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Q. Which territories are still American colonies?A. The US has five colonies: Guam, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, the US Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands. These nations are often referred to as US “territories” (there are 16 official US territories in total, but only five are inhabited). This term is a euphemism. These five nations have no formal representation in the US political system. Their peoples, most of whom are US citizens, cannot vote for representatives in Congress and cannot participate in the presidential election. A head of state whom they did not elect can send them to war. They merely serve as sources of natural capital the US can exploit and pools of human capital and labor it can siphon into its economy and military.Perspective | Most countries have given up their colonies. Why hasn’t America?Everything You Need To Know About US TerritoriesList of United States colonial possessions - WikipediaGuam - WikipediaGuam is a colony of the U.S.American-Style ColonialismPuerto Rico - WikipediaWhat Does Being A U.S. Territory Mean For Puerto Rico?The United States Makes The Case For Why Puerto Rico Is Still Its ColonyThe 5 US ColoniesSelf-Government in U. S. TerritoriesTerritories, Possessions, and Influenced Areas of the United StatesPerspective | Most countries have given up their colonies. Why hasn’t America?The U.S.-Puerto Rico relationship: It's complicatedHurricane Maria's devastating blow to Puerto Rico has renewed interest in how the island's relationship with the U.S. functions. (Claritza Jimenez/The Washington Post)With President Trump visiting Puerto Rico next week, another long-ignored part of the United States will draw national attention. In the past three weeks, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have been hit by two powerful hurricanes, causing widespread devastation. Last month, Guam made headlines when North Korean leader Kim Jong Un threatened to fire potentially nuclear-tipped missiles at the island.Voting Rights in U.S. TerritoriesThe people of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, as well as those in the little-mentioned Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and American Samoa, are all too accustomed to being forgotten except in times of crisis. But being forgotten is not the worst of their problems. They are trapped in a state of third-class citizenship, unable to access full democratic rights because politicians have long favored the military’s freedom of operation over protecting the freedoms of certain U.S. citizens.Residents of the American territories are ruled from the nation’s capital — a city whose people themselves are second-class citizens lacking representation in Congress — but barred from voting in presidential elections, denied Senate representation and limited to electing a nonvoting member of the House of Representatives. (People born in American Samoa actually have fourth-class citizenship because they don’t get U.S. citizenship automatically at birth.)2009 DC & US Territories Quarters Final MintagesWhich raises a pressing question: Why, in 2017, decades after the civil rights and decolonization eras, does the United States still have colonies and citizens who lack full democratic rights by law?The answer is largely simple, but troubling: Because the desires and power of the United States military have overwhelmed the desires and rights of colonized peoples.The tangled history of the military and citizenship in these colonies played out most clearly in Guam, which, along with Puerto Rico, the Philippines and uninhabited Wake Island, became a U.S. colony as a result of 1898’s war with Spain.After the Spanish-American War, U.S. officials proudly referred to their new possessions as colonies. The Navy designated all of Guam a U.S. naval station. Technically, the island was one large military base: Naval officers served as governors and generally ran Guam like a ship. In a pattern that has mostly continued to this day, the rights of the people of Guam came second to the military’s.In a series of cases, the Supreme Court upheld the colonized status of Guam’s indigenous Chamorros, whose ancestors had lived there for almost 4,000 years. The court ruled that as “alien races,” Guam’s people (and Puerto Ricans and Filipinos) were entitled to neither U.S. citizenship nor full constitutional rights.Won Pat As First Delegate to CongressThe Navy controlled Guam until World War II, when it be came one of the few parts of the United States occupied by Japanese troops. After brutally suffering at the hands of the Japanese for 32 months, Chamorros expected their suffering and bravery to be rewarded with citizenship and self-rule, if not statehood.Military officials thought otherwise. They wanted direct military — not civilian — control over as many islands in the Pacific as possible. At their urging, the government held onto Guam and the other colonies as what euphemistically became called territories. The government granted the Philippines independence in 1946, but pressured the former colony into a 99-year rent-free lease on 23 military installations.On Guam, the Navy reestablished military rule and began a major base building campaign that displaced people from their lands or prevented many interned by the Japanese from returning home. Military installations occupied as much as to 60 percent of the island, transforming it into an increasingly powerful military outpost and high-profile Cold War target.Chamorro Lunar Calendar FestivalOnly after years of Chamorro protest did Guam become an “unincorporated territory” in 1950. This status provided Chamorros with U.S. citizenship and limited rights to self-governance. Congress, however, maintained ultimate control. In the words of the Department of the Interior, Guam remained a place where “only selected parts of the United States Constitution apply.”In the decades since 1950, Guam’s status has not advanced. The island has subsequently become a major Navy and Air Force base for deploying forces throughout East Asia and a home for some of the nation’s most powerful weaponry.Why have territories like Guam become so central to U.S. military might? Precisely because the people there lack the full rights of citizenship. The U.S. military has hundreds of foreign military bases throughout the world — an estimated 800 bases in around 80 countries and possessions worldwide. But while bases in foreign countries are a major source of U.S. power globally, these bases usually encounter restrictions from local laws and the possibility of protest or eviction, as happened in Okinawa, Japan, and the Philippines.The military also faces limits on its presence within the 50 states. Military bases in the states generally come with environmental regulations and other constraints under U.S. law, as well as oversight from powerful members of Congress.But bases in Guam and the other territories, by contrast, offer the military unmatched freedom from many of the restrictions found at home and abroad. As Maj. Gen. Dennis Larsen bluntly told a reporter in 2004: “Guam is a U.S. territory. We can do what we want here, and make huge investments without fear of being thrown out.”The military frequently has used this freedom to behave with casual disregard for people in the U.S. colonies, acting in ways that would be unimaginable in the 50 states or in a foreign country. After World War II, the military disposed of hundreds of thousands of pounds of ordnance in Guam and the Northern Marianas through detonation, burning or dumping at sea. A dumpsite near Guam’s Andersen Air Force Base has leached dangerous and toxic compounds, and the base itself is on the Environmental Protection Agency’s list of the nation’s worst environmental contamination sites.Why tiny Guam is in North Korea's crosshairs?Here's why North Korea threatened an island in the Pacific that's home to 160,000 people.(Victoria Walker, Danielle Kunitz/The Washington Post)Recently, the military has started a major buildup on Guam to relocate troops from Okinawa. The original plan proposed seizing almost 1,800 acres of private and protected lands, increasing Guam’s total population by 50 percent without expanding civilian infrastructure to handle the growth, as well as building a shooting range atop sacred Chamorro land.In Manhattan, this would be akin to seizing land more than twice the size of Central Park, adding more than 800,000 people without adding new schools, hospitals or sewer systems and building a shooting range atop the 9/11 Memorial.Why Guam Is Important Enough To Be In North Korea's CrosshairsAlthough each U.S. colony has its own complicated history, these places have remained colonies to a great extent because the military can operate there without fearing eviction and with greater freedom than in the 50 states. This fact, as well as ongoing racism against people the Supreme Court called “alien races,” is why the United States still has third- and fourth-class citizens.The United States is decades overdue in acknowledging these colonial relationships, admitting their impoverishing effects and giving the people of the U.S. colonies the democratic rights they deserve. Given all Guam’s people have suffered, while they sit on the front lines of the nuclear conflict with North Korea; given how Puerto Ricans and U.S. Virgin Islanders are now suffering, only to have the government overlook them once more, don’t they — and American Samoans and Northern Marianans — deserve full democratic rights? Don’t they deserve the freedom to choose their relationship with the rest of the country, be it statehood, independence or some other political arrangement that doesn’t perpetuate the idea that all humans are clearly not created equal under the law?Everything You Need To Know About US TerritoriesThis article focuses on the territories of the United States It is part of a 4-part series explaining current day situation of the remnants of the colonial empires of the early 20th Century, almost all of which are small islands scattered around the world. Other parts of the series will examine the status of Dutch, British and French territories.The United States came to the colonization game rather late. By the time of the presidency of William McKinley, the world had already been carved up by European powers. With a strong desire to prove itself as the equal to Britain and France, the US closed out the 19th Century by engaging in a war with Spain that took from her the last of her colonies.It turned out that the US wasn’t very good at being a colonial power. A former colony herself, it had neither the stomach or long-term desire for hold colonies. Its largest colony, The Philippines, was given independence 40 years after it had been ceded from Spain, and it would have been granted independence even sooner if it hadn’t been for WWII.Today the United States has long since given up its hopes of becoming a colonial empire, but it still holds onto many pieces of its early 20th Century attempt to become one. The story of the US Territories is one of the least known and most interesting parts of US history.Legal Status of US TerritoriesTerritories are not new to the United States. Most states, outside of the original 13, were territories before they became states. The states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Illinois were created from Northwestern Territory. North and South Dakota used to form the Dakota Territory. In the 20th Century Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Hawaii and Alaska all made the jump from territory to state.The creation of territories is addressed in the Constitution and is a power given to Congress. (It should be noted that Washington DC is NOT a territory. It is the Federal district that is distinct from a territory.)Today there are two criteria that categorize American territories.A territory can be incorporated or unincorporated.A territory can be organized or unorganized.Incorporation of US TerritoriesIncorporated territories are considered to be integral parts of the United States. Prior to statehood, both Alaska and Hawaii were incorporated territories. In incorporated territories, the Constitution is in full effect. Incorporated territories would be similar to territories found in Canada (Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut). They are not large enough for statehood, but still considered part of the country.Today the US has only one incorporated territory: Palmyra Atoll.Most people have never heard of Palmyra Atoll, but it is legally the only incorporated territory of the US. It has this status because of a quirk of history. When Hawaii gained statehood in 1959, Palmyra was part of the territory of Hawaii. The act of statehood, which admitted Hawaii to the union, explicitly excluded Palmyra from joining the rest of the Hawaiian Islands from becoming a state. I have searched high and low for an explanation as to why Palmyra was not included with Hawaii as a state, but I could never find a reason.Today Palmyra is owned by The Nature Conservancy and has no permanent human settlement.All other US territories today are unincorporated territories. A such, they are not considered integral parts of the United States that the US has permanent sovereignty over.Organization of US TerritoriesThe other criterion which defines US territories is their organizational status.Organized territories are territories subject to an Organic Act, passed by Congress, which establishes a government in the territory.Of the five populated territories in the United States, four of them have passed an Organic Act and are organized territories. They are (with the date of organization):Puerto Rico, 1900United States Virgin Islands, 1936Guam, 1950Northern Mariana Islands, 1978Citizens of all of the above territories are US Citizens, however they cannot vote in federal elections. They each have a representative in congress, which cannot vote on the floor but may vote in committee. The remaining US territories are all unorganized:Although American Samoa is non-organized US Territory, it is self governingAmerican Samoa (Pacific)Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands - since 1857 (original purpose of acquisition: guano production)Navassa Island - since 1857 (original purpose of acquisition: guano production)Johnston Island - since 1858 (original purpose of acquisition: guano production)Midway Atolls - claimed in 1876, annexed in 1908 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Palmyra Atoll - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: was part of the Hawaii acquisition)Wake Islands - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Guantanamo Bay - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Kingman Reef - since 1922 (original purpose of acquisition: stopping point for air traffic)Bajo Nuevo Bank (Caribbean)Navassa Island (Caribbean)Serranilla Bank (Caribbean)Compacts of Free Association:Republic of the Marshall Islands - since 1947 (used for nuclear weapons testing)Republic of Palau - under trusteeship in 1947, gained independence in 1994Federated States of Micronesia - since 1978All of the unorganized territories except for American Samoa are uninhabited and have never had any permanent human population. United States nationality law - WikipediaWhile American Samoa is officially unorganized, it is still self-governed and has a government. Citizens of American Samoa are not