to 1063 between 2006 and 2011. This preference for USPTO is largely because foreign research centres implanted in Israel are primarily owned by US firms such as IBM, Intel, Sandisk, Microsoft, Applied Materials, Qualcomm, Motorola, Google or Hewlett–Packard. The inventions of these companies are attributed to Israel as the inventor of the patent but not as the owner (applicant or assignee). The loss of intellectual property into the hands of multinationals occurs mainly through the recruitment of the best Israeli talent by the local research centres of multinational firms. Although the Israeli economy benefits from the activity of the multinationals’ subsidiaries through job creation and other means, the advantages are relatively small compared to the potential economic gains that might have been achieved, had this intellectual property been utilized to support and foster the expansion of mature Israeli companies of a considerable size.[2]Applied science and engineering EditEnergy EditSolar power EditFurther information: Solar power in IsraelThe world's largest solar parabolic dish at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center[42]As of 2014, Israel leads the 2014 Global Cleantech Innovation Index.[43] The country's lack of conventional energy sources has spurred extensive research and development of alternative energy sources and Israel has developed innovative technologies in the solar energy field.[44] Israel has become the world's largest per capita user of solar water heaters in the home. A new, high-efficiency receiver to collect concentrated sunlight has been developed, which will enhance the use of solar energy in industry as well.[45]In a 2009 report by the CleanTech Group, Israel ranked number 5 clean tech country in the world.[46] The Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio process a patented system which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an ArrowBio plant that has been operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons of garbage a day.[47]In 2010, Technion – the Israel Institute of Technology – established the Grand Technion Energy Program (GTEP). This multidisciplinary task-force brings together Technion's top researchers in energy science and technology from over nine different faculties. GTEP's 4-point strategy targets research and development of alternative fuels; renewable energy sources; energy storage and conversion; and energy conservation. GTEP is presently the only center in Israel offering graduate studies in energy science and technology to bring the energy skills and know-how to address the energy challenges of the future.Natural gas EditSince 1999, large reserves of natural gas have been discovered off Israel’s coast. This fossil fuel has become the primary fuel for electricity generation in Israel and is gradually replacing oil and coal. In 2010, 37% of electricity in Israel was generated from natural gas, leading to savings of US$1.4 billion for the economy. In 2015, this rate is expected to surpass 55%.[2]In addition, the usage of natural gas in industry – both as a source of energy and as a raw material – is rapidly expanding, alongside the requisite infrastructure. This is giving companies a competitive advantage by reducing their energy costs and lowering national emissions. Since early 2013, almost the entire natural gas consumption of Israel has been supplied by the Tamar field, an Israeli–American private partnership. The estimated reserves amount to about 1 000 BCM, securing Israel’s energy needs for many decades to come and making Israel a potentially major regional exporter of natural gas. In 2014, initial export agreements were signed with the Palestinian Authority, Jordan and Egypt; there are also plans to export natural gas to Turkey and the EU via Greece.[2]In 2011, the government asked the Academy of Sciences and Humanities to convene a panel of experts to consider the full range of implications of the most recent discoveries of natural gas. The panel recommended encouraging research into fossil fuels, training engineers and focusing research efforts on the impact of gas production on the Mediterranean Sea’s ecosystem. The Mediterranean Sea Research Centre of Israel was established in 2012 with an initial budget of NIS 70 million; new study programmes have since been launched at the centre to train engineers and other professionals for the oil and gas industry. Meanwhile, the Office of the Chief Scientist, among others, plans to use Israel’s fledgling natural gas industry as a stepping stone to building capacity in advanced technology and opening up opportunities for Israeli innovation targeting the global oil and gas markets.[2]Space science and technology EditFurther information: Israel Space AgencyOfek-7 satellite launch through Shavit vehicleDuring the 1970s and 1980s Israel began developing the infrastructure needed for research and development in space exploration and related sciences. In November 1982, the Minister of Science and Technology, Yuval Ne'eman, established the Israel Space Agency (ISA), to coordinate and supervise a national space program as well as to conduct space, planetary, and aviation research. Because of geographical constraints, as well as safety considerations, the Israeli space program focuses on very small satellites loaded with payloads of a high degree of sophistication, and cooperation with other national space agencies.[48] The Technion Asher Space Research Institute plays a central role in educating the aerospace engineers of the next generation.[49] In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by Thomson Reuters agency.[50]Israel launched its first satellite, Ofeq-1, from the locally built Shavit launch vehicle on September 19, 1988, and has made important[clarification needed] contributions in a number of areas in space research, including laser communication, research into embryo development and osteoporosis in space, pollution monitoring, and mapping geology, soil and vegetation in semi-arid environments.[51]Key projects include the TAUVEX telescope, the Tel Aviv University Ultra Violet Experiment, a UV telescope for astronomical observations which was developed in the 1990s to be accommodated on an Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) geo-synchronous satellite GSAT-4, for joint operation and use by Indian and Israeli scientists; the VENUS microsatellite, developed in collaboration with the French space agency, CNES, which will use an Israeli-developed space camera, electric space engine and algorithms; and MEIDEX (Mediterranean – Israel Dust Experiment), in collaboration with NASA.[52]Ilan Ramon was Israel's first astronaut. Ramon was the space shuttle payload specialist on board the fatal STS-107 mission of Space Shuttle Columbia, in which he and the six other crew members were killed in a re-entry accident over the southern United States. Ramon had been selected as a payload specialist in 1997 and trained at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, from 1998 until 2003.[53] Among other experiments, Ramon was responsible for the MEIDEX project in which he was required to take pictures of atmospheric aerosol (dust) in the Mediterranean area using a multispectral camera designed to provide scientific information about atmospheric aerosols and the influence of global changes on the climate, and data for the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) instruments. Researchers from Tel Aviv University (TAU) were responsible for the scientific aspect of the experiment. The TAU team also worked with a US company, Orbital Sciences Corporation, to construct and test special flight instruments for the project.[54]Aerospace engineering EditFurther information: Israel Aerospace IndustriesGulfstream G280 transcontinental business jet was designed and is currently produced for Gulfstream Aerospace by Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI)Aerospace engineering related to the country's defense needs has generated technological development with consequent civilian spin-offs. The Arava short take-off and landing (STOL) plane manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries was the first aircraft to be produced in Israel, in the late 1960s, for both military and civilian uses.