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Are the Australian ‘Aboriginal’ or Indigenous Peoples genetically “unique”?Yes, they are, and measurably so in terms of the frequency and spread of specifically selected markers, from which haplogroups may be inferred and associated populations derivedIt is these haplotypes, and groups composed of individuals with specific markers and associated alleles, that may be said to have a unique genetic signature.[1][2]Given a strong connection with “country” or place, and evidence for persistence within isolated and challenging geographic regions over a long period (‘regionalism’[3] ), a claim to ‘uniqueness’ may be considered plausible.[4][5][6]It is also apparent that whilst likely part of the same initial founder Sahul migration at ~50,000 years ago (kya), the Australian and Papuan populations have genetically diverged, likely due to possibly episodic yet sustained geographic isolation[7]However global human genetic diversity is measurably low, with maximum diversity to be found within modern African populations. In respect to which Australia’s Indigenous peoples have been demonstrated to be genomically closer to all non-African populations.So whilst “unique” by degree, they share much more with all peoples, inside or out of Africa. In a sense, we are all unique.[8][9][10]And did Dr Tyler-Smith actually say what has been claimed?I did look for that quote, and the closest match I can find is “"We have discovered that there is a very deep, 50,000-year-long history that is specific to the Y-chromosome of Aboriginal Australians. This deep split essentially shows we have two rungs of human evolution after 50,000 years - one in Sahul and one in the rest of the world," Dr Tyler Smith said.”[11]Whilst in meaning very close, it does add context - that it was a Y-chromosome or male-line study - and it illuminates the potential dangers inherent in accepting ‘quotations’ at face valueIt is uncertain here what Dr Tyler-Smith meant by “rungs”, which is suggestive of a ladder (rather than a bifurcation, say) but the flavour overall is of genetic and geographic isolation for a long period of timeThat in itself is not controversial. It may well have been longer.And even that media-derived quote gets Dr Chris Tyler-Smith’s name wrong. So much for journalistic accuracy.That may be all you wish or need to read. But for those with enquiring minds, I have more.This particular 2016 study was of 13 male Australian Indigenous individuals out of a larger sample of 144, and comparison was made with a global database, including 12 Papuan individuals. The paper takes note of and confirms a shared origin for Papuan and Australian groups, which combined represent the ‘Sahul’ population. That the sample was small, was noted.[12] Other studies, including a larger 2010 GWAS study based on SNPs confirms dating and a Sahul or Papuan/Australian founder group.[13]Both studies (and many others) go to some pains to point out the difficulty involved in extracting a clean signal from what could be easily corrupted or distorted dataIndeed given the circumstances of the invasion, the Y-chromosome is particularly prone to replacement by European haplotypesGiven that Australia’s Indigenous peoples have in modern times been invaded, marginalised, and largely and forcibly displaced by a ‘modern’ European population, and subsequently and substantially mixed, care is needed in extracting that post-1788 signal from the core data.[14]But it is clear that the Indigenous peoples of Australia do have a unique, long-lasting and largely isolated relationship with their country, yes.[15][16]Taken as a group they are composed of several identified haplotypes, some of which are indeed considered “ancestral”, “ancient”, and even “novel”[17]But such “uniqueness” is ultimately derived from even more ancestral and ancient African population sourcesAnd it is a “uniqueness” shared in part with Papuan populations, as well as with all populations outside of Africa.[18][19]You can see the uniqueness as well as the shared haplotypes in the image below (taken from the sources linked to above). Bear in mind that haplotypes are defined by a very select set of markers, designed to highlight both population in-group commonality as well as between-group difference. In a sense it’s a veneer that sits upon a much deeper shared genomic inheritance.[20]All of which - and more, which I’ll come to later - does dilute the meaning of “unique” somewhat. We are all, after all, “unique”.