US citizens, but rather are US Nationals. They may live and work anywhere in the US, but cannot vote should they move to the United States. US Nationals may apply for citizenship as if they were resident aliens but do not have the same restriction for traveling and living in the US.If you have ever filled out an online form, you might have seen “US Minor Outlying Islands” as a country option in a drop-down list. While that is an official designation for the uninhabited islands, no one actually lives there, so I’ve never understood why it is included in country lists.Populated Territories of the United StatesFor all practical purposes, the United States has five territories, those being the ones that are inhabited. With my recent visit to the US Virgin Islands, I have now visited all five inhabited territories. Here is a brief overview of each territory and some interesting facts about each.Puerto Rico - WikipediaSan Juan is actually the oldest city in the United StatesBy far the largest US territory, Puerto Rico has more people than every other territory combined. It is also physically the closest territory to the United States mainland. If it were a state, it would be the 29th largest state in terms of population and it is larger in area than the states of Rhode Island and Delaware. It is also the only US territory that does not have English as its primary language. It became a territory of the US as part of the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish-American War.U.S. Territories · InterExchangeAttitudes in Puerto Rico have changed considerably over the last century. In the early and mid 20th Century, most Puerto Ricans wanted independence from the United States. By the 21st Century, most Puerto Ricans had family members living and working in the US and the desire for independence all but disappeared. In 2012 the people of Puerto Rico, for the first time ever, preferred statehood over continuing as a territory in a referendum. It is probably the only current US territory that has any reasonable chance at statehood.Tumon Bay, GuamGuam - WikipediaGuam became a US territory in 1898 after it was ceded to the US in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War. It is often called the place where “America Starts Its Day” because it is located on the other side of the International Date Line.The natives of Guam are the Chamorro people, who also inhabit the Northern Marianas Islands. Guam is actually the southernmost island in the Marinas Archipelago. Europeans first visited it in 1521 when Ferdinand Magellan landed on his circumnavigation of the globe.Today the economy of Guam is mostly tourism (primarily from Japan) and the US military. Military bases cover 29% of the island.5 things you likely didn't know about GuamOne of the most interesting attractions in Guam is Yukoi’s Cave. In 1972 Shoichi Yokoi, a Japanese soldier in WWII emerged from the jungles in Guam unaware that the war was over. He became an instant celebrity in Japan and the hole where he lived is a popular attraction for Japanese tourists today. His story was foretold by an episode of Gilligan’s Island.Guam was invaded hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and remained under Japanese control for over two years.The US Virgin Islands were purchased from DenmarkUnited States Virgin Islands - WikipediaUnlike Puerto Rico or Guam, the United States didn’t acquire USVI by conquest. It was purchased from Denmark in 1916 via the Treaty of the Danish West Indies for $25,000,000 in gold. The islands were sold prior to the US entry into WWI as to not violate Danish neutrality.The US Virgin Islands lies only 40 miles east of Puerto Rico and is approximately double the size of the District of Columbia.The USVI is the only part of the United States that drives on the left, even though almost all vehicles are American and have left-hand drive.The Virgin Islands group is divided between the United States and the United Kingdom who control the British Virgin Islands as a territory.There are 3 primary islands in USVI: St. Thomas, St. John and St Croix. St Thomas and St John are connected by ferry, whereas St Croix is located south of the rest of the islands in the archipelago. Most of the island of St. John consists of Virgin Islands National Park.You can still see some Danish influence on the islands including some Danish flags. Chartered flights from Denmark in the winter are the farthest direct flights to USVI.Commonwealth of Northern Mariana IslandsNorthern Mariana Islands - WikipediaThe Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands (CNMI) is the newest territory of the United States. Although culturally and geographically similar to Guam, the islands have had a very different history, especially in the 20th Century.The islands were, like Guam, part of the Spanish Empire. After the Spanish-American war, the islands were ceded to Germany, not the United States. In WWI, Japan declared war on Germany and used it as a pretext to invade and take over the islands.The islands were liberated during the Battle of Saipan in WWII, one of the bloodiest battles in the Pacific Theater.Battle of Saipan Monument, CNMIThe islands were put under US management after WWII by the United Nations as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), along with what today are Micronesia, Palau and the Marshall Islands. Unlike the other parts of TTPI, the CNMI choose to remain a US territory rather than opt for independence.On several occasions, the citizens of CNMI have voted to join Guam but were rejected by Guam.The CNMI has had a reputation of corrupt leadership since it became a territory and is probably the largest destination for sex tourism in the United States. When I walked around the capital of Garipan it seemed that almost half the businesses were massage parlors.Mariana Islands on display at Chamorro Festival - Saipan News, Headlines, Events, Ads | Saipan TribuneView of Pago Pago harbor from Mount Alava American SamoaAmerican Samoa - WikipediaIn the late 19th Century, a civil war in Samoa almost lead the United States and Germany to go to war. Each nation backed opposite sides in the war in hopes of gaining position to use the islands for whaling and as a coaling station. The Tripartite Convention of 1899 divided the Samoan Islands between the western islands (German) and the eastern islands (American).Culturally there is little difference between American Samoa and the country of Samoa. They are geographically close to each other and there are many families with relatives in each part.There have been some calls for either independence or greater autonomy for American Samoa, but in a 2010 referendum, the majority of people opted to stick with the status quo.Unlike other US territories, Americans need a passport to enter American Samoa and they have their own immigration and passport stamps.American Samoa is noted for having the highest rate of military enlistment of any US state or territory.Former US TerritoriesThere are currently four independent countries which were former territories of the United States. One of which came from the Spanish-American war from which the US acquired Guam, and the other three coming from the aftermath of WWII.If the Philippines were a US State, it would have 1/4 the of the population of the combined country.Philippines - WikipediaMany people are unaware that the Philippines were once a US territory. It was ceded to the United States from Spain in the same treaty which ceded Guam. After the conclusion of the Spanish War, the Filipino forces that were fighting Spain for independence turned their attention to the Americans. For several years, American and Filipino forces fought leading to the deaths of thousands on each side. It is one of the most forgotten wars in US history.There were many in the US who never felt comfortable with the annexation of the Philippines. In the 1930’s the Philippines was declared a commonwealth and plans were developed for a transition to full independence. The Japanese invasion on Manila on December 8, 1941 (same time as the Pearl Harbor attack, but on the other side of the international date line) postponed independence for several years.Top 3 Financial Centers of the PhilippinesThe Philippines eventually became independent on July 4, 1946. Today, however, the Philippines celebrates their Independence Day on June 12, the day they became free of Spain in 1898.During its brief tenure as a US territory (brief compared to Spain’s 333-year rule), the Philippines had a non-voting representative in the US Congress and was covered by an Organic Act giving Filipinos full rights under the US Constitution.Today, if you visit the WWII Memorial in Washington DC, every state and territory are listed in stone pillars including the Philippines, recognizing their role in the war.If the Philippines had remained a US territory and had become a US state, it would be the 6th largest state by area and largest state by population. In a fictional world where the Philippines is the 51st state, it would consist of 1/4 of the entire US population and have a population almost 3x larger than California.Cuba - WikipediaCuba was another part of the territorial transfer from Spain to the US in 1898. However, Cuba was only a US possession for four years. US President Theodore Roosevelt was sympathetic to the Cuban independence movement and the US recognized a free Cuba in 1902.The drink Cuba Libre (aka rum and coke) comes from that period of history. When Coke was first imported to Cuba in 1900, it was mixed with rum and people toasted a free Cuba (Cube Libre in Spanish).The other historical remnant from this period is the US naval base at Guantanamo Bay which was leased from Cuba. A treaty in 1934 made the lease period indefinite and set the monthly payments at $4,085. The figure was never indexed for inflation so the amount has never changed even though the value would have been the equivalent of $69,000/month in 1934 dollars.Since the 1959 Cuban Revolution, Cuba has refused to cash the checks as it does not recognize US control over Guantanamo Bay.Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands - WikipediaIn 1947 the United Nations created Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) from former Japanese possessions given to them by a League of Nations Mandate. The TTPI existed from 1947 to 1986 when the constituent islands began to seek independence. The above-mentioned Northern Marinas Islands is the only part of the TTPI which is still a US territory.All of the former TTPI countries have US Postal zip codes and state codesMarshall Islands - WikipediaThe "Baker" explosion, part of Operation Crossroads, a nuclear weapon test by the United States military at Bikini Atoll, Micronesia, on 25 July 1946. (Photo by DoD: Courtesy of WikiCommons)Nuclear disarmament case and Marshall IslandsThe Marshall Islands are best known as the location of many atomic bomb tests in the 40’s and 50’s on places like Bikini and Enewetak Atolls.The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) was declared in 1979 and the country entered a Compact of Free Association with the United States in 1986. The compact is a unique agreement that the United States has with the former TTPI countries where they have access to many programs which are normally reserved for US citizens. For example, the Marshall Islands have mail delivered to it at US domestic postal rates. It has its own USPS state and zip code. (MH and 969xx). They can also work in the US without a green card.Micronesia - WikipediaThe Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) consists of four island groups: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae. Like the Marshall Islands, the FSM declared independence in 1979 and signed a Compact of Free Association with the US in 1986. The FSM compact of free association also gives Micronesians access to US services and aid.Palau has some of the best diving in the worldPalau - WikipediaPacific Island Nations Consider Future Ties with the United StatesBy population and area, Palau is the smallest of the former TTPI countries. With a population of only 20,000 people and area of 459 km, it is one of the smallest countries in the world.Palau declared independence in 1981 and signed their compact of free association with the US in 1994. Palau’s location combined with some of the best SCUBA diving in the world has given it a per capita GDP almost 4x greater than the other former TTPI countries.The Future of US TerritoriesHistorically, most US territories have gone on to become states. However, most of those were located in North America and were contiguous to the other states. With the admission of Alaska and Hawaii as states in 1959, the idea of non-contiguous and non-North American states became real.Of the current US Territories, only Puerto Rico has a reasonable chance at becoming a state. They have a population and land mass which would place them in the realm of current US states. It would be in the middle of states population-wise and small, but not the smallest state in terms of land area.Of the remaining territories, only the Northern Marianas Islands have an area larger than Rhode Island. The rest are less than half the size or smaller.The real reason why you won’t see any of the non-Puerto Rican territories become states is population. The most populous non-Puerto Rican territory is Guam which has approximately 1/4 population of Wyoming, the least populous state. The rest are as small as 1/5 or 1/10 the size. It just isn’t enough for most states to justify giving 2 senators and a representative. Even if they were all to combine, it still probably wouldn’t be enough.Could Puerto Rico become the 51st State???The case for Puerto Rico becoming a state is becoming more interesting. During the 2012 elections, while everyone was focused on the race for President, for the first time Puerto Rico quietly had a referendum where the majority of voters approved the idea of statehood.With population and land mass within reasonable parameters, the only two stumbling blocks to statehood: economics and language.The per capita GDP of Puerto Rico ($27,384) would make it the poorest state in the union behind Mississippi ($32,967). While it is poorer, it isn’t radically so and probably shouldn’t be that big of an issue. Most new states have been on the frontier where they were poorer than older, more established states.The real issue is language. Spanish is the dominant language in Puerto Rico. They would be the only state with a non-English speaking majority. While most of the population can speak English, they do so as a second language and at a level of proficiency lower than the rest of the country.Over the last several decades, English proficiency has increased dramatically in Puerto Rico as more families have members that work in the US. I would suspect this trend to continue even if Spanish is still the dominant language. English is an official language of Puerto Rico and has been since 1902.It should be noted that there are three US states that have an official language other than English: Louisiana/French, New Mexico/Spanish, and Hawaii/Hawaiian. However in all three states, English is the most widely spoken. During my visit to Puerto Rico, I had no problems getting by in English.My guess is that we are still at least 20 years away from Puerto Rican statehood.For the rest of the territories, the debate will be between the status quo and independence. This is most true of