[55] This was followed by the production of the Westwind business jet[56] from 1965 to 1987, and later variants, the Astra[57] and the Gulfstream G100, which are still in active service.Israel is among the few countries capable of launching satellites into orbit and locally designed and manufactured satellites have been produced and launched by Israel Aerospace Industries(IAI), Israel's largest military engineering company, in cooperation with the Israel Space Agency. The AMOS-1 geostationary satellite began operations in 1996 as Israel's first commercial communications satellite. It was built primarily for direct-to-home television broadcasting, TV distribution and VSAT services. AMOS-2 was launched in December 2003 and a further series of AMOS communications satellites (AMOS 2 – 5i) are operated or in development by the Spacecom Satellite Communications company, headquartered in Ramat-Gan, Israel. Spacecom provides satellite telecommuncations services to countries in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.[58] Another satellite, the Gurwin-II TechSAT, designed and manufactured by the Technion, was launched in July 1998 to provide communications, remote sensing and research services. EROS, launched in 2000, is a non-geostationary orbit satellite for commercial photography and surveillance services.[59]Israel also develops, manufactures, and exports a large number of related aerospace products, including rockets and satellites, display systems, aeronautical computers, instrumentation systems, drones and flight simulators. Israel's second largest defense company is Elbit Systems, which makes electro-optical systems for air, sea and ground forces; drones; control and monitoring systems; communications systems and more.[60] The Technion - Israel Institute of Technology is home to the Asher Space Research Institute, which is unique in Israel as a university-based center of space research. At ASRI, Israeli students designed, built and launched their own satellite: Gurwin TechSat.[61]Agricultural engineering EditMain article: Agricultural research in IsraelAnaerobic digesters at Hiriya waste facilityIsrael’s agricultural sector is characterized by an intensive system of production stemming from the need to overcome the scarcity in natural resource, particularly water and arable land, in a country where more than half of its area is desert. The growth in agricultural production is based on close cooperation of scientists, farmers and agriculture-related industries and has resulted in the development of advanced agricultural technology, water-conserving irrigation methods, anaerobic digestion, greenhouse technology, desert agriculture and salinity research.[62] Israeli companies also supply irrigation, water conservation and greenhouse technologies and know-how to other countries.[63][64][65]The modern technology of drip irrigation was invented in Israel by Simcha Blass and his son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny particles, water was released through larger and longer passageways by using velocity to slow water inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type was established in 1959 when Blass partnered with Kibbutz Hatzerim to create an irrigation company called Netafim. Together they developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter.[66] This method was very successful and had spread to Australia, North America and South America by the late 1960s.Israeli farmers rely heavily on greenhouse technology to ensure a constant, year-round supply of high quality produce, while overcoming the obstacles posed by adverse climatic conditions, and water and land shortages. Technologies include computerized greenhouse climate control, greenhouse shading, irrigation, fertigation, greenhouse water recycling and biological control of plant disease and insects, allow farmers to control most production parameters. As a result, Israeli farmers successfully grow 3 million roses per hectare in season and an average of 300 tons of tomatoes per hectare, four times the amount harvested in open fields.[67]Computer engineering EditTechnion - Israel Institute of Technology (faculty of Computer Science) buildingIsraeli companies excel in computer software and hardware development, particularly computer security technologies, semiconductors and communications. Israeli firms include Check Point, a leading firewall firm; Amdocs, which makes business and operations support systems for telecoms; Comverse, a voice-mail company; and Mercury Interactive, which measures software performance.[68] A high concentration of high-tech industries in the coastal plain of Israel has led to the nickname Silicon Wadi (lit: "Silicon Valley").[69] Both Israeli and international companies are based there. Intel[70] and Microsoft[71] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. Intel developed its dual-core Core Duo processor at its Israel Development Center in Haifa.[72] More than 3,850 start-ups have been established in Israel, making it second only to the US in this sector[73] and has the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[74]Optics, electro-optics, and lasers are significant fields and Israel produces fiber-optics, electro-optic inspection systems for printed circuit boards, thermal imaging night-vision systems, and electro-optics-based robotic manufacturing systems.[75] Research into robotics first began in the late 1970s, has resulted in the production of robots designed to perform a wide variety of computer aided manufacturing tasks, including diamond polishing, welding, packing, and building. Research is also conducted in the application of artificial intelligence to robots.[75]Israel's Weizmann Institute of Science and Technion – Israel Institute of Technology are ranked among the top 20 academic institutions in the world in computer science.[32] An Israeli, CEO and president of M-Systems, Dov Moran, invented the first flash drive in 1998.[76]Cybersecurity EditIn November 2010, the Israeli prime minister entrusted a task force with responsibility for formulating national plans to place Israel among the top five countries in the world for cybersecurity. On 7 August 2011, the government approved the establishment of the National Cyber Bureau to promote the Israeli cyberdefence industry. The bureau is based in the Prime Minister’s Office. The National Cyber Bureau allocated NIS 180 million (circa US$50 million) over 2012–2014 to encourage cyber research and dual military–civilian R&D; the funding is also being used to develop human capital, including through the creation of cybersecurity centres at Israeli universities that are funded jointly by the National Cyber Bureau and the universities themselves.[2]In January 2014, the prime minister launched CyberSpark, Israel’s cyber innovation park, as part of plans to turn Israel into a global cyber hub. Located in the city of Beer-Sheva to foster economic development in southern Israel, CyberSpark is a geographical cluster of leading cyber companies, multinational corporations and universities, involving Ben Gurion University of the Negev, technology defence units, specialized educational platforms and the national Cyber Event Readiness Team.[2]About half of the firms in CyberSpark are Israeli, mostly small to medium-sized. Multinational companies operating in CyberSpark include EMC2, IBM, Lockheed Martin and Deutsche Telekom. PayPal recently acquired the Israeli start-up CyActive and has since announced plans to set up its second Israeli research centre in CyberSpark, with a focus on cybersecurity. This acquisition is just one of the many Israeli cybersecurity start-ups acquired by multinational companies in the past few years. Major acquisitions of Israeli start-ups in 2014 include Intellinx, purchased by Bottomline Technologies, and Cyvera, purchased by Palo Alto Networks.[2]The National Cyber Bureau has estimated that the number of Israeli cyberdefence companies had doubled in the past five years to about 300 by 2014. Israeli companies account for an estimated 10% of global sales, which currently total an estimated US$60 billion. Total research spending on cyberdefence in Israel quadrupled between 2010 and 2014 from US$50 million to US$200 million, bringing Israel’s spending to about 15% of global research spending on cyberdefence in 2014. Cybersecurity technologies are exported by Israel in accordance with the Wassenaar Arrangement, a multilateral agreement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.[2]Hydraulic engineering EditSee also: Water supply and sanitation in IsraelSince rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country, irrigation and water engineering is vital to the country's economic survival and growth. Large-scale projects to direct water from rivers and reservoirs in the north, to make optimal use of groundwater, and to reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. The largest such project was a national water distribution system called the National Carrier, completed in 1964, flowing from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, to the northern Negev desert, through huge channels, pipes and tunnels.[77] The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was the largest in the world at the time it was built.