[21]Now I’m not a population geneticist or anything close, but I take an interest. That’s my disclaimer, and a warning that whilst all care is taken, and references given, we are all shaped by our own biases to greater or lesser degrees.FWIW in my opinion the quote probably over-simplifies and over-states the situation, possibly to emphasise the significance of the research to the Australian Indigenous peoples.In fairness, such press-release or promotional quotes are easily taken out of contextThe presumably later (and unauthorised) insertion of “[Australia]” after “Sahul” is particularly notable, as Sahul is not composed of Australia alone. The study authors stated this several times.That aside, in general terms numerous studies do show fairly low genetic diversity across all human populations, such that a random comparison between such populations reveals just 0.1% global human genetic variation. Or, we are all 99.9% alike (some argue for a lower percentage).[22] This is assumed to include Australian populations.Which makes “uniqueness” somewhat relative.Whilst you can argue the point, and quite reasonably so, there’s little doubt that we are measurably and comparatively genetically undiverseWhich does undermine any sense of “two rungs” of human evolution, based on one (admittedly significant) founder event 50,000 years ago in Sahul. (There’s some evidence and support for an earlier date, around 65,000 years ago, as well.)In fairness, the author is possibly reflecting upon and emphasizing both the founder effect and (subsequent to that) what is believed to be the long period of isolation experienced by the Indigenous Peoples of Australia. Other peoples in other places may have been similarly isolated but for shorter periods of time before mixing with another population.To suggest that this represents “two rungs” (of a ladder?) is potentially misleading, in my view. Others have described more complex relationships, but the split, if any, is more clearly between African diversity and all of us who have moved “out of Africa” from circa 80kya.[23][24]In that sense the Indigenous Australian population represents an outlier or an isolate.Given also that some mixing did occur in Australian populations (mostly at the Top End, where populations may have at times mixed with the less isolated Papuans, also of Sahul descent), and that multiple serial founder populations were probably involved all along the likely coastal or ‘southern’ route from north-east Africa via India to Sunda, we should be cautious in our conclusions. The journey to Australia was one of some 10,000 years (or more) in itself, and at some point they also “met the Denisovans”.[25][26][27][28]Which implies a more complex genomic narrative with differing rates of genomic loss (and potential gain) along the most likely route. (A ‘European’ route or origin is not generally supported, and the claimed late insertion of sub-continental Indian markers has been discounted by many.[29][30])In essence other groups (island and remote valley populations, for instance) were also temporally and physically isolated for long periodsWhich suggests a more nuanced, less dichotomous situation.In other respects the generally respected if debatable average molecular clock rate for human genomic change is something close to one “fixed” mutation every 8,000 years.[31]Which would give you an average of perhaps 6 or 7 significant allelic changes in the period of Australian Indigenous population isolation. That number may be enhanced by a combination of isolation, low population numbers, strong regionalism, and challenging environmental variables, of course.[32]Indeed this was a population that spread perhaps quickly but thinly across an entire continent (which still took time, perhaps another 3 to 5,000 years or so) and variously became regionally isolated as climate changed, and changed again. Which is to say that whilst as clearly related as any founder group may be, it’s not a perfectly homogeneous genomic group either; but one displaying regionalisms across a broader clinal variation.Which is to say, “unique” but with all of the caveats above.Footnotes[1] Genetic distance - Wikipedia[2] Mitochondrial DNA diversity of present-day Aboriginal Australians and implications for human evolution in Oceania[3] Aboriginal mitogenomes reveal 50,000 years of regionalism in Australia[4] DNA confirms Aboriginal people's long-lasting connection to country[5] World-first