American Samoa, who has an independent sister country next door (Samoa). Likewise, if Guam and CNMI would merge, they would be far from the smallest country in the world.List of United States colonial possessions - WikipediaGuam is a colony of the U.S.Flag of GuamThe United Nations, through its Special Political and Decolonization Committee (also known as the Fourth Committee) keeps a list of the 17 remaining colonies left in the world. You may be familiar with some of these territories. French Polynesia, New Caledonia, American Samoa and Tokelau all sent delegations to Guam for the Festival of Pacific Arts last year. Others — Turks and Caicos, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Bermuda — are on the other side of the world.Guam is one of these last official colonies, although you might not realize it. As we go about our daily lives, colonial truths are everywhere, but so too are our efforts to erase them. I have often written that Guam’s No. 1 industry is neither the U.S. military nor tourism, but denying our colonial present.Our local denial of colonial reality is something mirrored at so many other national and international levels. The United States, whose origins were fiercely anti-colonial, has kept formal colonies for over a century. The term “unincorporated territory” is meant to stand in for that colonial truth, somehow making it easier to claim that freedom and democracy aren’t supposed to apply to places that you claim to own.Outside of the U.N., much of the world sees Guam as a possession of the U.S. or prime real estate for its bases and bombers.Discussing colonialism in the world today can be difficult. The world’s remaining colonizers never run out of excuses and the rest of the world conveniently assumes such things no longer exist and belong to a previous epoch. To invoke Guam’s current status as colonial often leads to a range of dismissals or rhetorical rejections.People may respond Guam can’t be a colony because colonialism was a cruel and violent process of the past, and Guam certainly doesn’t suffer under the U.S. — it actually benefits! This is misleading.Colonialism isn’t defined by levels of suffering and isn’t something that disappears because the colony benefits in some way. Paul Zerzan recently tried to argue this in a rival newspaper, and the late Joe Murphy used to argue it regularly in this newspaper. They claimed that since Guam benefits from colonization, it cannot be considered a colony.An overly simplistic argument, as colonies are not defined in terms of suffering or lack of benefits, but rather the nature of the relationship that makes such exploitation possible.They might also respond that you are being ungrateful and unrealistic and that as you come from a small, unsustainable, backward island, you should be grateful to be a colony, and that of the greatest country in the world, no less!This is also misleading. It is a way of recasting a fundamentally imbalanced or unequal relationship as necessary, due to the inferiority of a pathetic island and islanders, who could never take care of themselves. Colonizers have argued this for colonies big and small. It has limited basis in reality.Finally, they might simply try to correct you, as if switching the label neutralizes the sting of injustice. You will say colony and they will say territory, or protectorate or dependency or possession, or they just might say “Guam, USA.” Anything to try to deny the label that screams the need for change, for decolonization.Looking to the future, accepting the colonial label and what it says about our relationship to the U.S., to other nations around us, will help us far more than denials.Michael Lujan Bevacqua is an author, artist, activist and assistant professor of Chamorro studies at the University of Guam. For PDN Published 1:36 p.m. ChT March 9, 2017 |American-Style ColonialismEditorial Cartoons of the DayLeary Proclaims No Slavery on GuamMilitary Personnel and Chamorro Family, 1902Sumay, GuamNavy HospitalGovernor Willis BradleyAgueda Johnston and StudentsPineapple FieldIsland CourtGovernor William GilmerGuam Representatives Lobby for CitizenshipCartoon, July 1912Interpretive essay: Colonialism – then and nowColonialism is a process of usurping an existing order or orders of meaning for a territory or a people, and replacing them with a new order which is defined by the colonizer at that order’s apex. The intended result is that the colonizer will from then on be understood as the source of the colonial world’s order, and the source of any potential progress. Upon entering these spheres of influence Chamorros would find a place already waiting for them, an identity, a place in the world that defined them through racist assumptions.The cost of entering these spheres and making use of them was quite high. It meant enduring a constant ideological barrage, instructions, lessons, declarations made by the naval government and its representatives, and that Chamorros were dirty, backwards, primitive, unable to take care of themselves, and needed America to save them.Over the past 110 years Guam has been a colony of the United States. At different times, the everyday presence of the colonizer has varied, from being almost invisible to being omnipresent. In Guam today, it is often easy to forget that the island remains a colony. Anyone born on Guam is an American citizen. Guam residents have American movies and television, and learn about all aspects of American culture, history, philosophy, politics, economics and more in Guam schools. Guam is called “America in Asia,” “Where America’s Day Begins,” and even the “Tip of America’s Spear.”We live in a time where the colonial status of Guam is very difficult to perceive and much easier to overlook or ignore. On the surface it appears as if Chamorros are as American as apple pie. But in a far more fundamental way, Guam is still a colony, subject to the rule of the US and its military, without any reciprocal representation.The genesis of Guam’s political status is in a time when American colonialism was at its most explicit and unapologetic. The US and its representatives in Guam, the navy, made no pretense about Guam being part of America. Instead the US treated Guam and its indigenous people, Chamorros, as objects owned by the US.This period of Guam’s history is known as the US Naval Era or the American colonial period from 1898-1941. A second American colonial period was just after World War II, 1944, up until the Organic Act was signed in 1950. And whereas now the island seems comfortable as an American colony, Americanization during this period was something regularly forced into the lives, mouths and minds of Chamorros.Guam Legislature The Guam Organic Act, 1950Material improvements, identity attacksAlthough the historical record differs regarding what type of impact this period had on Chamorros, there is clear agreement that it represented a huge shift in lives, for better or for worse. During this period, Guam was run as if it were a military base, or more aptly a US naval base. The executive officer was a US naval governor appointed by the US Navy, and he was given carte blanche over the island. Chamorros were not US citizens, rather US nationals. They did not have representatives in the US Congress or any votes for president. They did not have the right to jury trials or to any judicial appeals process.Older historical writings glorify this period as one of incredible advancement and progress, with America benevolently teaching Chamorros. Through the American control over Guam and the programs that it instituted on the island, Chamorros are brought into the modern world and bestowed the gifts of that world. Paul Carano and Pedro Sanchez’s text, A Complete History of Guam characterized this period as one in which:…giant strides were made in terms of economic and political development. By 1940, substantial improvements had been made in Guam’s economic life, its health and sanitary conditions, its judicial and educational systems, and in various other departments and agencies of government.More recent histories such as Colonial Dis-ease: U.S. Navy Health Policies and the Chamorros of Guam, 1898-1941, by Chamorro scholar Anne Perez Hattori, Ph.D., however, provide a much more nuanced and less stellar account of American colonialism. Hattori and other historians of the modern day mark this period as one of incredible racism and often irrational control of Chamorro lives. Chamorros were wards of the US Navy, devoid of any political protections or inherent rights and simply something to be molded by the United States. Not since the postwar period of the Spanish-Chamorro wars were Chamorros the victims of such sustained attacks on their language, culture and identity.Why America came to GuamThe colonial nature of this time in Guam’s history has everything to do with why Guam was taken by the US in the first place. This period of America’s history represents its expansion into a global power. After subjugating the indigenous people and their lands within what is now the contiguous US, there was a growing desire in the US, especially among its political and economic elites, that America had a “destiny” to expand its power and share its style of government across the oceans, across the world.Incursions in Asia, Latin America and the Pacific throughout the nineteenth century were all prelude for the largest and most explicit imperial acquisition of the US during this era, the Spanish American War. Guam, along with Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Phillipines were all taken as spoils of this war in 1898.Whereas acquiring large island groups such as the Philippines was due to the economic potential involved, Guam was taken for purely strategic reasons and as a nautical link, a transit site through which American economic and military power could be linked to emerging Asian possibilities. Guam was taken because it offered the largest deep-water port in the Western Pacific. And so Guam, along with other American controlled islands such as American Samoa, Midway and Hawai`i that stretched across the Pacific, guaranteed the US a smooth route of commerce and military resources from America to Asia.This military value of Guam as a strategic geopolitical location in order to build its power base in the Asia-Pacific region is crucial to understanding US policy to the island and its indigenous people, first during this period, but even up until today. During the pre-war period, as Guam was just a transit site, American policy and investment to the island was minimal, it was a site to be controlled and held but nothing more. Guam would thus become the ”USS Guam” with naval officers and governors at the helm and Chamorros forced along for the ride, and treated like an afterthought on their own island.America’s colonial rhetoricThis military strategic claim to Guam was downplayed in the rhetoric that the US Navy would use in its colonization. In US President William McKinley’s 1898 directive “Instructions for the Military Commander of the Island of Guam,” which authorized the seizure of Guam this was made clear when he extolled the first and future military commanders of Guam:…to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends…win the confidence, respect and affection of the inhabitants of the Island of Guam … by proving to them that the mission of the US is one of benevolent assimilation.Guam’s first US naval governor, Captain Richard Leary, further articulated the colonization of Guam as part of an effort to protect and maintain:the well-earned reputation of the American Navy as champions in succoring the needy, aiding the distressed and protecting the honor and virtue of women.Thus efforts would be made to rapidly introduce American ideas and principles into Guam to help elevate the status of the Chamorro people. It should be noted that this sort of rhetoric is customary in the cases of all modern colonizers. The taking over of another’s land, and the re-directing and dictating of their future are acts that require some justification in order to disguise what might otherwise be racist or violent interventions of control as necessary or benevolent acts.This typical civilizing rhetoric in colonialism, whitewashes the crass and sometimes cruel interests of the colonizer, and makes it appear as if the colonized are the ones who need and who will truly benefit from the colonization of their lands. So, in the case of Guam, the purpose of the US in being there has nothing to do with controlling the island by turning it into a key military outpost. The colonizing rhetoric masks the underlying racist, militaristic and imperial intentions, instead insinuating that the US is in Guam to help the Chamorro people. It is there to lift them out of the squalor of their ignorance and backwards ways, to clean them up and make them modern, and of course to teach them the glories of American democracy and the American way of life.This rhetoric masks the self-interest of the colonizer at different levels as it masks their purpose in being in the colonies. But it also masks some of the other reasons for colonization and that is to relieve what Hattori refers to as “colonial dis-ease.” As early Guam naval Governor George Dyer put it, the civilizing of the natives was first and foremost a project of American “self-interest” in Guam. “Civilizing” the natives was something that the US Navy had to do to protect itself, from the various threats that the Chamorro posed in corrupting the American presence on Guam to include the diseases in Guam jungles, in Chamorros themselves and the primitive ways of their culture. All of these things represents sources of “dis-ease” for the naval presence, and the civilizing of the Chamorros was at its core about relieving this fear.As in all colonial situations, the gap between the rhetoric and the reality can be incredibly stark, and this period is no exception. The lofty rhetoric of societal improvement and advancement was realized in some ways on Guam, but at a more fundamental level, this period was one of control, discipline and hypocrisy, with Chamorros trapped between the promises of American democracy and liberty and the incessant demands of American military and national security interests.UnikuChanging of the colonial guardChamorros engaged with their new colonizer in suspicious and cautious ways, for a number of reasons. The transfer of power between the US and Spain was a non-violent one, primarily because of the relative unimportance of the island to the Spanish.So although there was no outright violence, Chamorros still had much uncertainty about what to expect from their new colonizer. Among the more privileged sectors of Chamorro society, this changing of the guard was particularly upsetting. There were Chamorro families who enjoyed great power or advantage under the Spanish and so the arrival of the Americans potentially meant a loss of status for them, or loss of a colonizer that they had build a deep affinity with. In their minds, the Spanish with their roots in Europe were far more sophisticated than the vulgar Americans. Some families shed tears when the Americans took over, and some even left the island for the neighboring Mariana island of Saipan or even Spain.There was still much concern and fear even among the non-elite of Guam. According to Jose Garrido who was a sixteen-year old member of the Spanish Garrison in 1898, many families upon hearing that the US had taken over the island