[78] The project was developed as a BOT (build-operate-transfer) by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies and Elran.[79]Water-saving technologies EditAccording to water experts, pipe leakage is one of the major problems confronting the global water supply today. For Israel, which is two-thirds desert, water-saving technologies are of critical importance. The International Water Association has cited Israel as one of the leaders in innovative methods to reduce "non-revenue water," i.e., water lost in the system before reaching the customer.[80]Military engineering EditFurther information: Rafael Advanced Defense SystemsIAI Harop, Israel, is the world's largest exporter of drones.Rejection of requests for weapons and technologies, arms sanctions and massive rearmament of the Arab countries prodded Israel into the development of a broad-based indigenous arms industry.[81] The Israel Defense Forces relies heavily on local military technology and high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel. Israeli-developed military equipment includes small arms, anti-tank rockets and missiles, boats and submarines, tanks, armored vehicles, artillery, unmanned surface vehicles, aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), air-defense systems, weapon stations and radar. An impetus for the development of the industry was the embargo on arms sales to Israel during the Six-Day War which prompted Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI), founded as a maintenance facility in 1953, to begin developing and assembling its own aircraft, including the Kfir, the Arava and the Nesher.[82]Israeli soldier with Spike (missile)Notable technology includes the Uzi submachine gun, introduced in 1954,[83] the country's main battle tank, the Merkava, and the jointly designed Israeli and U.S. Arrow missile, one of the world's only operational, advanced anti-ballistic missile systems.[84] The Iron Dome mobile air defense system developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems is designed to intercept short-range rockets and artillery shells. The system was created as a defensive countermeasure to the rocket threat against Israel's civilian population on its northern and southern borders, and was declared operational and initially deployed in the first quarter of 2011.[85] It is designed to intercept very short-range threats up to 70 kilometers in all-weather situations.[86] On April 7, 2011, the system successfully intercepted a Grad rocket launched from Gaza, marking the first time in history a short-range rocket was ever intercepted.[87]Israel has also developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[88] The Ofeq (lit. Horizon) series (Ofeq 1 – Ofeq 7) were launched between 1988 and 2007.[89] The satellites were carried by Shavit rockets launched from Palmachim Airbase. Both the satellites and the launchers were designed and manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), with Elbit Systems' El-Op division supplying the optical payload.Israel also has the first all-around operational active defense system for tanks named Trophy, successfully intercepting anti tank missiles fired at Merkava tanks.[citation needed]Life sciences EditGiven endoscopic capsuleIsrael has an advanced[clarification needed] infrastructure of medical and paramedical research and bioengineering capabilities. Biotechnology, biomedical, and clinical research account for over half of the country's scientific publications, and the industrial sector has used this extensive knowledge to develop pharmaceuticals, medical equipment and treatment therapies.[90]Biotechnology EditIsrael has over 900 biotechnology and life sciences companies in operation throughout the country with nearly 50 to 60 formed each year. Many multinational corporations such as J&J, Perrigo, GE Healthcare and Phillips Medical have all established branches in Israel.[9]Genetics and cancer research EditIsraeli scientists have developed methods for producing a human growth hormone and interferon, a group of proteins effective against viral infections. Copaxone, a medicine effective in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, was developed in Israel from basic research to industrial production. Genetic engineering has resulted in a wide range of diagnostic kits based on monoclonal antibodies, with other microbiological products.[90]Advanced stem cell research takes place in Israel. The first steps in the development of stem cell studies occurred in Israel, with research in this field dating back to studies of bone marrow stem cells in the early 1960s. By 2006, Israeli scientists were leaders on a per capita basis in the number of articles published in scientific journals related to stem cell research.[91] In 2011, Israeli scientist Inbar Friedrich Ben-Nun led a team which produced the first stem cells from endangered species, a breakthrough that could save animals in danger of extinction.[92] In 2012, Israel was one of the world leaders in stem cell research, with the largest number of articles, patents and research studies per capita.[93]Solomon Wasser, a professor from Haifa University, has found that Cyathus striatus is effective in treating pancreatic cancer based on early animal trials.[94]Biomedical engineering EditSophisticated medical equipment for both diagnostic and treatment purposes has been developed and marketed worldwide, such as computer tomography (CT) scanners, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems, ultrasound scanners, nuclear medical cameras, and surgical lasers. Other innovations include a controlled-release liquid polymer to prevent accumulation of tooth plaque, a device to reduce both benign and malignant swellings of the prostate gland, the use of botulin to correct eye squint, and a miniature camera encased in a swallowable capsule used to diagnose gastrointestinal disease,[90] developed by Given Imaging.[95]In 2009, scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a robotic prosthetic hand, called SmartHand, which functions like a real one, allowing patients to write with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.[96] A new MRI system for identifying and diagnosing tumors developed at the Weizmann Institute has received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is already being used in diagnosing breast and testicular cancer. The new system will replace invasive procedures and eliminate waiting time for the results.[97]Pharmaceutical sciences EditTeva Pharmaceutical Industries, headquartered in Petah Tikva, Israel, is the largest generic drug manufacturer in the world and one of the 20 largest pharmaceutical companies worldwide.[98] It specializes in generic drugs and active pharmaceutical ingredients and has developed proprietary pharmaceuticals such as Copaxone and Laquinimod for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, and Rasagiline for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.[99]Weizmann Institute of Science particle acceleratorNobel Prize laureates EditFor a more comprehensive list, see List of Israeli Nobel laureates.Six Israelis have won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. In 2004, biologists Avram Hershko and Aaron Ciechanover of the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology were two of the three winners of the prize, for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation.[100] In 2009, Ada Yonath was a co-winner of the prize for her studies of the structure and function of the ribosome. She is the first Israeli woman to win a Nobel Prize.[101] Michael Levitt and Arieh Warshel received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2013 for the development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems.[102]Additionally, 1958 Medicine laureate Joshua Lederberg was born to Israeli Jewish parents, and 2004 Physics laureate David Gross grew up partly in Israel, where he obtained his undergraduate degree. In the social sciences, the Nobel Prize for Economics was awarded to Daniel Kahneman in 2002, and to Robert Aumann of the Hebrew University in 2005.Science and technology in Israel - Wikipedia