genome study reveals rich history of Aboriginal Australians[6] A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia[7] A Neolithic expansion, but strong genetic structure, in the independent history of New Guinea[8] Genetics has proven that you’re unique—just like everyone else[9] Human genetic variation - Wikipedia[10] Unequal by nature: a geneticist’s perspective on human differences[11] Aboriginal Australians 'genetically isolated for 50,000 years' -- Sott.net[12] Deep Roots for Aboriginal Australian Y Chromosomes[13] Whole-Genome Genetic Diversity in a Sample of Australians with Deep Aboriginal Ancestry[14] An investigation of admixture in an Australian Aboriginal Y-chromosome STR database - PubMed[15] Whole-Genome Genetic Diversity in a Sample of Australians with Deep Aboriginal Ancestry[16] Mitochondrial DNA diversity of present-day Aboriginal Australians and implications for human evolution in Oceania[17] Aboriginal Australian mitochondrial genome variation – an increased understanding of population antiquity and diversity[18] Aboriginal Australian mitochondrial genome variation – an increased understanding of population antiquity and diversity[19] Revealing the prehistoric settlement of Australia by Y chromosome and mtDNA analysis[20] Early human migrations - Wikipedia[21] Human genetic variation - Wikipedia[22] Genetics vs. Genomics Fact Sheet[23] Southern Dispersal - Wikipedia[24] Revealing the prehistoric settlement of Australia by Y chromosome and mtDNA analysis[25] Whole-Genome Genetic Diversity in a Sample of Australians with Deep Aboriginal Ancestry[26] Southern Dispersal - Wikipedia[27] Whole-Genome Genetic Diversity in a Sample of Australians with Deep Aboriginal Ancestry[28] Going East: New Genetic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Modern Human Colonization of Eurasia[29] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11401190_Gene_Flow_from_the_Indian_Subcontinent_to_Australia[30] Antiquity and diversity of aboriginal Australian Y‐chromosomes[31] Explaining the Imperfection of the Molecular Clock of Hominid Mitochondria[32] DNA dating: How molecular clocks are refining human evolution's timeline

DisclaimerI am not an employee in any archeological and genetical organization nor a representative working for any commercial entity. I think many answers written by my Chinese fellows are out of nationalism ego, some answers written by non-Chinese have a strong or underlying purpose to promote Eurocentrism or Sinophobia propaganda.Whole Genome Sequencing-Based Comparison is the gold standard in terms of tracing ancestry. Suggestions, criticism or other comments based on research papers or rational statements are appreciated. And I hope readers can differentiate between Hunter-gatherer societies and nomadic societies.Hunter-gatherer and nomadsIn hunter-gather society, most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and pursuing wild animals). Hunting and gathering was humanity's first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90% of human history.Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism when livestock are herded in order to find fresh pastures on which to graze. The oldest nomadic remains can be dated back to the Upper Xiajiadian culture(UXC,3000-2700 BP).Manchu, Evenki and many Siberia nations are sometimes mistakenly identified as nomadic people, sorry, most of them live by fishing and raising animals on farms. They don’t drive their sheep and cattle from one steppe to another steppe. In old Turkic language, Tungusic means "wild pig and boar".What’s history?History by definition is "the past as it is described in written documents and the study thereof". If one emphasizes on written records, according to a clue from lunar eclipses recorded in inscriptions by the Bīn group, there is general agreement on four of these, spanning dates from 1198 to 1180 BCE, A fifth is assigned by some scholars to 1201 BCE.If you generously assume that writing took a little while to develop to the form in which it's found on these accoutrements of scapulimancy, you can maybe go back as far as 2000 BCE.[1]Have these stories finished? There is still "the past as it is described in the study thereof". Chinese scientists have excavated substantial numbers of cultural relics from Hongshan Culture and Fu Hao Tomb.More and more archaeological evidence shows that the ancestors of the Shang Dynasty’s founders could come from the West Liaohe River Basin. For this reason, we believe that the Hongshan civilization formed in 5,300 to 5,000 years ago should be one of the important sources of China’s five thousand years of civilization.