fled into the jungles. According to Garrido:Were the people scared? I should say so. I learned of an expectant woman who gave birth right then and there. Lt. Lorenzo Franquez fainted while the soldiers were being disarmed.First response to AmericaThe majority of Chamorros on Guam lived not in fear of the military might of America, but rather its tradition of depraved behavior on the island. By 1898, the bulk of Chamorro interactions with Americans had been through bayeneru (whalers) who made port in Guam. In the minds of Chamorros, Americans were most closely associated with the immorality, drunkenness, aggression and sexual promiscuity of these whalers. According to anthropologist Laura Thompson, prior to 1898, Chamorros closed their houses up tightly, with all the women secured safely inside whenever Americans (whalers) arrived on island. Their behavior was so notorious on island that many Chamorro mothers would frighten children with stories that Americans would “get them” if they were naughty.Chamorros suspicions, while inaccurate, proved to be appropriate. Despite the flowery rhetoric of improving Chamorro lives and partnering with them as friends and not conquerors, the true basis for American colonization was made very clear in the orders given to the island’s first Naval Governor Richard Leary: The needs and desires of the (US) military on Guam take precedence over all matters in the administration of the island.Naval interests superseded any guarantees that US citizens received under the Constitutions—but then again, Chamorros were not US citizens. Freedoms bestowed on US citizens, such as the right to religion, were never enacted on Guam – as exemplified by the banning of church bell ringing, processions, and feast days by naval administrators.Guam / Chamorro | Selah - JahthenticChamorros sign petitionGroups of Chamorros were quick to respond to the establishment of this autocratic regime, with a petition signed on December 17th, 1901 calling for an end to military rule on Guam and the establishment of a civilian government. The more than two dozen signatories of this petition came from the wealthiest and most educated sectors of Guam society, individuals who had been privileged under the Spanish and had the resources to be very successful under the Americans as well. The tone of their petition is respectful, but firm in noting the hypocritical nature of American rule on Guam:A military government at best is distasteful and highly repugnant to the fundamental principles of civilized government, and peculiarly so to those on which is based the American government.It is not an exaggeration to say that fewer permanent guarantees of liberty and property rights exist now then when under Spanish domain. The governor of the island exercises supreme power in the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, with absolutely no limitations to his actions, the people of Guam having no voice whatsoever in the formulation of any law of the naming of a single official.This petition was transmitted to the US Congress and the US Department of the Navy, but ultimately fell on deaf ears and nothing was done to change the governance of Guam for several more decades. The importance of this document however is that it provides the foundation for how we can understand the ways in which Chamorros understood their relationship to the US during this period, and, more importantly, how they understood themselves in relation to its colonizing efforts on the island and its rhetoric of benevolence. It helps us realize that Chamorros of this period were neither “dupes,” nor uncivilized children, but rather intelligent beings who saw America for what it was, a colonizer.According to Penelope Bordallo Hofschneider in her text “Campaign for Political Rights on the Island of Guam: 1899-1950”:The document [petition] is also interesting because it suggests that the native people viewed their political relationship with the United States as essentially a colonial one…There is no doubt that so far as the Chamorro people were concerned, the Americans simply filled in a position established and held by the Spanish for two hundred and fifty years…America simply represented a new and perhaps, a more liberal “Mother Country.”This petition was the first of many more throughout this period that were sent to the US military and US Federal Government with hopes of bringing about a change in Guam’s governance to something more democratic or equitable. Each of these petitions would be denied or ignored, generally on the understanding that political rights for Chamorros would jeopardize the US Navy’s ability to perform its military mission in Asia.Haphazard colonialismWhen it came to the actual governance of Guam by the US during this period, to call it “haphazard” would be a very generous qualifier. The rhetoric of Guam’s colonization laid out lofty goals for improving Guam and the lives of Chamorros, but the implementation of these goals required financial support and leadership. All of these conditions varied wildly during this era, in particular during the first two decades of naval rule.Guam’s resourcesAlthough Guam was important to the US as a key nautical link, this value at the beginning of the 20th century was still unappreciated, reflected in the navy’s inability to secure funds or resources for Guam’s militarization. In contrast to the strategic importance of Guam today, the island was, prior to World War II, a site to be “possessed” and little more. Thus any plans that the navy might have had for improving the lives of Chamorros were severely hampered by what they could afford.Part of the navy’s insistence that Chamorros become savvier and more mature capitalists was due to these financial limits. The hope was not that Chamorros would progress and grow economically for their own sakes, but rather they expand economically in order to provide a tax base to help support the naval government’s operations, and establish an agricultural workforce to feed their colonizers as well. The navy’s presence in Guam was so financially inept in its early years, that pesos (Spanish currency) were still the official currency of Guam until 1907.Even in the 1920s when it was clear that Japan and the US would eventually come to blows over their shared presence in Micronesia and the Asia Pacific region, and that Guam would be caught up in any conflict, the island was deemed indefensible and no extra funds were given to the island to build up its defenses.Origin Of Slinging And How The Ancient Chamorro People Used ItLeadership’s quality variedIn the minds of most members of the US military, especially high ranking officers, the prospect of being transferred to Guam, or being appointed as the island’s governor was not a good one. In fact, it was considered an isolated and boring post, which symbolized the end of what could have been any promising upwardly mobile career. Thus the incentive to govern Guam was minimal, since it could have been the island itself that killed your career. Furthermore, the tours of duty for naval governors were incredibly short, some lasting a few months or as much as two years. The naval presence would disappear and replace itself regularly, leaving the government of Guam constantly in a transition phase as new officers and governors came in, replacing those that had left, each new entrant knowing as little about the island as its replacement. Thus while the rhetoric may have always been consistently flowery and self-aggrandizing, the realities of Guam’s colonization and what actually happened or was enacted, depended almost entirely on the personality of naval governors and whether they “felt” like governing the island or not.Scanning the list of twenty-eight naval governors during this period, we can find examples across the spectrum of action and inaction. While the majority of naval governors did little to distinguish themselves in the minds of both Chamorros and history books, there are a few names which stand out above the rest in terms of their engagement with the governing of Guam, and two in particular represent the “bad” and “good” faces of naval governance during this period, William Gilmer and Willis Bradley. Gilmer was known as the governor who was “mashanghai,” or yanked out of office after embarrassing the navy with his regular abuses of power. Chamorros lauded Bradley for his efforts at getting Chamorros American citizenship. When he was rebuffed, he created for Chamorros a “Guam Citizenship,” which was later revoked by the US Naval Department as well.Colonial abusesDespite the benevolent and altruistic rhetoric, the recognition of America as a colonizer by Chamorros was made easier by the daily incursions and invasions that America would take into their lives and homes over the next forty years. The autocratic government, established by the navy, gave its governor absolute control over the lives of Chamorros, and this power sometimes made life precarious for Chamorros.First and foremost on the list of colonial tasks was the eradication of the Chamorro language. The refusal by Chamorros to give up their language was considered to the bane of each and every naval governor. It was something that was tasked to them from the first moments of American governance, as the key to properly civilizing the Chamorros. The main weapon by which this task was thought to be accomplished was through mandatory public education in the English language, with the usage of the Chamorro language banned from all government facilities, including schools and offices. The navy at one point went so far as to burn books written in the Chamorro language, even one that was produced by US Navy Paymaster Edward von Preissig and printed by the navy.This was most difficult on Chamorro children, who found themselves trapped between worlds. The language that they entered school with, the one that they had learned from their families, was prohibited. And for merely speaking Chamorro they could be punished or fined. In the early years of naval rule, the teachers were primarily white military personnel or their dependents, and so these anti-Chamorro policies were easier to comprehend.But as the American education system on Guam became more formalized and more Chamorro teachers were trained, it became Chamorro teachers who were spanking Chamorro students or washing out the mouths of Chamorro students with soap.Despite the navy’s claims to come to Guam and protect the virtue of women, the navy’s policies towards Chamorro women were far from benign. The morality of Guam’s laws at the time was something determined by the moral compass of each naval governor. One naval governor was infamous for publicly humiliating a woman for her “immoral behavior” by calling the village out to watch her head be shaven. One naval governor made plans to keep women who gave birth to illegitimate children in the “leper” colony in Tumon; fortunately, his plan was never carried out.In 1919, the naval government decided it sufficiently important enough that they uproot centuries of tradition by making it official policy that Chamorro culture be a patriarchy. According to Chamorro scholar Laura Souder, “Matrilineage was outlawed…Chamorros were forced to abide by patriarchal notions of descent.”For thousands of years, lineage and land ownership had been passed down through the mother, but now the father would be considered the head of the household and the head of any family. Without any political protections or any access to the power of the governing of their island, some almost ludicrous policies were enacted.Perhaps most infamous among these were two of the many naval ordinances imposed by Governor Gilmer. The first outlawed whistling in Hagåtña, an offense for which at least one known Chamorro, Gaily Kaminga was imprisoned. The second, required that each able-bodied Chamorro male bring in five dead rats a month to the government or else face a stiff fine.Spheres of naval InfluenceDue to the limitations of the naval government in terms of resources, manpower and will, the colonization of Guam would extend to the whole island in theory only, but in practice be limited in scope. The colonization of Guam would be concentrated into particular “spheres of influence” determined by geography and occupation/institution. These would be the sites of the American colonization of Chamorros, concentrated in the villages of Hagåtña and Sumay, which housed the majority of the American military presence, and centered on institutions such as education, health care, politics and economy.Upon entrance into these spheres, Chamorros would be forced to engage with and either accept or defend themselves from the new colonial order that was being asserted. This order implicitly and explicitly argued that Chamorros were nothing, other than an obstruction, an obstacle that stubbornly prevented the progress that America was working to bring to the island. Therefore, as the navy positioned itself as a civilizing teacher to Chamorros, it crammed its spheres of influences with “lessons” on American greatness and Chamorro inferiority.In some ways these limitations in America’s colonial project meant that Chamorros would be for the most part left alone or be allowed to negotiate with these new American lessons being forced up them, and decide what to choose and what to refuse. Laws and ordinances would be passed by the naval government covering everything from the composition of people’s yards to the length of girl’s dresses to the prohibition of aguåyente (coconut liquor). The implementation of these laws would require more than just their passing. It would require more manpower than the navy readily had to patrol all the villages and lanchos of Guam. It would also require that Chamorro begin to see the naval government as a legitimate ruler or authority over their lives.Government vs. Catholic ChurchThe first Catholic Church in Guam, the Dulce Nombre de Maria {Sweet Name of Mary} Cathedral Basilica, was constructed in 1669.During this period, one could call the real government of Guam the Catholic Church. At the start of the 20th century, it had far more power over the lives and minds of Chamorros than the Spanish government on island did, or the US Navy. The Catholic Church set the rhythm of Chamorro life and its regular calendar of events and rituals provided Chamorros with a vibrant social life as well as a means for maintaining their kinship ties across the island.Prior to US colonization of Guam, the Church played the central role in educating Chamorros. However, when the naval government established a public education system, which prohibited any sort of religious instruction and was also riddled with anti-Chamorro language policies, the Catholic Church’s role in Chamorro life was invigorated, particularly in relation to maintaining the Chamorro language. While Chamorros speaking their language found themselves under attack, the Catholic Church provided a sanctuary, much like in their homes or lanchos (ranches), where they could continue to speak Chamorro.From the earliest moments of American rule, the naval government and Catholic Church were at odds, and Chamorros would often be caught up in their antagonism, and this sometimes built up ill will towards the new regime. The Catholic priests on Guam were not just spiritual leaders of Chamorros, but community leaders and given great influence and power by Chamorros.At both the beginning and the end of this period, American deportation of Spanish