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nominated to become Secretary of the ArmyMilitary & Defense Sep 18 2015Employees of Federal government contractors must be offered seven days of paid sick leave per yearLabor Sep 07 2015Transgender Americans may not be discriminated against by health insurance companies or medical providersDiscrimination Sep 03 2015Tallest mountain in North America renamed Mount DenaliGovernment Aug 31 2015First openly transgender person hired by White House to work as civilian employeeCivil & Human Rights Aug 18 2015Each state must reduce carbon emissions by set amounts by 2030Global Warming Aug 04 2015Senior Al-Qaida leader Muhsin al-Fadhli killed in Syria by U.S. air strikeTerrorism Jul 21 2015Sexual orientation discrimination against Federal employees ruled illegal under Title VII of the Civil Rights ActProfiling Jul 16 2015Six major world powers reach agreement with Iran to curb their nuclear programNuclear Energy Jul 14 2015Sentences commuted for 46 people serving excessive & unfair punishment for nonviolent crimesPardons Jul 13 2015National monuments consist of 260 Million Acres throughout AmericaEnvironment Jul 12 2015United States and Cuba re-open embassies after 54 year diplomatic freezeTreaties & Agreements Jul 2015Government mandated threshold for all hourly workers to qualify for overtime pay increased from $23,660 to $50,440.Jobs Jun 30 2015Senior Al-Qaida leader Nasir al-Wuhayshi killed in Yemen by U.S. drone strikeAl-Qaeda Jun 12 2015Senior Al-Qaida leader Nasr al-Ansi killed in Yemen by a CIA-led U.S. drone strikeAl-Qaeda Apr 21 2015Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Actsigned into lawMedicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act Apr 16 2015New Medicare formula changes the way doctors are reimbursed; rewards doctors when their patients have better health outcomesHealth Care Industry Apr 16 201553 political prisoners in Cuba released as a show of good will in the ongoing restoratiation of diplomatic relationship between the two countriesInternational Relations Dec 17 2014United States restores diplomatic relationship with Cuba after 50 year freezeInternational Relations Dec 17 2014Abortion coverage extended to Peace Corps volunteers who became pregnant because of rape, incest, and life endangermentContinuing Appropriations Act of 2015 Dec 16 2014President Obama issues executive order allowing the parents of children who are U.S. citizens or legal residents to continue residing in the United StatesImmigration Nov 20 2014President Obama pledges $3 Billion to global fund assisting poor countries coping with climate changeGlobal Warming Nov 14 2014China and the United States agree to cut greenhouse gas emissions by up to twenty-five percent by 2030Global Warming Nov 12 2014Senior Al-Shabaab leader Ahmed Godane killed in Somalia by U.S. airstrikeTerrorism Sep 05 2014Broad Coalition of Middle-Eastern countries conduct military campaign against ISIS inside of SyriaTerrorism Sep 2014President Obama signs executive order prohibiting federal contractors from discriminting against LGBT individualsCivil & Human Rights Jul 21 2014United States assumes control of weapons-grade plutonium and highly enriched uranium from Japan after the two countries signed an agreement to secure their stockpile to prevent it from theftNuclear Proliferation Mar 24 2014International Trade Data System created to streamline small business Export/Import processBusiness & Economy Feb 19 2014Minimum wage for Federal Contractors raised to $10.10 per hour.Minimum Wage Feb 12 2014Agriculture Act of 2014signed into lawAgriculture Act of 2014 Feb 07 2014Federal Government reopens after 16 day shutdown defeating Republican partisan attempt to cancel health care benefits for millions under ObamacareGovernment Shutdown Oct 17 2013President Obama and Iranian President Hassan Rouhani have first formal communication between the two nations in 35 yearsInternational Relations Sep 27 2013Syria agrees to dismantle chemical weapons stockpile after deal reached between the Obama Administration and RussiaTreaties & Agreements Sep 14 2013Defense of Marriage Act ruled unconstitutional by Supreme CourtCivil & Human Rights Jun 26 2013American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012signed into lawAmerican Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 Jan 02 2013Blind Chinese dissident Chen Guangcheng relocates to the United State after diplomatic agreement between China and the Obama administrationInternational Relations May 19 2012President Obama becomes first sitting president to publicly support marriage equalityCivil & Human Rights May 09 2012Senior Al-Qaida commander Fahd al-Quso killed in Yemen by a CIA-led U.S. drone strikeAl-Qaeda May 06 2012Members of Congress and certain government employees prohibited from using non-public information for personal profitSTOCK Act Apr 04 2012Federal unemployment benefits programs extended an additional 13 to 20 weeksMiddle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act Feb 22 2012Cuts in Medicare physician payment rates averted with extension of existing rates through 2012Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act Feb 22 2012Employee social security payroll tax reduction from 6.2% to 4.2 % extended through 2012Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act Feb 22 2012Self-employed social security payroll tax reduction from 12.4% to 10.4 % extended through 2012Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act Feb 22 2012U.S. drone attack in Yemen killed 12-15 militants, including at least four Al-Qaeda leadersAl-Qaeda Jan 30 2012Senior Al-Qaeda figure Aslam Awan killed in U.S. drone strikeAl-Qaeda Jan 2012War in Iraq ended with last American troops crossing border into Kuwait2003 Iraq War Dec 17 2011US government international campaign initiated to build respect for the human rights of LGBT persons worldwideDiscrimination Dec 06 2011$700 million annual funding for child protection, child abuse prevention, family support and adoption promotion through 2016Child and Family Services Improvement Act Sep 30 2011Senior Al Qaeda leader Anwar al-Awlaki killed in Yemen by a CIA-led U.S. drone strikeAl-Qaeda Sep 30 2011Entrepreneurs and businesses benefited by reduced average wait time for patent approvals from 3 years to 1 year.America Invents Act Sep 16 2011Patent litigation costs reduced through tightened patent standards, quality and processes to expedite challenges.America Invents Act Sep 16 2011Al-Qaeda's operations chief for Pakistan Abu Hafs al Shahri reported killed in U.S. Predator strikeAl-Qaeda Sep 11 2011U.S./Pakistani joint arrest of suspected Chief Al-Qaeda Younis al-Mauritani in QuettaAl-Qaeda Sep 06 2011Al-Qaeda No. 2 Atiyah Abd al-Rahman Killed in Pakistan by CIA predator drone strikeAl-Qaeda Aug 22 2011East Africa's Al-Qaeda senior leader Harun Fazul killed at security checkpoint in SomaliaAl-Qaeda Jun 07 2011Al-Qaeda Commander Ilyas Kashmiri Killed in U.S. Predator StrikeAl-Qaeda Jun 03 20116 senior Al-Qaeda figures killed in U.S. Air StrikeAl-Qaeda Jun 2011US Forces Kill Osama Bin Laden in PakistanAl-Qaeda May 02 2011Defense of Marriage Act declared unconstitutional and no longer defended in federal courts by the Obama AdministrationFeb 23 2011Number of US and Russian nuclear warheads deployed reduced by two-thirds by 2017New START Treaty Feb 05 2011Number of US and Russian strategic nuclear missile launchers reduced in half by 2017New START Treaty Feb 05 2011Small family farms selling locally exempted from federal regulations such as traceability and record keepingFood Safety Modernization Act Jan 04 2011Safety of imported food improved with new FSVP & VQIP programs that helps ensure it is safe, unadulterated and not misbrandedFood Safety Modernization Act Jan 04 2011Safety of U.S. grown food improved with requirements for large factory farms to register all food handlers and maintain records relating to food safetyFood Safety Modernization Act Jan 04 2011US sponsored measure to include “sexual orientation” in the definition of human rights adopted by the UN General Assembly, 122- 0.Discrimination Dec 22 2010Gays and lesbians allowed to serve openly in the militaryDon't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act Dec 22 2010$193 million saved over five years by eliminating recruiting and retraining costs of replacing soldiers discharged due to DADTDon't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act Dec 22 2010$186 billion in tax relief for all tax payers by extending the Bush income tax cuts for 2010 & 20112010 Tax & Jobs Compromise Dec 17 2010$136 billion in tax relief for 21 million middle class households through patch to the Alternative Minimum Tax for 2010 & 20112010 Tax & Jobs Compromise Dec 17 2010$111 billion in tax relief for workers by a reducing social security payroll tax from 6.2% to 4.2% for 2011.2010 Tax & Jobs Compromise Dec 17 2010Unemployment benefits extended for 13 months at a cost of $56 billion2010 Tax & Jobs Compromise Dec 17 2010$40 billion in tax credits for college students and lower income families with children2010 Tax & Jobs Compromise Dec 17 2010Number of eligible children enrolled in school meal programs increased by approximately 115,000 studentsHealthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act Dec 13 2010Schools and communities provided resources to utilize local farms and gardens to provide fresh produce for school food programs.Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act Dec 13 2010$1.5 billion awarded to some 75,000 black farmers who were victims of discrimination in applying for farm loans from 1983 to 1997Claims Resolution Act Dec 08 2010$3.4 billion settlement for Native Americans against the US government arising from incorrect accounting for royalties on mineral leasesClaims Resolution Act Dec 08 2010Veteran work-study programs expanded to include congressional offices, state agencies and institutions of higher learningVeterans' Benefit Act Oct 14 2010On-the-job training opportunities expanded for veterans by reimbursing energy sector employers for training costs.Veterans' Benefit Act Oct 14 2010Insurance policy amounts and terms enhanced for severely disabled veteransVeterans' Benefit Act Oct 14 2010Service members receiving relocation orders protected from early termination fees for certain contracts and residential leasesVeterans' Benefit Act Oct 14 2010$10 million in job training, counseling, placement services, and child care services for homeless women veterans and homeless veterans with childrenVeterans' Benefit Act Oct 14 2010Disabled veterans provided improved independent assisted living services, automobile adaptive equipment and allowances for automobile purchaseVeterans' Benefit Act Oct 14 2010$30 billion lending program created for community banks with incentives to increase small business lendingSmall Business Jobs Act Sep 27 2010$12 billion in assistance for small businesses through eight separate tax cutsSmall Business Jobs Act Sep 27 2010Large disparity in jail sentences reduced for crack cocaine related offenses that disproportionately affected African AmericansFair Sentencing Act Aug 03 2010Long-term economic stability improved through new FDIC powers to liquidate failing financial firms such as insurance companies and non-bank financial companiesWall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010Borrowers protected from bad loans with rules and penalties requiring that lenders verify that they are able to repay the loans that they issueWall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010Financial Stability Oversight Council established to identify and monitor excessive risks to the U.S. financial systemWall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010Future economic downturns minimized with new rules and transparency regarding bank trading in credit default swaps and derivatives including the "Volker Rule"Wall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010Risk in the financial system reduced with new SEC Office of Credit Ratings (OCR) to monitor credit rating agencies for conflict of interests & inaccuraciesWall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010FDIC bank deposit insurance increased from $100,000 to $250,000Wall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010Transparency of Federal Reserve improved with additional government oversight and new audits to be performed by the GAOWall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010Consumer Financial Protection Bureau established to promote fairness and transparency for mortgages, credit cards, and other consumer financial productsWall Street Reform Act Jul 22 2010U.S. drone attack killed 7 known terrorists, most notable Al-Qaeda operative from Egypt Hawza al JawfiAl-Qaeda Jun 29 2010Federal benefits extended to same sex partners of workers through memorandum by Obama administrationCivil & Human Rights Jun 02 2010Transgender Americans able to list their gender identity on their passports under rule issued by the State DepartmentCivil & Human Rights Jun 01 2010Al-Qaeda’s number three commander Sheik Saeed al-Masri killed in U.S. drone attackAl-Qaeda May 21 2010Family caregivers of veterans granted eligibility to VA counseling and mental health servicesCaregivers & Veterans Health Services Act May 05 2010Health care services improved and expanded for women veterans at Veterans care facilitiesCaregivers & Veterans Health Services Act May 05 2010Counseling and care enhanced for military women victims of sexual trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)Caregivers & Veterans Health Services Act May 05 2010Care options expanded for veterans living in rural areas that lack the necessary VA medical facilitiesCaregivers & Veterans Health Services Act May 05 2010Housing and care options expanded for homeless veterans living in care sheltersCaregivers & Veterans Health Services Act May 05 2010Joint American and Iraqi operation killed Al-Qaeda leaders Abu Ayyub al-Masri and Abu Omar al-BaghdadiAl-Qaeda Apr 18 2010$68 billion to expand Pell grants & make it easier for students to repay outstanding loans after graduation through savings in the federal student loan programStudent Aid Act Mar 30 2010$2 billion investment to laid off workers for education and career training programs in community colleges over four years starting in 2010Student Aid Act Mar 30 2010People denied coverage for a pre-existing condition given access to a temporary high risk health insurance planObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Children under 19 can no longer be denied coverage or benefits for a pre-existing conditionObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Young adults can stay on parent's insurance plan up until age 26Obamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010$250 rebate for those in the Medicare Prescription drug "donut hole" during 2010Obamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 201050% discount on prescription drug costs for seniors in the Medicare "donut hole" starting in 2011Obamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Health care insurance plans prohibited from putting a lifetime limit on the benefits you receiveObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Annual dollar limits on health benefits restricted and phased out by 2014Obamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Insurers selling to groups of 50 or more employees must spend 85% of premiums on medical care and quality improvementObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Consumers guaranteed the right to choose the primary care doctor or pediatrician from their health plan’s provider networkObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010HIV Testing Will Now Be Covered Under ObamacareObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Consumers are guaranteed the right to appeal decisions made by their health insurance providerObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Women are no longer charged higher premiums because of their genderObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Preventative services will be covered at no additional costObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Insurance companies must provide consumers a short, easy to understand summary of their benefits and coverageObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Health insurance companies can not charge higher premiums for out of network emergency room careObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010People with a pre-existing condition cannot be denied health coverge by an insurance company starting in 2014Obamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010$143 billion in deficit reduction estimated between 2010-2019 from health care reform law provisionsObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Mental health and drug addiction coverage is an "essential benefit" that can not be deniedObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Insurance companies must spend 80% of the money raised from consumers premiums on health care and quality improvementObamacare (Affordable Care Act) Mar 23 2010Social Security payroll tax credits in 2010 for employers that hired people who have been unemployed for 60+ daysHire Act Mar 18 2010Tax credits to employers who keep new hires for 52 weeks to encourage retention of new hiresHire Act Mar 18 2010$17.5 billion in tax cuts, business credits and subsidies for state and local construction bonds to stimulate business investment and hiringHire Act Mar 18 2010$20 billion to the highway trust fund for spending on highway and transit programs.Hire Act Mar 18 2010Encourages job creation by expanding investments in schools and clean energy projectsHire Act Mar 18 2010Offsets costs through a 30 percent withholding tax on income from certain U.S. financial assets held by foreign banks who have not agreed to disclosures.Hire Act Mar 18 2010Al-Qaeda operative Hussein al-Yemeni killed by U.S. drone attack in