[2]What? Didn’t Chinese culture radiate from the core Central Plain? Well, keep in mind the north was a large international airport station where people come and go, different races, ethnicities, tribes were flexibly fighting and migrating, breeding here.[3]According to Kong Yingda's commentary of Zuozhuan, Xia (夏) signified the "grandness" in the ceremonial etiquette and while Hua (華) was used in reference to the "beauty" in the clothing. [4]I will tell you the story behind the Huaxia.(Figure 1: Neolithic painted pottery basin, Yangshao culture)(Figure 2: genetic affies during the Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age)In the WLR(West Liao River basins), intensification of farming in the Late Neolithic is correlated with increased YR(Yellow river) affinity.[5]Archaeological individuals in Neolithic centre plainThe Yangshao culture was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the Yellow River in China, dating from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. The climate of the ancient centre plain once belonged to the Humid subtropical climate, leading to poor preservation of ancient DNA in the Central Plain area.But Chinese scientists found some "lucky dogs" these years, Li Tianjiao’s team[6]successfully obtained whole-genome sequences of 17 individuals from four archaeological sites. Xiaowu cemetery(XWM) belonged to the early Yangshao culture and the Wanggou(WGM) cemetery belonged to the middle and later Yangshao culture. While Haojiatai Ruins(HJTH) and Pingliangtai cemetery(HJTM) belonged to Longshan culture.(Figure 2: Haplogroups from four archaeological sites.)Analyses:Subclade Q1a1a1-M120 was found specifically in the Han Chinese with a low frequency. A bit surprising, Haplogroup Q-M120, also known as Q1a1a1, previous studies showed that Q1a1a1-M120 had migrated from north-western China to the Central Plain as nomads, and merged into the northern Han Chinese farmers at approximately 2500–3000 years ago.[7]But the individual XWM1R18 during the early Yangshao era possessed both the northern maternal lineage (D4g2a1) and northern paternal lineage (Q1a1a1), suggesting subclade Q1a1a1-M120 had migrated from Mongolia to China during the Neolithic period and spread over China with the ancestors of Han Chinese.The individual PLTM311 possessed the northern maternal lineage (D4b1a) and paternal lineage (NO, K2a/K2a1).Haplogroup D4(mtDNA) is common in East Asians and some Siberian populations.Haplogroup M11d(mtDNA) is found in China, Teleut, Kyrgyz, Iran.[8]Haplogroup M8a2(mtDNA) was frequently found in indigenous peoples of Kamchatka (Koryaks, Itelmens), and with lower frequency among Chukchis, Koreans, Altayans, Mongolians, Khakassians, and Tuvans.[9]Haplogroup F(mtDNA) is most common in East Asia and Southeast Asia.B4d1(mtDNA) is found in China and its subclade B4d1a is found in Han Chinese (Denver) and Barghut (Hulun Buir).[10]In Mongolia, most belong to C2b(Genghis Khan modal), while very few are C2e.Haplogroup O2a2b1 (M134) is the subbranch of Haplogroup O-M122 related to mainstream Sino-Tibetan populations.Haplogroup O1b1a2-Page59/CTS10887 has been found in approximately five per cent of modern Han Chinese and occasionally outside China, just see Cao Cao's(Chinese: 曹操) paternal genetic lineage.[11](Figure 3: Area of the Longshan culture (3000–2000 BC) ）The ancient DNA extraction was carried out on human remains from the Wadian site(4,250kaB. P.～3,900kaB.P, middle and later Longshan culture) in Yuzhou, Henan by Cuiyinqiu’s team. [12](Figure 4: Haplogroups from Wadian site)The female individual WD-1 possessed northern maternal lineage(N9a2). The male individual WD-2 possessed the northern maternal lineage (D5a2a1) and paternal lineage (O2a2b1a2a1c). The rest individuals failed to achieve results.Analyses:Haplogroup N9a2 is found in Japan, China (Barghut in Hulunbuir, Uyghur, etc.)Subclade D5 is found most frequently in the Xia-Shang population(25.93%~29.41%).