Catholic priests hurt and offended Chamorros. Months before World War II hit Guam in December 1941, all the Spanish priests on island save for the archbishop were removed by the US Navy and replaced with American Catholic priests the Chamorros reacted with sadness and ire. The removal of one priest in particular, Father Roman de Vera, provoked Chamorros, and some foretold that Guam and the US would be punished. In the early days of the Japanese occupation, some Chamorros blamed the US for their horrible plight, and believed that it had been caused by their disrespectfulness towards the Spanish priests.Impact of Japanese Military Occupation of GuamThe naval government’s relationship to the Catholic Church largely depended on who was naval governor and whether or not he was Protestant or Catholic. To the governor, the Catholic Church was a clear enemy and rival for the minds of Chamorros. The main weapon that naval governors used against the Church was support informal or formal, given to the fledgling Protestant missions that were being established on Guam.Colonial improvementsDespite the racist nature of the American colonization of Guam, it did result in some improvements in the lives of Chamorros. Following the formalization of Guam’s educational system in 1922, Guam had a far more comprehensive and far more organized educational system than ever before, albeit in a colonial form. Modern health care had been brought to Guam with the establishment of a free public hospital, and Chamorros did receive regular instruction in school and in newspapers on how to continue to “clean themselves up.”The navy’s interest in building up Guam’s infrastructure did result in significant improvements in Guam’s utilities. By the end of this period, coconut oil street lamps were replaced with electric ones, and Guam’s sewage and water systems, at least in the large villages, were all vastly improved. The island’s traditional transportation system, made up of numerous bull cart trails, had slowly been paved over. By 1941, Guam boasted eighty-five miles of cascajo or limestone roads, and one asphalt road that connected Hagåtña to Sumay. These infrastructure and utility improvements were all made primarily for the naval government’s needs, but Chamorros benefited from them as well.Although the naval government of Guam was far from vibrant or energetic, it was nonetheless much more active at times than the Spanish government had been. The navy provided the means through which a Chamorro middle class could be formed and a prewar Chamorro entrepreneurial spirit could be nurtured. Chamorro navy retirees and Chamorros working for the Civil Service did not make enough money to become rich on Guam but were able to start small businesses and live comfortably, and did not need to rely on subsistence farming to support themselves.The Exotic American Island That No One Knows AboutThe cost of colonizationThe primary intent of the spheres of naval influence, or of the civilizing programs that the navy instituted were not to help Chamorros, to nurture them, or try to get them to reach their full potential as Chamorros. The deeper purpose of these spheres of influence were two fold; one pro-American and the other anti-Chamorro. And it is in these two dimensions that we can see the cost of this era of colonization for Chamorros.Firstly, the purpose of these programs was to display to both the colonizer and the colonized the extraordinary capability and promise of the United States. These were meant to be colonial spectacles justifying to all that America was great and has a right, no, rather a mission to be in Guam to help the Chamorro people by sharing its greatness. In this way, these programs were explicitly and unabashedly pro-American.The other dimension of these programs was that they were sometimes explicitly and sometimes implicitly anti-Chamorro. They did not just dispense democracy, health care or education, but also colonial ideology as well. Each time Chamorros participated in these programs they were not just proselytized about America’s greatness, but also instructed in Chamorro inferiority, dependence, or even non-existence as a people.While the navy offered material improvements, the cost was great, both mentally and culturally. It meant not only giving up your identity, language and culture, but accepting that what you are in this world is nothing. That you didn’t have anything to offer, except that which you gave up in order to follow the American way. This non-existent and offensive place offered to Chamorros by the naval regime was enough to give the majority of them pause in terms of whether or not to accept American rule over their everyday lives.For instance, while free health care was offered to all Chamorros, its existence was predicated on the need to civilize the native, and eradicate its their backwards traditions and blind them with the glory of modern American medicine and altruism.Similarly, through compulsory public schools, Chamorros were instructed in the greatness of their colonizer and taught the wonders of its history, government, culture. Chamorro traditions and history were all intentionally kept out of these spheres, or openly attacked as being backwards or something which would hold Chamorros back.This denigration of the Chamorro people led to resistance. Just as they had perceived the hypocritical and colonial character of American rule over their lives in 1901, the majority of Chamorros interpreted these programs in the same way, with caution and suspicion.For example, when the 1st Guam Congress was created by the Governor Roy Smith in 1917, the naval government celebrated this as a huge shift, an event worthy of celebration as an instance of American democracy being passed on to the Chamorro people. These members of the Guam Congress were appointed by the naval governor, and the intent of the new legislative body was- according to the governor- to “make [Chamorros] feel they are taking part in their own government.”I Mina Uno Na Liheslaturan Guåhan/ the 1st Guam LegislatureThe use of the word “feel” in most instances could be excused, but in this case it pointed straight to the inconsistency of the situation. The first Guam Congress did not represent Chamorros taking part in their own government, as it was only an advisory body and not even democratically elected. It had no power except to make recommendations to the naval governor.Chamorros quickly recognized the non-place for them in this sphere of influence, they recognized their position as being useless, and not engendering any respect or improvement for themselves. Chamorros quickly lost any interest in this body and it was eventually dissolved. Another attempt to create a similar advisory Guam Congress more than a decade later found similar results, even though in that instance Chamorros were allowed to vote for candidates. According to a naval history for the period:The next surprise to the naval administration, so optimistic over its experiment in democracy, came at the general election of 1933. Only about half the 1931 electorate bothered to register. The apathy was so reflected in the candidates that twelve congressional seats were not contested and had to be filled by appointment.How to say "beautiful" in Chamorro? - The Chamorro LanguageChamorro responses to American colonialismChamorros generally responded to America’s colonization of their island in three ways: assimilation, active resistance and passive resistance. These generalizations aren’t mutually exclusive, and so it is not that each Chamorro adopted only one of these strategies in dealing with American colonialism and never diverted. Rather these were three approaches that Chamorros could choose from, and at different moments they may have moved between them in relation to a particular colonizing effect, or they may have felt the need to assimilate in some ways, but passively resist in others.Assimilation: Chamorros who chose assimilation accepted the new colonial order. They embraced the rhetoric of the Chamorro denigration and thus saw the purpose of the Chamorro during this era was to do whatever the US asked of them and to find whatever ways they could follow America’s example.Chamorros who assimilated often times ended up taking up the cause of the colonizer in Guam and sometimes became formal or informal representatives for the naval government. These Chamorros were often promoted in the naval government because of their willingness to write or speak out against the use of the Chamorro language or Chamorro customs.These Chamorros accepted what the navy offered them in the new colonial Guam. They further accepted that being a Chamorro offered them no future, and that they would never be allowed to progress so long as they did things “the Chamorro way.”Is Guam part of US? The answer is both yes and noResistance Active: This term should not imply that Chamorros were in the streets fighting the US Navy, but rather that their response to the colonization of Guam was an active and critical one, whereby Chamorros organized or publicly made their critiques about their status known and in some cases fought for change.Those who actively critiqued the US military presence and its rhetoric did so through demands made to the navy in Guam and the US Congress particularly that Chamorros be given political protections and rights. Three generations of Chamorros signed and disseminated petitions for these protections, but in each instance they were rebuffed.Two prominent Chamorros, B.J. Bordallo and F.B. Leon Guerrero, journeyed to Washington, D.C. in 1937 to lobby for a shift in treatment of Chamorros on Guam. They were able to convince US Congress to hold hearings on the issue, at which they testified. They were even able to arrange a meeting with US President Franklin Roosevelt who, much to their chagrin, was far more interested in talking about the fishing on Guam, as opposed to its political status.Resistance Passive: Rather than make these open critiques, the majority of Chamorros resisted the colonization of Guam in more passive and subtle ways. This resistance was not about open confrontation, but quiet negotiation and avoidance. These Chamorros recognized that the programs of the navy were antagonistic to them and racist. They knew that the lessons the navy was trying to teach them painted their people as backwards, but they also knew that the navy couldn’t simply be ignored or rejected.Thus these Chamorros would develop strategies for how to navigate the racism of the navy in its hospitals, government offices, courts and schools, and only do a modicum of what was required of them by the navy, until they could leave these oppressive spaces and return to their homes.Just as following the Spanish colonization of Guam, family lands or lanchos (ranches) became bastions in Chamorro resistance and maintenance of their identity and culture, this too held true in the American period. Despite the regular bombardment of colonial ideology, through their homes, their ranches and even at times their religious spaces, Chamorros were able to maintain their language and culture.Joint Region Celebrates Chamorro, Women’s History MonthConclusionThe scorecard for the naval government during this period is an average one in their given tasks to Americanize the island, get people to speak English rather than Chamorro, and radically re-shape Chamorro culture and the landscape of Chamorro life. While they made inroads in their colonization of Guam, molding Chamorros into obedient colonial subjects was far from successful.The US clearly had an impact during this period. Chamorros integrated much of the new technology and media that came to Guam into their lives. Chamorro, however, was still the primary language of communication for Chamorros young and old, even though English was far more pervasive in 1941 than it was in 1898, as thousands of Chamorro children had gone through the island’s public school system.But the true measure of colonialism’s success, the reworking of Chamorro identity, had yet to happen in the era before World War II. Despite the haphazard efforts of the US Navy, Chamorros did not truly accept the rhetoric that they were dependent upon the US or that they merely existed to give up everything and follow America. As Robert A. Underwood, Ed.D., (University of Guam professor emeritus and former Guam delegate to US Congress) notes in his speech “Teaching Guam History in Guam High Schools”:The Chamorro people were not Americans, did not see themselves as Americans-in-waiting, and probably did not care much about being Americans.Aircraft from Marine All Weather Fighter Attack Squadron 533 stand on the runway at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam. File photo by U.S. Air Force/Staff Sgt. Photo by Robert Hicks/REUTERS.By Michael Lujan Bevacqua, PhDWhat Does Being A U.S. Territory Mean For Puerto Rico?President Trump posted a series of early morning tweets on Thursday that put the disaster spotlight back on Puerto Rico.In one tweet he reminded everyone that Puerto Rico's "electric and all infrastructure was disaster before hurricanes." In the next one he blamed Puerto Rico for its looming financial crisis and "a total lack of accountability." Finally, he appeared to threaten to remove federal aid workers from the territory after Hurricane Maria....We cannot keep FEMA, the Military & the First Responders, who have been amazing (under the most difficult circumstances) in P.R. forever!— Donald J. Trump (@realDonaldTrump) October 12, 2017The U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico are requesting the support that any of our fellow citizens would receive across our Nation.