PakistanAl-Qaeda Mar 2010Al-Qaeda and Taliban-linked Fedayeen-i-Islam leader Qari Zafar killed in US airstrikeAl-Qaeda Feb 24 2010Militant commander Muhammad Haqqani killed by U.S. drone attacksTerrorism Feb 2010Discrimination based on gender identity banned in federal workplacesDiscrimination Jan 01 2010Liquidation of General Motors and Chrysler avoided through government mandated restructuring plans and conditional investment and loan programsManufacturing Industry 2009115,000 jobs created at General Motors and Chrysler since government financing and restructuring implementedJobs 20091.45 million American jobs saved overall by government financing and restructuring of GM and Chrysler to avoid liquidationJobs 2009$96 billion in personal income losses avoided by government financing and restructuring of GM and Chrysler to avoid liquidationLabor 2009$28.6 billion net public benefit in income taxes and social security taxes paid because liquidation of GM and Chrysler avoidedTaxes 2009Al-Qaeda Operational Commander Abdallah Sa’id killed in U.S. drone attackAl-Qaeda Dec 17 2009Al-Qaeda Operational Commander Saleh al-Somali killed in U.S. drone attackAl-Qaeda Dec 08 2009People with HIV/AIDS no longer prohibited from entering the United StatesDiscrimination Oct 30 2009Federal hate crime law expanded to include crimes motivated by gender, sexual orientation, gender identity and disability.Matthew Shepard Act Oct 28 2009Existing hate crime laws strengthened with funding to investigate and prosecute those crimesMatthew Shepard Act Oct 28 2009Operation Celestial Balance: Navy Seals Kill Somalian Al-Qaeda leader Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan in raidAl-Qaeda Sep 14 2009Somalian Al-Qaeda leader Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan killed by U.S. raidAl-Qaeda Sep 14 2009White House voluntary disclosure of visitor logsSep 04 2009Co-founder of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Tohir Yo‘ldosh killed by U.S. drone attacksTerrorism Aug 29 2009U.S. drone attack killed Tehrik e-Taliban Pakistan leader Baitullah Mahsud in PakistanPakistani Taliban Aug 05 2009First-ever reception at the White House honoring Lesbian, Gay, Transgendered, Bisexual Pride Month hosted by the President and First ladyDiscrimination Jun 29 2009Sonya Sotomayor nominated and approved as Supreme Court justiceMay 25 2009Dept of Defense systems analysis, engineering and developmental testing processes overhauled to reduce high rates of failure on defense acquisitionsWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Defense Dept ordered to evaluate the technological maturity and product knowledge of critical weapons' technologies before letting defense contractsWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Independent cost assesessment director initiated to ensure that cost estimates for major Defense contracts are fair, reliable, and unbiasedWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Defense oversight council required to seek input from combat commanders in evaluating proposed weapons system capabilities and needsWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Defense contractors prohibited from participating in both the systems engineering and the development /construction phases of the weapon systemsWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Oversight and audit required of those major defense programs experiencing cost overruns to determine if the programs are essential and cost-effectiveWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Funding provided to hire and retain highly skilled specialists to assess the cost, schedule and applicability of proposed Defense Dept weapons systemsWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Annual awards program established to recognize individuals and teams making significant contributions to improving efficiency of defense aquisition programsWeapons Systems Acquisition Reform May 22 2009Credit cardholders protected against arbitrary interest rate increases, hidden and excessive fees, and due date gimmicksCredit Card Act May 22 2009Homeowners' foreclosures avoided by improved terms for loan modification and restructuring of their debtHelping Families Save Their Homes May 20 2009Lenders incentivized to reduce foreclosures by loss mitigation guarantees, compensation and lender protection from lawsuits by investors holding the loansHelping Families Save Their Homes May 20 2009$2.2 billion appropriated to help communities address the homeless crisis.Helping Families Save Their Homes May 20 2009Financial Crisis Inquiry commission created to examine and report on the domestic and global causes of the 2008 - 2009 financial and economic crisisFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009Mortgage lending businesses added to list of financial institutions subject to Federal criminal law in fraudulent lending practicesFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009Crime of major fraud against the United States amended to include Federal grants made to stimulate economic recovery for fiscal years 2009 and 2010Fraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009Securities fraud definition amended to include fraud related to commodities futures and derivatives fraudFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$140 million in special funding for the Federal Bureau of Investigation to investigate fraud in financial institutionsFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$100 million in special funding for the offices of the United States Attorneys to investigate and prosecute fraud in financial institutionsFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$80 million in special funding to the criminal, civil and tax divisions of the Dept of Justice to investigate and prosecute fraud in financial institutionsFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$60 million in special funding for the Postal Inspection Service to investigate financial institutions for fraudFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$60 million in special funding for Inspector General's Office at the U S Dept of Housing and Urban Development to investigate financial institutions for fraudFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$40 million in special funding for the Secret Service to investigate financial institutions for fraudFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009$42 million in special funding for the Securities and Exchange Commission to investigate securites fraud in financial institutionsFraud Enforcement Act May 20 2009250,000 volunteers by 2017 for community service programs in low income neighborhoodsServe America Act Apr 21 2009Community volunteer program expanded to address the education, health care, energy and veterans needs of low income communitiesServe America Act Apr 21 2009Disadvantaged youth job opportunites enhanced by community service to gain skills/experience and earn education grants and stipendsServe America Act Apr 21 2009Restrictions eased on Cuba travel, money transfers, and cellular telephone/satellite service.International Relations Apr 13 2009Maersk Alabama Capt. Richard Phillips rescued during operation in which U.S. Navy Seal snipers kill three Somali Pirates holding him for ransom aboard lifeboatSomali Civil War Apr 11 2009Deeper recession or depression averted in 2009 and beyond with the help of stimulus bill provisions2009 Stimulus Bill Apr 01 2009Approximately 2.7 million jobs added to US payrolls and unemployment rate kept 1½ percentage points lower due to Stimulus spending2009 Stimulus Bill Apr 01 20092010 real GDP increased by about 3.4% due to stimulus spending2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 2009Tax credit of $400 per worker ($800 per couple) for middle income workers for 2009 & 2010 totaling $116 billion2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 2009$82.2 billion in aid for low income workers, unemployed and retirees (including job training)2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 2009$70 billion in tax relief for middle class workers by patching the Alternative Minimum Tax for one year2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 2009$155 billion in health care assistance for the poor & unemployed primarily for Medicaid, health information technology and insurance premium subsidies2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 2009$100 billion in education aid to prevent lay-offs, modernize schools, award Pell grants and help low income children & special education programs2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 2009$48.1 billion in investments for highway, bridge, high-speed rail & other transportation projects2009 Stimulus Bill Feb 17 20094 million more children insured under SCHIP in addition to the 6.6 million already coveredChildren's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) Feb 04 2009Statute of limitations on filing equal-pay lawsuits eased by setting period to start from the date of the most recent paycheck.Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act Jan 29 2009Pay discrimination based on gender, race, color, national origin, age and disability prohibited.Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act Jan 29 2009Employers prompted to review, develop and update their criteria on employee compensation to ensure they are applied consistently and uniformly.Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act Jan 29 2009Use of torture by CIA and military to interrogate prisoners prohibited.Torture Jan 21 2009