[13]D5a2a1 is found in China, Korea, and Tuvan, but the D5a2a2 subclade is prevalent among the Yakuts.The results showed the genetic distance between the Yangshao&Longshang populations and the modern Han people was closest, but Longshan populations have more genetic components from the Southern part of East Asia, which is possibly related to the prehistoric "rice-nation" Austronesian/Kra-Dai expansion.Yangshao culture and following Longshan cultureThe main food of the Yangshao and Longshan people was millet, though some rice evidence has been found in Yangshao culture and rice grains have been found in Longshan culture.The Yangshao culture crafted pottery, Yangshao artisans created fine white, red, and black painted pottery with human facial, animal, and geometric designs. But in the Longshan era, the skill in pottery making has made a significant breakthrough, including the use of pottery wheels, producing thin-walled and polished black pottery.(Figure 5: Human faced–fish decorated bowl recovered at Banpo.)Both people kept pigs and dogs, but Yangshao people had more sources of meat from fishing and hunting.The Yangshao culture produced silk to a small degree and wove hemp, but in the Longshan era, small-scale production of silk by raising and domesticating the silkworm in early sericulture was also known. In Majiayao Culture developed from the middle Yangshao phase,[14] the dancers on one pot are wearing a closing-fitting skirt while the dancers on one pot are wearing a floor-lengthened dress.(Figure 6: Neolithic pottery basin, Majiayao Culture)The "beauty" in the clothing originates from the production of silk, silk had become a luxury material appreciated in foreign countries well before the opening of the Silk Road by the Chinese.(Figure 7: A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in a silk dress, 1st century AD)Altaic people also speak highly of Chinese silk, a ballad from Altai region chants:My Altai, as beautiful as silk, I sacrifice myself unto your journey.[15]So, where is the "grandness" in the ceremonial etiquette from?Hongshan cultureHunshandake Sandy Lands locates in the south of Xilingol League, Inner Mongolia, China, earlier assertions that deserts in northern China are 10^6 years old, but the new study suggests desertification started from ca. 4,000 years old.(Figure 11: Hunshandake Sandy Lands)In the early and middle Holocene, northern China's eastern deserts, including much of the currently sparsely vegetated and semi stabilized Hunshandake, were covered by forests, reflecting significantly wetter climate associated with intensification of monsoon precipitation by up to 50%.[16]When the ancient centre plain got stuck in the Humid subtropical climate, the West Liaohe River Basin was quite suitable for habitation, the large number and variety of artefacts associated with these shoreline deposits suggest a relatively dense human population dependent on hunting and fishing.The earliest archaeological site is Niuheliang Runis(6500-5000 BP, Hongshan culture) located in the border of Lingyuan County and Jianping County, Liaoning Province, China. Among 6 samples,[17] 66.7% belonged to N1(xN1a, N1c), 13.7% belonged to C/C3e, 13.7% belonged to O3a (O3a3) or Haplogroup O-M122 associated with immigration from the Yellow River Valley.Niuheliang is an outstanding example of “holy sacrificial land” with Goddess Temple complex, ancient relics, cairns, mounds, altars and graves being found. Archaeological investigations suggest that hunting-gathering was the main mode of subsistence.(Figure 12, 13: Painted clay goddess face with eyes inset with jade）(Figure 14: Hongshan Jade dragon, maybe the first representation of the Chinese dragon)It's interesting that Miaozigou Site(6000-5000BP) found in inner Mongolia, China belonged to the northern branch of the Yangshao culture. Among 3 samples, 100% are N1(xN1a, N1c), the interaction between Yangshao people and northern indigenous people were fairly frequently. The economy of the Miaozigou site is mainly agriculture with a considerable component of hunting and animal breeding.Due to the "magic" of Hongshan Shamans, Linjiatan Site(5000BP) in Anhui province is thought to maintain strong relevances with early Hongshan culture.(Figure 15: Jade in Linjiatan Site[18])Xiaoheyan culture(5000-4200 BP) found in Inner Mongolia, China was established on fundaments of Hongshan culture, with increasing influences from Miaozigou culture and Dawenkou culture, the subsistence gradually shifted to dominant millet farming supplemented with animal husbandry and hunting. Among 12 samples, 100% are N1(xN1a, N1c).It was followed by the Lower Xiajiadian culture(Early Bronze Age, 4200-3600 BP) in Dadianzi Ruins, which was marked by a gradual shift to agriculture and the establishment of permanent settlements with relatively high population densities while retaining some of the hallmarks of the Hongshan culture.