— Ricardo Rossello (@ricardorossello) October 12, 2017Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico more than three weeks ago, and residents of the territory have been frustrated with the federal government's response. Mainland politicians have also been urging the president to do more to help, such as New York Rep. Nydia Velazquez, who represents a large Puerto Rican constituency. She told NPR last month that the government's response has not been proportional to the extent of the disaster.House Speaker Paul Ryan plans to visit Puerto Rico on Friday. The House on Thursday passed a $36.5 billion disaster aid package that includes money for communities affected by wildfires and hurricanes. It provides $1.27 billion for disaster food assistance for Puerto Rico.Flag of Puerto RicoWhat it means to be a U.S. territorySo what does it mean to be a territory, and what responsibilities does the federal government have to the people of Puerto Rico?Puerto Rico is one of five inhabited U.S. territories, along with American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands. People of these territories (except some in American Samoa) are U.S. citizens, pay federal taxes such as Social Security and Medicare – but not federal income tax — and can freely travel within the U.S.Much like states in the U.S., the territories also have their own governments and elect their own governors.Unlike states, the territories do not have a vote in Congress. They each send a delegate to the House who possesses all powers of a representative besides voting rights, like the ability to debate legislation or sit on committees.The territories also send delegates to political conventions, such as those to nominate presidential candidates. However, the territories have no electoral votes in the presidential election.Despite their inability to vote on federal issues, Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens for more than 100 years and the government has the same responsibilities toward them as it does to other U.S. citizens.How Puerto Rico became a U.S. territoryPuerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when the U.S. gained control of it, along with Guam and the Philippines, as part of the terms ending the Spanish-American War. Shortly thereafter, Congress passed a bill declaring Puerto Rico an "unorganized territory." This designation meant that Puerto Ricans were not yet U.S. citizens, but did provide them with a seat in the U.S. House.An ambiguous Supreme Court ruling a year later defined Puerto Rico as an unincorporated territory. Its residents received some constitutional protections, but they were not considered part of the United States and did not receive full constitutional rights.In 1917, the Jones Act granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship, restructured the territory's government and created a bill of rights. It also made it easier for the U.S. to recruit Puerto Ricans to serve in World War I. The 1920 Jones Act restricted shipping to Puerto Rico and was temporarily waived after Hurricane Maria.Despite these changes, the political status of Puerto Rico remained in limbo until the mid-20th century. In 1948, Puerto Rico elected its own governor for the first time under U.S. control. Four years later, the U.S. approved the Constitution of Puerto Rico, establishing it as a commonwealth of the United States. This meant Puerto Rico remained a U.S. territory, but created a "more highly developed relationship" with the federal government.Since then, Puerto Rico has held referendums for statehood five times, most recently this year. While Puerto Ricans have rejected statehood in the past, they voted overwhelmingly in favor of it in June. That referendum, however, was nonbinding and has no bearing on whether the territory will become a state. That decision is left up to Congress.Tim Webber is an intern on NPR's National Desk.The United States Makes The Case For Why Puerto Rico Is Still Its ColonyPACIFIC PRESS VIA GETTY IMAGESToday colonialism stands exposed in its unrelenting and unapologetic display of dominance and control. As Congress prepares to vote on a restructuring package for Puerto Rico that includes the imposition of a federal fiscal control board that will be composed primarily of bankers, financial sector “experts” and lawyers and will retain powers far greater than democracy itself, the Supreme Court has just made clear for the first time in 100 years that Puerto Rico has no sovereignty, save that granted to it by Congress. And the Obama administration has expressed its support for both positions, having advocated for the control board and against any notion of dual sovereignty for the island. All branches of the federal government have made it explicitly clear recently that in case you believed otherwise, Puerto Rico is in fact a colony of the United States, despite colonialism being illegal and immoral.Ironically, the Court’s decision in Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle retraces the colonial history of Puerto Rico under United States control, in painful and painstaking detail, describing how any semblance of self-governance exercised by the people of Puerto Rico was only allowed because Congress permitted and approved of it, including the creation of the island’s constitution. That constitution was drafted to recognize social and economic rights a few years after they had been established by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized by the international community as being essential to the realization of all rights.Yet, as the Court reminds us, when the constitution was submitted for ultimate approval — not to the people of Puerto Rico, but to Congress — those rights (and any amendments that could have led to establishing them) were removed and instead replaced with the right of children to attend private school and protections that prioritize the payment of general obligation bonds (i.e. private creditors such as hedge funds) above the provision of public services.The creation of Puerto Rico’s constitution created a “new kind of political entity,” which is the legal fiction known as the Free Associated State (Estado Libre Asociado), or a Commonwealth, in order not to refer to Puerto Rico as what it continued to be — a colony.The Supreme Court said as much, noting that “Puerto Rico’s transformative constitutional moment does not lead to a different conclusion” that its status as a colony, both before and after U.S. acquisition, changed. Former Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter called this “inventive statesmanship.”The international community still calls it colonialism. The United Nations has repeatedly affirmed its position with regard to the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in General Assembly Resolution 1514 (XV), which states that the continued subjugation and domination of a people by a foreign nation violates their fundamental human rights and the United Nations Charter.The United Nations Special Committee on the Situation with regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples reaffirms in its resolution each year, as it has done in 33 independent resolutions, the right of the people of Puerto Rico to self-determination.And that colonial status is nowhere more evident than in the vote taken by Congress recently to pass the Puerto Rico Oversight, Management and Economic Stability Act (“PROMESA”). PROMESA, which means “promise” in Spanish, offers the island the chance for full debt restructuring, but at the extremely high price of relinquishing self-governance.The bill would impose a federal fiscal control board that would be composed of seven federally-appointed persons with banking, finance and legal backgrounds and who would have the authority to approve, or not, fiscal plans proposed by the Governor and legislature.In other words, a seven-member federal panel composed of private sector bankers and lawyers will be able to determine the fiscal priorities, budgets, funding and establishment of policies over the elected members of Puerto Rico’s legislature and its Governor. They will be able to hold secret, closed-door meetings, veto budgets approved by the legislature and order reductions in spending.Civics Online Resource Community - U. S. Territories | Civics Online Resource CommunityThey will be able to reduce the role of government — which is fundamentally to act in service of the needs of its citizens in the protection, respect and fulfillment of their rights - in order to prioritize payment of a debt larger than Puerto Rico’s Gross National Product (GNP) to private investors. Investors who engaged in financially risky transactions, refused to negotiate, launched a campaign to discourage any federal government assistance (which they called a “bailout”) and who have openly advocated for continued austerity measures, such as the closure of schools, hospitals and cutting the minimum wage almost in half for young workers. The Congressional Budget Office itself stated that “the bill would give the oversight board certain sovereign powers over the Puerto Rican government and its instrumentalities.” In essence, the federal fiscal control board will serve as a supra-legislative and executive body, the ultimate privatization of government that is not accountable to the people of Puerto Rico, the very citizenry they are purportedly protecting. Instead, the legislation only requires that they report to Congress, a body where Puerto Rico is not represented by any voting members. And all of this at a bill of $370 million in annual administrative costs to the people of Puerto Rico who never sought an oversight board, nor support it.Colonialism is one of the worst forms of violence because it inflicts itself relentlessly, willfully and repeatedly. Present in every aspect of one’s life and for generations, colonialism intentionally attempts to strip away the dignity of a people and nation in order to serve the economic, military and political interest of another.We witness colonialism and its brutal impact day in and day out, but often stand by silently while our government violates the most basic and fundamental rights of millions of citizens — the right to autonomy, to freedom to sovereignty and to dignity. The same autonomy and self-determination we demand for our bodies, our families, and our political system is also applicable at the nation level. Sovereignty is a fundamental principle and requirement of the most basic of all rights - the right to live a dignified life. It is the very action and policy President Obama assured Cuba - the island neighbor of Puerto Rico with a shared history, flag and struggle - that he would promote in a path towards normalization. He assured the Cuban people that “we will not impose our political or economic system on you. We recognize that every country, every people, must chart its own course and shape its own model.” And yet nearby, the oldest colony in the hemisphere is still denied what the Supreme Court points out as “the principle of government by consent.”As is so often the case in the face of atrocities and human rights violations, silence is equated with complicity. A presumed complicity because it is not your family, your home, your community that is being dehumanized. That is true whether it is war on another’s soil, torture in foreign military bases, systemic targeting and killing of civilians by law enforcement outside your neighborhood, the separation and detention of immigrant families in another state, the execution of another in our name for our presumed safety, or exploited workers in our favorite restaurant we look away from. Our government acts in our name without our consent constantly; but our presumed consent emboldens it more. It is more than an act of solidarity to stand with those who are oppressed, particularly when the oppression is being done in our name. It is an exercise of freedom, a collective freedom that we are all ensured, and it is our duty to exercise it and often.Follow Natasha Lycia Ora Bannan on Twitter: www.twitter.com/lyciaoraNatasha Lycia Ora BannanAssociate Counsel at LatinoJustice PRLDEFMARCH 13, 2015The 5 US Coloniesby BEN NORTONWe live in the 21st century. We are often told colonialism is “a thing of the past.” Yet the US still formally has five colonies: Guam, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, the US Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands. These nations are often referred to as US “territories” (there are 16 official US territories in total, but only five are inhabited). This term is a euphemism. These five nations have no formal representation in the US political system. Their peoples, most of whom are US citizens, cannot vote for representatives in Congress and cannot participate in the presidential election. A head of state whom they did not elect can send them to war. They merely serve as sources of natural capital the US can exploit and pools of human capital and labor it can siphon into its economy and military. Remember “taxation without representation”? This maxim is often touted as the principal ideological basis for the so-called American Revolution. (Leading historian Charles A. Beard insisted otherwise, demonstrating in his canonical work An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States that the obscenely rich Founding Fathers were motivated not by freedom, but by profit.) Guam Congressional Representation Act 1972.US schools claim that it was the inability of the American colonies to represent themselves politically that led these colonial subjects of the British empire to declare their independence. We see similar conditions today in the US “territories,” and, yet, the very same fervent American nationalist who would doubtless break out in a fit of rage were someone to call the US a 21st-century colonial power would positively bristle at the notion that New England was just a British “territory,” not a colony. Political comedian and TV host John Oliver brought attention to this issue in a March 2015 segment on his show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, rekindling public discourse about the undemocratic status these nations endure. Some of the US media picked up on the controversy, yet no one addressed the indisputable colonial nature of this relationship and the injustice it engenders. Most of the people in these five colonies are US citizens, yet they cannot vote in US elections. According to the 2010 Census on Puerto Rico and Island Areas, 4.1 million people live in these territories. These millions are not afforded the rights of citizens in the US proper. Dr. Anne Perez Hattori, an historian of Guam, notes that “the United States flag is flying over these lands,” but they live under a different set of laws. How is this justified? The short answer is racism. 98.4% of the inhabitants of these colonies are considered “racial or ethnic minority populations,” according to the aforementioned census. In the 1901 Insular Cases, the Supreme Court ruled that the US colonies, which it referred to as “possessions,” were territories “belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States,” as they were “inhabited by alien races, differing from us in religion, customs, laws, methods of taxation, and modes of thought.” Differing in “modes of thought” was the explicitly racist court’s polite way of saying “they are stupider than us because they are not white.” The court therefore concluded that “the administration of government and justice, according to Anglo-Saxon principles, may for a time be impossible.” In other words, it claimed that these “alien races” would be unable to govern themselves and administer justice according to how white supremacists define it. The judge who wrote the lead decision in the first of the rulings in this case was Henry Billings Brown, a white supremacist who also authored the Plessy v. Ferguson decision, the 1896 “separate but equal” doctrine that maintained racial apartheid in the US until it was overturned in 1954’s Brown v. Board of Education. Today, decades after Plessy v. Ferguson was defeated, the rulings of the over one-century-old Insular Cases still hold. The citizens of these colonies are separate and unequal. They carry US passports that read “The bearer is a United States national and not a United States citizen.” This is not a new concern that has only recently emerged. Those living in these lands have repeatedly voiced their opposition to these colonial practices. Their voices have been silenced. In March 2015, Virgin Islands Delegate to Congress Stacey Plaskett testified on the House Floor, stating:As we commemorate the 50th anniversary of the March on Selma this week, and the subsequent passage of the Voting Rights Act, I want to once again call to the attention of my colleagues here in Congress that there are still American citizens today who do not have equal voting rights. These are citizens of America’s island territories—the US Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Northern Marianas.Hidden Treasure of St. JohnPuerto Ricans are US citizens. John Oliver draws attention to the hypocrisy of calling people like Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor the daughter of Puerto Rican “immigrants,” given Puerto Ricans already