Online ForumsStudent's NameInstitutional AffiliationCourse Code and NameInstructor's NameDue DateRelationship between Leadership and ManagementLeadership and management are often regarded as similar concepts. However, there exists parties that consider leadership and management as opposing concepts. Extant literature defines leadership as being “visionary” and “doing the right thing,” while managerial skills are regarded as “task-oriented” and “doing things right” (Azad et al, 2017). However, no scientific evidence exists to support the described differences between leadership and management. The conflicting ideologies are reflected in the application of the two ideologies. Leadership and management jointly form the framework for skills and abilities necessary management to drive performance and outcomes (Azad et al, 2017). Azad et al (2017) argue that the concepts of leadership and management are transposable. This is especially true in describing performance effectiveness within organizations. A common misconception is that leadership development as an introspective reflection while development of management skills is achievable through honing of a craft (Azad et al, 2017). This perception often provides a misleading understanding of purportedly different concepts.Successful administrators often share the traditional qualities of leaders and managers. Therefore, within high-performing organizations, leading and managing are inseparable (Azad et al, 2017). For instance, a leader who has the vision and plans for the organization is ineffective if they cannot use the managerial skills to procure and efficiently allocate the resources to accomplish the vision (Azad et al, 2017). Similarly, a manager who can efficiently allocate resources is ineffective if they have no vision or sense of direction for how those resources should be utilized. The two processes, even if differentiated theoretically, are not effective without each other working in tandem, and are thus inseparable. Continuing to differentiate rather ambiguously similar concepts, makes it difficult to explain phenomena they were meant to address. With the constantly evolving nature of today’s organizations, there is a need for adaptable individuals who can adapt to both leadership and management.Similarly, organizations must rapidly adapt in order to survive. Within such structures, leadership and management are two sides of the same coin. Leadership and management are both theorized to predict decision-maker behavior (Azad et al, 2017). The theory that leadership and management are different is offered as a truth where the two are suggested as unique predictors of decision-making behavior. In an examination of high-performing organizations, it becomes clear that the concepts of leading and managing are interchangeable processes of change catalysts. A culture of organizational resilience is largely built upon change catalysts that increase group cohesion and dedication to the mission.The roots of association of concepts that relate to the role of the manager are still ingrained in scientific management. Anecdotes about leadership are often attributed to noble causes (Lopez, 2014). Comparing such causes to the leadership needed in organizations is not exactly a rational parallel. The appropriate way to manage and lead organizations does not, however, occur with harmony and approval at all times (Lopez, 2014). Managing and leading organizations effectively takes more than meaning well and supporting only popular causes. While scholars debate whether leadership and management are the same, the business student continues to receive information that could be misleading. After rationalizing the dichotomous characterizations discussed in this manuscript, one ought to ask why study management after all. The student faces a myopic view of leadership, one that describes a visionary with a mission, capable to convince and motivate.Separating leadership and management makes the manager a mediocre bureaucrat and the leader an untouchable divine individual. The first does not find any room to grow and the latter can bring an organization down with excessive use of power and lack of administrative skills (Lopez, 2014). A manager needs to be a leader. A leader’s actions may not always agreeable with all. However, one ought to ask questions about strategy and planning. This is the essence of having management and leadership in tandem.Managing Conflict and NegotiationConflict pervades organizations. Executives, managers, supervisors, and employees all confront conflict over issues from company direction to the distribution of resources to how they relate to each other. Indeed, teamwork is incredibly useful in organizations in large part because it is a vehicle for promoting open discussion of diverse perspectives and integrating them into viable solutions (Tjosvold, 2014). Conflict management research recognizes that conflicts are constructive or destructive as well as inevitable. Given the many forms and situations in which conflict occurs, it is not surprising that researchers have developed various theoretical frameworks for conflict. Indeed, there is conflict over the study of conflict management. Conflict management occurs when protagonists are aware of a conflict and work to handle it. Conflict has traditionally been defined in terms of opposing interests involving scarce resources, goal divergence, and frustration.People without opposing interests not only can but often do have conflicts. For instance, team members all highly committed to producing a high-quality report can still disagree about the structure of the report (Tjosvold, 2014). These conflicts have to do not with opposing interests, but with how to effectively accomplish the common interest of producing a quality report (Tjosvold, 2014). In competitive conflict, rather than trying to learn whether there are opposing goals, protagonists quickly conclude that their interests are incompatible such that only one can “win” the conflict at the others’ expense. However, not all conflict is competitive.Constructive conflict occurs when people conclude that the benefits from the conflict outweigh the incurred costs. Researchers recognize the value of the contingency approach, which holds that managers and employees should have alternative ways to deal with a conflict so that they can select the one most useful and appropriate in their situation (Tjosvold, 2014). Researchers also agree that some approaches are more likely to be constructive and some destructive under a wide range of conditions. Avoiding discussion about conflict, though very popular and useful in some circumstances, is widely regarded as ineffectual as a general approach and potentially very damaging. Conflicts seldom disappear by themselves and often fester and grow without direct discussion and action.Interpersonal work conflict refers to a disagreement among individuals. It is often associated with negative emotions due to a perceived divergence of views, goals, interests and proposed courses of action. Conflict management is based on the principle that it is impossible to eliminate conflict and not all conflicts can be resolved, but learning how to manage work conflicts is beneficial for employees and the organization. Managers considered that suppressing conflict and keeping peace at all costs was the best way to manage conflict (Lawless & Trif et al, 2016). However, the recent view is that conflicts may be a warning sign for a more serious problem that needs to be resolved. Although not all problems and conflicts can be resolved, managing conflicts can ‘minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and enhancing the constructive functions of conflict in order to enhance learning and effectiveness in an organization.The three conflict-handling modes that involve cooperation (accommodating, compromising and collaboration) are considered to be more effective for finding