[19] Among 5 samples, 60% are N1(xN1a, N1c) and 40% are O3a (O3a3), immigration from the Central Plain had increased the genetic diversity of populations in this region. The archaeological analyses showed that farming tools and ceramic techniques can be traced to cultures from the Yellow River Basin. [20]Climate changeBetween 2900–2700aBP, based on pollen analysis as a record of climate change, temperatures suddenly dropped resulting in a cold climate.[21]4.2 ka, including fluvial degradation by ∼30 m and a similar drastic lowering of the water table, which led to the disappearance of lakes, coupled with a precipitous drop in monsoonal precipitation, resulted in a dominance of aeolian processes.[22]The original subsistence based on farming, animal husbandry, and hunting gradually shifted to a pasture-based lifestyle to adapt to the colder climate.[23] Among 11 samples, 11.1% are N1(xN1a, N1c), 33.3% are N1c, C3e are 11.1%, 22.2% are O3a (O3a3) and 22.2% are O3a3c.The Upper Xiajiadian(Late Bronze Age, 3000-2700 BP) people mainly practiced animal husbandry and made bronze objects decorated with animal and other natural motifs in the style of the Eurasian steppes.(Figure 16: The geographic location of the archaeological sites around the West Liao River valley)Part of this population moved south later in the Bronze Age in response to a cooling climate, ultimately affecting the gene pool and culture in the Central Plain. "Research on Jade Figurines from Fu Hao Tomb and Related Problems" was published by the Institute of Archaeology CASS, Beijing, pointing out the figurines in Fu Hao Tomb have been strongly influenced by the appearance feature and traditional function of figurines in Hongshan Culture.(Figure 17: Jade comparisons 1. Fuhao tomb 2. Nasitai archaeological site, Inner Mongolia 3. Niuheliang archaeological site, Liaoning 4. Jade dragons from Hongshan culture 5. Jade dragons from Fuhao tomb)More Hua or Xia?At the very start, Yangshao culture and Hongshan culture were distinctive cultures established by different groups. Someone once asked me if Yangshao were "Hua" due to silk manufacture and Hongshan culture were "Xia" due to the grandness of sacrificial etiquette, were ancient Chinese more "Hua" or "Xia"?This question sounds like "Do you look like your mother or your father?"The proofs from archaeology and molecular biology suggest the facial features of Hongshan culture indigenous people are closer to that of northern Asians with high cheekbones, shallow eye sockets, and low-rooted nasal bridges. Yangshao people have more genetic components from the Southern part of East Asia, but still more "north" than current Central Plain people. As a whole, the maternal line of Yangshao people shows very high affinities with that of Hongshan people.(Figure 18: Hongshan goddess and reconstruction)The Chinese language is among the northern branches of Sino-Tibetan languages associated with the population expansions of Haplogroup O-M122. [24]Millet farming and manufacturing techniques of silk, farming tools, and ceramic techniques originated in Central Plains. Yangshao people possible learned rice farming directly or indirectly from Liangzhu culture associated with the modern Austronesian and Tai-Kadai population.[25]However, religions played a significant role in formations and developments of pre-historical tribes, nations, and cities. Our serious Confucian scholars developed from pre-priests in Shang-Zhou eras will tell us:[26]昔者先王，未有宮室，冬則居營窟，夏則居橧巢。未有火化，食草木之實、鳥獸之肉，飲其血，茹其毛。未有麻絲，衣其羽皮。後聖有作，然後修火之利'Formerly the ancient kings had no houses. In winter they lived in caves which they had excavated, and in summer in nests which they had framed. They knew not yet the transforming power of fire, but ate the fruits of plants and trees, and the flesh of birds and beasts, drinking their blood, and swallowing (also) the hair and feathers. They knew not yet the use of flax and silk, but clothed themselves with feathers and skins. The later sages then arose, and men (learned) to take advantage of the benefits of fire.The national narration directly inherited from early northern hunter-gatherer populations instead of Yangshao silk&pottery makers. Jade dragon in Hongshan culture makes the Chinese become "the descendants of the dragon". The places for sacrificial ceremonies influenced traditional Chinese architecture.The central part of Dongshanzui relics is the foundation of a large-scaled square structure built of stone. The overall layout of the bilateral symmetry of the foundation to a south-north axis, which is characteristic of the traditional Chinese architectural style, is the first of its kind ever discovered at the site of Neolithic Age.