are citizens. “No she isn’t,” Oliver interjects. “She’s the daughter of Americans who moved from Puerto Rico. If Puerto Ricans are immigrants, anyone who moves anywhere is an immigrant.” In fact, Puerto Rico has more US citizens than 21 states, but less voting rights than any of these. In January 2015, the country’s resident commissioner to Congress Pedro Pierluisi explained:Puerto Rico has been a territory since 1898. Its status is incompatible with the principles this Nation strives to uphold at home and promotes abroad. There are 3.6 million American citizens in Puerto Rico. My constituents cherish their U.S. citizenship and have made countless contributions to this country in law, science, business, government, the arts, the armed services, and every other field of human endeavor. Yet they cannot vote for President, have no U.S. Senators, and send one Delegate to the House who has a voice but no vote in this Chamber. The people of Puerto Rico, beyond lacking democratic rights, are deprived of equality under law. Congress has a license to discriminate against the territories, and Puerto Rico is treated worse than the States under a range of Federal programs. To compensate for the shortfall in Federal funding, the Puerto Rican government has borrowed heavily in order to provide adequate public services. This disparate treatment is the principal reason why Puerto Rico has endured severe economic problems for decades. Inequality, both political and economic, is driving thousands of my constituents to depart for the States every month. It is human nature to go where you believe you can secure a better future for yourself and your family. However, residents of Puerto Rico have finally said enough is enough. They demand a status that is democratic and dignified, a proud status for a proud people.PUERTO RICO: caribbeanislands.comSan Juan, Puerto RicoGuam is essentially a large military base. US Navy and Air Force bases take up over one-fourth (27%) of the country’s land mass, yet its people, who are US citizens, do not have full voting rights. Meanwhile, at least one in eight (13% of) Guamanians are US military veterans. And those who have served the country that rules over them without their political consent are later abandoned by it. In 2012, the US Department of Veterans Affairs’ per capita spending on medical care for veterans in Guam was lower, by far, than it was in any other state in the US. On his show, Oliver shows a documentary film clip featuring a Guamanian veteran who is trying to get medical care, only to find that the closest location for treatment is over 3,800 miles away, in Hawaii. During US elections, Guam holds an ad hoc unofficial straw poll. In the 2012 presidential election, its turnout was 67%—higher than the US turnout (at 62%). Evidently they understand and practice “Anglo-Saxon” principles of “justice” more than the Anglo-Saxons living in the US, but are legally treated as third-class citizens because they are of an “alien race.”Tumon Bay, GuamIndividuals born in every state and territory are automatically granted US citizenship, save for one: American Samoa. The US cares so little about the people of this colony its politicians cannot even pronounce its name correctly. In June 2013, congressman Kerry Bentivolio (R-MI) was given a simple task: introduce American Samoa’s non-voting Delegate to the House, Eni Faleomavaega. He butchered not just the name of the representative, but also the name of the country (which he called “Samolia,” procuring a letter l from nowhere). Faleomavaega responded coolly, correcting Bentivolio’s pronunciation. Although American Samoa does not have representation in the US political system, it does have the largest US Army recruiting station in the world. The US does not care enough about American Samoans to grant them full political rights, but it will happily turn them into cannon fodder. Five American Samoans have sued the US government over this injustice. The Obama administration has fervently rejected them, citing the racist Insular Cases that claim citizens of these colonies are not capable of living up to the standards of “Anglo-Saxon” law. And ignorant white Americans still have the temerity to claim we live in a “post-racial society.” None of this should come as a surprise, of course. Colonialism was built on racism. The remaining US territories are vestiges of this colonial history. Neocolonialism is certainly an enormous issue. The US has hundreds upon hundreds of military bases around the world—so many there does not appear to be a standard publicly released figure. In Afghanistan alone, the US had up to 800 bases, as well as 505 just in Iraq. US imperial control expands far and wide, and de facto colonies can arguably be found in many places. Yet the five inhabited US territories are official, de jure colonies. The bourgeois liberal solution to this problem is simply to turn the countries into member states, with full political representation. The revolutionary solution is to demand autonomy and independence from the imperialist power that colonized them as far back as the 19th century and continues to exploit them today. Whichever is chosen is ultimately a decision for the people of these colonies to make democratically, and it is the responsibility of those living in the US to defend their right to do so. Ben Norton is a freelance writer and journalist. His website can be found at http://BenNorton.com/Self-Government in U. S. TerritoriesTerritories, Possessions, and Influenced Areas of the United StatesBy R G Price September 11, 2003When we think of the United States we often think of the 50 official states, but there is much more to America than just the 50 states. Below is a listing of all of the territories, commonwealths, and possessions of the United States of America.Territories:American Samoa - since 1878 (original purpose of acquisition: coaling station)Guam - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)United States Virgin Islands - since 1917 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Commonwealths:Puerto Rico - under US control since 1900, became a commonwealth in 1902 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Northern Mariana Islands - under US control since 1947, became a commonwealth in 1978 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance) see alsoPossessions:Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands - since 1857 (original purpose of acquisition: guano production)Navassa Island - since 1857 (original purpose of acquisition: guano production)Johnston Island - since 1858 (original purpose of acquisition: guano production)Midway Atolls - claimed in 1876, annexed in 1908 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Palmyra Atoll - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: was part of the Hawaii acquisition)Wake Islands - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Guantanamo Bay - since 1898 (original purpose of acquisition: military significance)Kingman Reef - since 1922 (original purpose of acquisition: stopping point for air traffic)Compacts of Free Association:Republic of the Marshall Islands - since 1947 (used for nuclear weapons testing)Republic of Palau - under trusteeship in 1947, gained independence in 1994Federated States of Micronesia - since 1978For more information about these American places and how they are governed see:http://www.macmeekin.com/Library/terr+commonw2.htmIn addition to these places it is helpful to know which places have been possessions of the United States in the past as well. Previously occupied American territories include:The Philippines 1901 - 1946Panama Canal 1903 - 1999Nicaragua 1912 - 1933Haiti 1915 - 1934Dominican Republic 1916 - 1924On a more subjective level there are also many countries who's leaders or political systems have been controlled or influenced by the United States in some way over the years. For the purpose of helping to understand American influence I will include some of these places here and the times in which it is generally accepted that their political systems were under significant influence of the United States.Nicaragua 1855 - 1860Liberia 1820 - 1865Cuba 1898 - 1952Germany 1945 - 1955Japan 1945 - 1955South Korea 1948 - 1960Congo 1960 - 1964Vietnam 1950 - 1973Chile 1964 - 1973Iran 1953 - 1979Guatemala 1953 - 1980sIndonesia/East Timor 1965 - 2002Iraq/Afghanistan 2003 - ?Timeline of major American wars and acquisitions

Using my psychic powers, I read Joe’s mindThen went to his campaign website to confirm:Developing a comprehensive four-year, $4 billion regional strategy to address factors driving migration from Central America;Mobilizing private investment in the region;Improving security and rule of law;Addressing endemic corruption;Prioritizing poverty reduction and economic development.Requires countries to allocate a substantial amount of their own resources and undertake significant, concrete, and verifiable reforms;Places strong conditions for verifiable progress to ensure that U.S. taxpayer funds are used effectively;Puts combating corruption at the heart of U.S. policy in Central America;Marshals private sector investment, including through public-private partnerships, to supplement government funds;Invests primarily in civil society organizations that are on the frontlines of addressing root causes;Renews efforts to work constructively with Mexico, Canada, and other regional partners from Central and South America; andRecognizes the central role of women as a powerful force for development.Working with multilateral development banks, such as the World Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), to develop infrastructure and promote foreign investment by engaging with the private sector in a cost-effective and competitive manner. The United States has historically been a significant funder of these international organizations, and we should use our role and investments to ensure that these institutions focus on Central America as a priority.Reducing the barriers to private sector investment by prioritizing strengthening the rule of law with increased judicial capacity and improving the competitiveness of the Northern Triangle market by modernizing and standardizing customs procedures.Directing the U.S. Trade Representative and the Commerce Department to evaluate whether the countries of Central America are abiding by their commitments under DR-CAFTA, including ensuring that labor practices do not disadvantage competition. Maximizing our trade and commercial deals also generates greater economic opportunities for U.S. businesses and investors. The U.S. is the primary source of foreign direct investment in Central America.Bolstering microfinance and financial inclusive banking in Central America with a priority on programs that empower women. Remittances from family members sending money home constitutes a larger share of the GDP in some Northern Triangle countries than foreign direct investment, accounting for more than 10 percent of GDP in Guatemala and approaching 20 percent in El Salvador and Honduras. As president, Biden will create mechanisms to help remittance recipients, especially women, invest in and start small businesses.Focusing economic development efforts on modernizing the Northern Triangle’s power grids, ports, and roads, so that local industries can compete globally. In the short term, Biden will join efforts to double the capacity of SIEPAC, the Central American Electrical Interconnection System, to generate electricity for the region.There’s a lot more on economic development in Central AmericaThe Biden Plan to Build Security and Prosperity in Partnership with the People of Central America – Joe Biden for President: Official Campaign WebsiteOn immigrationIn the first 100 days, a Biden Administration will:Immediately reverse the Trump Administration’s cruel and senseless policies that separate parents from their children at our border, including ending the prosecution of parents for minor immigration violations as an intimidation tactic, and prioritize the reunification of any children still separated from their families.End Trump’s detrimental asylum policies. The Statue of Liberty has long been a beacon to people “yearning to breathe free” around the world — including asylum-seekers and refugees. But the Trump Administration has worked against this tradition to drastically restrict access to asylum in the U.S., including imposing additional restrictions on anyone traveling through Mexico or Guatemala; attempting to prevent victims of gang and domestic violence from receiving asylum; systematically prosecuting adult asylum seekers for misdemeanor illegal entry; and severely limiting the ability of members of the LGBTQ community, an especially vulnerable group in many parts of the world, from qualifying for asylum as members of a “particular social group.” Biden will end these policies, starting with Trump’s Migrant Protection Protocols, and restore our asylum laws so that they do what they should be designed to do–protect people fleeing persecution and who cannot return home safely.End the mismanagement of the asylum system, which fuels violence and chaos at the border. Trump’s disastrous policy of “metering” — limiting the number of asylum applications accepted each day — forces people seeking asylum to wait on the streets in often dangerous Mexican border towns for weeks before they are permitted to apply. It has created a horrifying ecosystem of violence and exploitation, with cartels kidnapping, violently assaulting, and extorting migrants. Biden will direct the necessary resources to ensure asylum applications are processed fairly and efficiently, while treating families and children with compassion and sensitivity.Surge humanitarian resources to the border and foster public-private initiatives. Humanitarian needs are best met through a network of organizations, such as faith-based shelters, non-governmental aid organizations, legal non-profits, and refugee assistance agencies working together. Biden will dramatically increase U.S. government resources to support migrants awaiting assessment of their asylum claims and to the organizations providing for their needs.End prolonged detention and reinvest in a case management program. The Trump Administration has sought to circumvent the Flores agreement and hold children in detention indefinitely. But proven alternatives to detention and non-profit case management programs, which support migrants as they navigate their legal obligations, are the best way to ensure that they attend all required immigration appointments. These programs also enable migrants to live in dignity and safety while awaiting their court hearings–facilitating things like doctor visits, social services, and school enrollment for children. Evidence shows that these programs are highly effective and are far less expensive and punitive than detaining families. Biden will codify protections to safeguard children to make sure their treatment is consistent with their best interest and invest in community-based case management programs, including those supported by faith-based organizations such as Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Services, to move migrants into safe environments as quickly as possible.Reverse Trump’s public charge rule, which runs counter to our values as Americans and the history of our nation. Allowing immigration officials to make an individual’s ability to receive a visa or gain permanent residency contingent on their use of government services such as SNAP benefits or Medicaid, their household income, and other discriminatory criteria undermines America’s character as land of opportunity that is open and welcoming to all, not just the wealthy.End the so-called National Emergency that siphons federal dollars from the Department of Defense to build a wall. Building a wall will do little to deter criminals and cartels seeking to exploit our borders. Instead of stealing resources from schools for military children and recovery efforts in Puerto Rico, Biden will direct federal resources to smart border enforcement efforts, like investments in improving screening infrastructure at our ports of entry, that will actually keep America safer.Protect Dreamers and their families. The Obama-Biden Administration created DACA in 2012 to protect “Dreamers,” undocumented immigrants who were brought to the U.S. as children, obeyed the law once here, and stayed in school or enlisted in the military. DACA provided young people who passed a background check and application process with temporary work permits and protection from deportation. The Trump Administration made the cruel and counterproductive decision to terminate DACA, throwing into turmoil the lives of millions of Dreamers. Dreamers and their parents should have a roadmap to citizenship through legislative immigration reform. But in the meantime, Biden will remove the uncertainty for Dreamers by reinstating the DACA program, and he will explore all legal options to protect their families from inhumane separation. Biden will also ensure Dreamers are eligible for federal student aid (loans, Pell grants) and are included in his proposals to provide access to community college without debt and invest in HBCU/Hispanic Serving Institution/Minority Serving Institutions, which will help Dreamers contribute even more to our economy.And lots more The Biden Plan for Securing Our Values as a Nation of Immigrants – Joe Biden for President: Official Campaign Website