long-term solutions to conflicts, whilst the two modes characterized by low levels of cooperation are useful for dealing with short-term tactical issues. In contrast to the view that the conflict management mode is adjusted to the conflict situation, some scholars argue that the mode of managing conflict is relatively stable depending on personal aspects(Lawless & Trif et al, 2016). Task-focused managers are more likely to be concerned with productivity, whereas relationship-focused managers are more likely to focus on social harmony (Lawless & Trif et al, 2016). Conflict-handling mode is affected by whether the company provides training on conflict management, the existence of conflict management procedures and the organizational norms.A crisis causes instability having an immediate impact on the structure and operation of a system. This affects individuals and groups, and marks a dysfunctional period in the smooth development. A system is in a state of crisis when those making the decisions believe their values are being seriously threatened, when they feel insecure and consider an immediate reaction mandatory to protect those values (Tokakis et al, 2018). Crisis pertaining to the whole or part of a population is the consideration of public administration. Such are the crises when the managers face a serious threat to fundamental structures, values and norms of a system and when they, under the pressure of time and in uncertain conditions, need to take vital decisions.Taking into consideration the special conditions that prevail throughout the entire duration of crisis management process, the members of the team who have the responsibility – especially concerning public administration – represent important institutions and organisations. We should also keep in mind that some people are by nature competitive. Tensions and stereotypes need to be appeased in order to have a positive result on teamwork (Tokakis et al, 2018). The notion of conflict is defined as a two-way communication process between social beings characterized by incompatibility, disagreement and distrust (Tokakis et al, 2018). Conflict management within an organization does not necessarily mean a strategy of averting, lessening or eliminating the conflict. On the contrary, it refers to the planning of effective strategies that primarily aim towards the elimination of the malfunctioning elements of the conflict and the concurrent enhancement of the functional elements.The Link between Performance and OutcomesAny organization that aims at staying on the market in the current environment should not underestimate the importance of capable, well- trained staff with proven skills and capabilities. Leadership has seen many dimensions over time, theories have complemented each other, reality and practice have brought about new elements and opened new lines of research (Ţebeian, 2012). Perhaps a clear and unanimous definition, a method or theory will never be widely accepted. Nowadays leadership must value teamwork, recognize the importance of diversity, know how to share power knowledge, success and failure with subordinates. Power is an ingredient of leadership, which skillfully used and shared with subordinates may bring about unexpectedly good results. Employees feel valued and important, self-confidence may increase as a result, individual and group performance levels may be higher (Ţebeian, 2012). Motivation through leadership may be the ace in the sleeve, now that studies have shown that people are essentially different and traditional methods of motivation do not work the same in each individual.Leadership, motivation, team, power, performance, satisfaction and passion have been studied and discussed for a long time. They were either complemented with new ideas or reality gave them a whole new perspective. Opinions are divided, all definitions are subjective to a certain extent, each theoretician, analyst, philosopher, economist has added his personal touch, but there are still many common elements (Ţebeian, 2012). A current problem that many organizations are facing is employee turnover. Imbalances within the team may occur as a consequence of the fact that employees with a high degree of know-how are leaving the team while new members are joining it. The level of expertise developed within the team may decrease, extra effort is invested in forming new networks, new financial and informational resources are invested in order to bring the knowledge of the new members up to the expected level (Ţebeian, 2012). All these have a negative influence on productivity and on other expected outcomes of the organization in general.Maintaining a high level of employee satisfaction is a challenge for most organizations. The way in which the companies act to this end differs from one organization to another. There have been used various methods correlated with the evolution of scientific theories related to the work psychology and organizational behavior fields (Ţebeian, 2012). The present study advances an approach that makes the link between the leadership, as a pawn generating and supporting a high level of employee job satisfaction, and the application of a continuous motivational model. Moreover, the leader must stimulate the group climate and by changing his attitude, towards the group members under the pressure of events, the action context changes. In such situations, the leader’s style becomes extremely important for the others.Organizations have long sought ways to improve the performance of workers. To assist, scholars have developed and tested theories to predict performance in work environments. While there is much variation among these scholarly theories, the consensus is that leadership practices are vital and that they can improve the performance of workers by taking advantage of the right mix of motivators (Caillier, 2014). Transformational leadership is often regarded as having a direct, positive impact on the performance of workers (Caillier, 2014). Although transformational leadership’s impact on individual performance has been often studied, the two motivators, public service motivation and mission valence, might also interact with this leadership practice to influence individual performance (Caillier, 2014). For instance, transformational leadership, public service motivation, and mission valence are all rooted in the motivational influence of organizational goals.Mission valence strengthens the relationship between transformational leadership and employee evaluations. That means transformational leaders were more likely to increase the performance of workers when they were attracted to an agency’s mission than when they were not attracted to the mission (Caillier, 2014). Transformational leaders are ostensibly able to affect the performance of individuals with high mission valence more because such leaders establish clear and challenging mission-related goals, which, thus motivates individuals who believe strongly in the mission to perform better. Public service motivation positively affects performance directly. Employees with public service motivation have higher levels of performance than employees without these motives because they possess a greater motivation to serve society.The distinction between transformational and transactional leadership has received substantial empirical attention within the organizational domain. Whereas transactional leadership refers to the exchange relationship between leaders and followers and is aimed at controlling followers through reward or punishment, transformational leadership inspires followers to move past their own self-interests to achieve more than what they thought possible (Dwyer et al, 2013). Although transactional leadership is the most common form of leadership found in organizations, transformational leadership has been more closely linked to positive organizational outcomes. Employees whose leaders engage in transformational leadership behaviors are happier with their supervisors, happier with their jobs, and are more committed to their organizations (Dwyer et al, 2013). Evidently, there exists a positive relation between transformational leadership and employee motivation and job attitudes. Generally, highly satisfied workers are more productive. Self-determination theory, which suggests that self-motivation is facilitated by conditions that satisfy a person’s psychological needs for autonomy and interpersonal relatedness (Dwyer et al, 2013). As such, conditions such as good relationship with their leaders foster motivation and self-determination among workers.ReferencesAzad, N., Anderson, H. G., Brooks, A., Garza, O., O’Neil, C., Stutz, M. M., & Sobotka, J. L. 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