[27]By the way, the N1(xN1a, N1c) was found in Hongshan culture and the ancient Han Chinese population. A northern subclade N1a1 (M46/Tat) reaches a maximum frequency of approximately 90% among the Yakuts.[28] The explanatory notes from WeGene, 23andMe or other DNA-testing platforms are really misleading.But I can’t deny the historical contacts and interactions between Han Chinese and Siberian people. The people of Zhou(12th–3rd century BCE) got to know aurora, polar day and night through their northern neighbors. "The Classic of Regions Beyond the Seas: The North" section says:The deity of Mount Bell is named Torch Shade. When this deity's eyes look out there is daylight, and when he shuts his eyes there is night. When he blows it is winter, and when he calls out it is summer. …He has a human face and a snake's body, and he is scarlet in color.(Figure 19: the scarlet aurora[29])(Figure 20: the funny dragon aurora[30])Footnotes[1] Kaiser Kuo's answer to China often notes it has 5000 years of history. On what basis? Is this an internationally agreed claim and could the same be said of other places on Earth?[2] http://kaogu.cssn.cn/zwb/xsyj/yjxl/qt/201905/W020190516540397384467.pdf[3] Feng Xian's answer to Why do many Turks think they descend from Mongolia?[4] Huaxia - Wikipedia[5] Ancient genomes from northern China suggest links between subsistence changes and human migration[6] 中原仰韶至龙山时期古代人群基因组学研究 - 中国知网[7] Ancient DNA evidence reveals that the Y chromosome haplogroup Q1a1 admixed into the Han Chinese 3,000 years ago[8] Haplogroup M (mtDNA) - Wikipedia[9] M (mtDNA) genealogy project[10] Haplogroup B (mtDNA) - Wikipedia[11] List of haplogroups of historic people - Wikipedia[12] 河南禹州瓦店遗址龙山时期古代居民DNA分析 - 中国知网[13] Ji Mu's answer to What are some cool facts about ancient China?[14] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332665098_Analysis_of_Dance_Patterns_on_Painted_Pottery_of_Majiayao_Culture[15] Altai Kai - Kara Suu (Altay Türkçesi ve Türkiye Türkçesi Alt Yazısı)[16] Groundwater sapping as the cause of irreversible desertification of Hunshandake Sandy Lands, Inner Mongolia, northern China[17] Y Chromosome analysis of prehistoric human populations in the West Liao River Valley, Northeast China[18] 专家：史前红山文化与凌家滩遗址文化曾有上层交流-中新网[19] Y Chromosome analysis of prehistoric human populations in the West Liao River Valley, Northeast China[20] Genetic characteristics and migration history of a bronze culture population in the West Liao-River valley revealed by ancient DNA[21] Genetic characteristics and migration history of a bronze culture population in the West Liao-River valley revealed by ancient DNA[22] Groundwater sapping as the cause of irreversible desertification of Hunshandake Sandy Lands, Inner Mongolia, northern China[23] Y Chromosome analysis of prehistoric human populations in the West Liao River Valley, Northeast China[24] Y Chromosomes of 40% Chinese Descend from Three Neolithic Super-Grandfathers[25] Liangzhu culture - Wikipedia[26] Li Yun[27] The Hongshan Culture -- china.org.cn[28] Haplogroup N-M231 - Wikipedia[29] Why the rare 'blood aurora' inspires awe – and foreboding[30] APOD: 2019 February 18

First off let me reassure you it is highly unlike to indicate any problem with your blood.MPV stands for mean platelet volume. The “fL” units are femtolitres. That is 10^-15 of a litre! Pretty small. The slightly raised MPV as in your case in the absence of a low or raised count or bleeding would usually be ignored by a clinical haematologist. It is often not a consistent finding on repeated testing and may be due to incorrect processing of a sample before testing.A genuine increase in MPV can also occur as a genetic variant, in some inherited disorders of platelets and also in conditions where platelet turnover is increased. The latter phenomenon occurs because the bone marrow produces larger platelets in some conditions where turnover is increased. Your platelet count is normal so I would not worry in the slightest about it.Disclaimer: I am fully retired and no longer registered for clinical practice. None of the above should be considered to establish a doctor - patient relationship. Please consult with a practising physician if you are ill.