Q. Can territories be counted as countries?A. No, because they lack sovereignty. Historically, territories were created to govern newly acquired land. Most territories eventually attained statehood.Other territories at some point administered by the U.S. eventually became independent countries, such as the Philippines, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau.Guam - Wikipedia Territory of GuamGuåhån (Chamorro)FlagSealUnited States GovernmentTerritorial presidential constitutional republic• President Donald Trump (R)• Governor Eddie Baza Calvo (R) Lieutenant Governor Ray Tenorio (R)• Delegate Madeleine Bordallo (D)Legislature Legislature of GuamUnincorporated and Organized Territory of the United States• Part of Spanish East IndiesApril 27, 1565 • Capture of GuamJune 20, 1898 • First Battle of GuamDecember 8, 1941 • Part of Empire of JapanDecember 11, 1941 • Second Battle of GuamJuly 21, 1944Population • 2016 estimate 162,742Guam (/ˈɡwɑːm/ ( listen); Chamorro: Guåhån [ˈɡʷɑhɑn]) is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States in Micronesia in the western Pacific Ocean.The capital city of Guam is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo. The inhabitants of Guam are called Guamanians, and they are American citizens by birth. Indigenous Guamanians are the Chamorros, who are related to other Austronesian natives to the west in the Philippines and Taiwan.In 2016, 162,742 people resided on Guam. Guam has an area of 210 square miles (540 km 2) and a population density of 775 per square mile (299/km). In Oceania, it is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia. Among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest population density at 3,691 per square mile (1,425/km), whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119 per square mile (46/km). The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 1,332 feet (406 m) above sea level. Since the 1960s, the economy has been supported by two industries: tourism and the United States Armed Forces.The indigenous Chamorros settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, while in the service of Spain, was the first European to visit the island on March 6, 1521. Guam was colonized by Spain in 1668 with settlers, including Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic Jesuit missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons. During the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21, 1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10, 1898. Guam is among the seventeen non-self-governing territories listed by the United Nations.Before World War II, there were five American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean: Guam and Wake Island in Micronesia, American Samoa and Hawaii in Polynesia, and the Philippines in the Malay Archipelago of Southeast Asia.On December 7, 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, who occupied the island for two and a half years. During the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture.American forces recaptured the island on July 21, 1944; Liberation Day commemorates the victory.An unofficial but frequently used territorial motto is "Where America's Day Begins", which refers to the island's close proximity to the international date line.How Do You Count Countries You've Been To?The Right Way To Count How Many Countries You’ve Been To?by Drew Macomber | Oct 9, 2014 | 15 commentsI hate counting countries. I don’t mean to go on to brag about how much we’ve traveled or sound like a grouch, it’s just a goofy system of counting, and I think I found a better way. But not only that, most people don’t realize that there isn’t an official number of countries.“Puerto Rico” culturally Latin America, geographically Caribbean, politically it’s own and therefore… obviously it’s part of the USA. Yeah, obviously.There’s no way of counting in countriesAnd I used to think it was a political fact that a country is a country. While I actually believe that it should be obvious that Puerto Rico would “count” as it’s own country, it seemed that facts said it was a part of the USA. But according to what? To us, that’s who.Turns out, each country or organization can count countries differently. Just google “how many countries are in the world?” and google pulls up something that says 196… except some don’t count Taiwan, so 195. Obviously google isn’t an official resource, but it does say “the UN counts 192 countries”.Which is crazy because the “.gov” answer from the US is 206. That’s 14 off, somehow. What’s crazier is that the US’ list which is the higher number doesn’t include the following countries: French Guiana, French Polynesia, Greenland, The Cook Islands(!), Cayman Islands, and many many more equally ridiculous.No one agrees with anyoneFor example, Kosovo thinks it is a country, and half the world does not consider Kosovo a country. Which half is right?Or the obvious – Taiwan. Which looks, acts, and quacks like a country… but China says it isn’t.Politics Don’t MatterThe most ridiculous thing is the political nature of dividing countries. For example, Hong Kong has its own passport stamp, its own currency, and its own political system and yet, it’s China? No it’s not, it’s totally different in every way possible.Culture and Geography Don’t MatterHawaii, what the heck? It’s not even close to being anywhere near the USA. And culturally it’s Polynesian, but it’s our political entity. And don’t even tell me Guam is the US.Or the opposite- when two countries have the same culture, language, etc but have separate systems, and therefore are separate countries. Like when East and West Germany were separate.And when talking to another traveler…Time doesn’t matter. People use it like a check list to brag about. We’ve been to 51 countries now, but I know there are people who have been to as many countries without ever spending any time in any of them. Just stamping your passport counts. We’ve spent probably 3-4 months of our life in Thailand, but someone else who has been to Bangkok for a night has been there too.I mean, there are countries we’ve “been to” technically, but just for a few hours. Like Australia. It feels funny saying “we’ve been to Australia” when we really just spent a night in Sydney.Size Doesn’t MatterAlso, we’ve been not only to Bangkok, but to the nearby Ayutthaya, and the border towns of Cambodia, the golden triangle and Malaysia. We’ve been to Chiang Mai and the country side in the north and all over the south including islands of Thailand like Phuket, Phi Phi and Koh Samui.But someone who has been to Bangkok for a night can say, “yep we’ve been to Thailand”. But have they? Do they know Thailand?A ridiculous example would be people who have laid over in Beijing or Shanghai. That is such a small percent of the country and it’s not how 90+% of Chinese people live or ever get to see. If you want to say you’ve seen China go inland and see an ever poorer city, or rural life, see the incredibly diverse terrain, and learn that the language changes as you go.The “what is a country” test?French Polynesia:Geographically – It’s on the complete opposite side of the world as France. In the middle of the Pacific, and France is two oceans away on the west coast of Europe.Culturally – It’s the complete opposite as France as it’s an island culture, Polynesian to be pacific… I mean, specific. French Polynesians like to catch fish, fish, fish, pineapples, coconuts, yams, taros… sounds like France to me.Politically – French Polynesia has its own presidentCurrency – French Polynesia has its own currencyCountry test answer: French Polynesia is France according to our government, and the french government.So that’s that?The Better Way of Counting CountriesMy big beef is that I try to see cultures and that’s not at all defined by the UN. Like there is no inherent definition of countries by political lines. For example, until 1993, Slovakia wasn’t a country but a part of Czechoslavakia. Today Slovakia is its own country. So which one was right? Both definitions? That one day it wasn’t and then one day it was because people voted on it?Or when people have the world record for visiting all the countries of the world (youngest world record holder, first, one guy did it all without flying), they all have to race to a new country when it’s added to their official list.But I found a list the defines things like I wish they were defined. That seeing Puerto Rico is not seeing the US, that seeing Tahiti is not seeing France, and that seeing Greenland is not seeing Denmark.Rapid Travel Chai said he was interested in the Indonesian Hopper and that it would get him closer to the “Travelers Century Club”. After a quick google search, it’s an actual club of ~2,000 people who have been to over 100 countries. But they don’t use the political UN list, it’s a list for travelers.Take a look at the list here.This is the best list I’ve seen and it has 324 (by my count) countries.ConclusionIs this me copping out in order to increase the number of countries I visit? No.If anything, my goal is to see every country, and I just increased the load by a lot. And I travel slow, so it’s going to take me a long time.Sometimes we call something a country a country because it operates differently… and sometimes you you call it a territory. Believe it or not, I think this system is less ambiguous as it isn’t dependent upon the fickle government of your choosing.What’s a country?When you go someplace, and it’s different.Territories of the United States - WikipediaTerritories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions directly overseen by the United States (U.S.) federal government. Unlike U.S. states and Native tribes that have sovereignty alongside the federal government, territories are without sovereignty (according to a 2016 Supreme Court ruling called Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle).The territories are classified by whether they are "incorporated" (i.e., part of the U.S. proper) and whether they have an "organized" government through an Organic Act passed by the U.S. Congress.The U.S. has sixteen territories in the Caribbean Sea, the south Pacific Ocean, and the western portion of the north Pacific Ocean. Five of the territories are permanently inhabited and are classified as unincorporated territories. The other eleven are small islands, atolls, and reefs with no native or permanent population. Of those eleven, only one is classified as an incorporated territory. Two territories (Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank) are administered by Colombia.Historically, territories were created to govern newly acquired land. Most territories eventually attained statehood.Other territories at some point administered by the U.S. eventually became independent countries, such as the Philippines, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau.Many organized incorporated territories of the United States existed from 1789 to 1959. The first were the Northwest and the Southwest territories, and the last were the Alaska Territory and the Hawaii Territory. 31 of these territories applied for and were granted statehood. In the process of organizing and promoting territories to statehood, some areas of a territory lacking sufficient development and population densities were temporarily orphaned from parts of a larger territory after residents voted on whether to petition Congress for statehood. For example, when a portion of the Missouri Territory became the state of Missouri, the remaining portion of the territory, consisting of all the states of Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota, most of Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana, and parts of Colorado and Minnesota, effectively became an unorganized territory.U.S. territories tend to have infrastructure and telecommunications inferior to the United States mainland; for example, American Samoa's Internet speed was found to be slower than several Eastern European countries. Poverty rates are also higher in the territories than in the states.Everything You Need To Know About US TerritoriesIs Puerto Rico a Country? - Puerto Rico 51stDependent territory - WikipediaA dependent territory, dependent area or dependency is a territory that does not possess full political independence or sovereignty as a sovereign state yet remains politically outside the controlling state's integral area.A dependency is commonly distinguished from subnational entities in that they are not considered to be part of the integral territory of the governing state. A subnational entity typically represents a division of the state proper, while a dependent territory often maintains a great degree of autonomy from the controlling state. Historically, most colonies were considered to be dependencies of their controlling state. The dependencies that remain generally maintain a very high degree of political autonomy. At the same time, not all autonomous entities are considered to be dependencies, and not all dependencies are autonomous. Most inhabited dependent territories have their own ISO 3166 country codes.Some political entities have a special position recognized by international treaty or agreement resulting in a certain level of autonomy or differences in immigration rules. These are sometimes considered dependencies, but are officially considered by their controlling states to be integral parts of the state.Examples are Åland (Finland) and Hong Kong (China).