C 2018: Fill & Download for Free

This varies widely based on your individual circumstances, but in general documentation falls into these areas:IDENTITY - if your tax preparer does not already know you, you may need to prove your identity, including photo ID and the social security numbers of yourself and anyone else listed on your tax return.If you have been a victim of IDENTITY THEFT, be sure to bring the letter with your Identity Protection PIN - your tax return will be rejected without itTAX PAYMENTS - if you paid estimated taxes, had a refund last year that you applied to this year’s taxes or had any other payments that were not listed on one of your income documents.HEALTH INSURANCE - 1095A/B/C to show that you had health insurance this year (this will not be required for tax years 2019 and later, but still applies in 2018). 1095-A if you had subsidized insurance through the marketplace to determine whether the subsidy was correct.INCOME - anyone that provides income to you should send you some tax-related document. Some common ones are:W-2 - from a job1099-MISC - varies, but commonly paid work done when you are not an employee1099-SSA or 1099-RRB - from social security/railroad retirement board1099-INT or DIV or B - from a bank, broker, insurance company for savings and investments1099-R - from retirement accounts, pensions, RMD withdrawalsK-1 - from trusts, estates, pass-through businesses5498-SA from HSA contribution/withdrawalFor the SELF-EMPLOYED gather documents showing your income itemsW2-G for refund of state or local income taxes (only needed if you itemized last year)1099-G - gambling winnings (if you itemize and for some states, bring receipts for losses as well)Alimony payments (if received)DEDUCTIONS - if you have expenses related to income-producing activities or activities the government wants to encourage. Common items:1098-E Student loan interestEducator expenses (for teachers - based on your own receipts)1098-T - Education expenses showing tuition, scholarships for higher education; receipts for booksChild and dependent care costs (from your child care provider)Alimony payments (if paid)IRA contributionsIf you ITEMIZE - medical receipts, state-local-property tax receipts, mortgage interest receipt, charitable contribution receipts, casualty loss receipts if you were in a federal disaster areaFor the SELF-EMPLOYED - costs incurred while conducting your business, for example cost of goods sold, advertising, equipment, office expenses, fees, insurance, tools & supplies, documentation of business travel & miles driven

The main Hub are Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal, Moncton & Fredericton New Brunswick, Halifax NS, St-John Newfound Land Manitoba, Saskatchewan, & Alberta ( Some Quebec & New Brunswick universities offer courses in french)https://www.hotcoursesabroad.com/study/canada/school-college-university/brandon-university/413944/international.html?fromSR=Y&crseCount=1&catDispName=Mechanical+Engineering&collegeId=413944&countryId=32&catCode=G6-3&nationCode=32&nationCntryCode=32&countryId=321-Brandon University MANITOBA is the Lowest cost University in Canada Brandon University-2-Memorial University New Found landNewfoundland and Labrador’s UniversityBrandon University’s tuition rates are among the most affordable in the country.Brandon University Tuition FeeBrandon University was established in 1889 and is one of the cheapest Canadian university with low tuition fees in arts, science, education, music, and nursing. There are 3,000 undergraduate students currently attend Brandon University, and you can become one too!Brandon University270-18th StreetBrandon, ManitobaR7A 6A9CANADAGeneral Phone NumbersVoice: (204) 728-9520Fax: (204) 726-4573E-Mail AddressesAdmissions: [email protected] Admissions if you want to apply to Brandon University, or if you’re looking for information on applying.Financial and Registration Services: [email protected] Financial & Registration Services to procure a transcript or for information about course fees or registration.Saint Paul University Ottawa / $5000 to $6000+161323661393Memorial University of NewfoundlandUndergraduate TuitionGraduate TuitionMemorial University of Newfoundland is a relatively easier Canadian university to be admitted because its admission rate of 66.8% admission rate. Also, this university is popular especially to international students because it is a cheap university in Canada. Its medicine, education, and geology departments are one of the best in Canada, so students interested in these fields should definitely apply.University of Prince Edward IslandTuition LinkUniversity of Prince Edward Island is one of the cheapest universities in Canada for international students. Its campus is beautiful and has around 130 acres of land. Students attending this university can study in various departments including veterinary medicine, chemistry, and physicsTuition LinkUniversity of Prince Edward Island is one of the cheapest universities in Canada for international students. Its campus is beautiful and has around 130 acres of land. Students attending this university can study in various departments including veterinary medicine, chemistry, and physicsLow Tuition Universities in Canada with Tuition Fees from $5000 to $16000Canada has a quite simple colony of international students.CANADA Popular among International Students?First, international students are attracted to the high rankings of Canadian universities and colleges. While the education system in Canada is excellent, it is cheaper compared to those in other developed countries such as USA and United Kingdom.Second, international students wish to study in Canada is the beautiful nature in Canada. This country is known for its beauty and has fascinating animals and plants. Since places like Vancouver, Quebec, and Nova Scotia are famous tourist attractions, many international students wish to study in Canada to sightsee and view the beautiful and magnificent nature.Third, Canadian universities and colleges offer undergraduate, Master’s, and PhD programs with an affordable tuition. Also, professional degrees such as MBA and Medical doctors can be obtained by paying affordable tuition fees. I need to state that these tuition figures change according to your major, so numbers are an average. I have included the tuition links to the official websites, so you can look up specific tuition fees for your major!ConclusionThis is a great list of all the cheap Canadian universities. However, this cheap tuition fees can be even lowered by scholarships! You definitely should check out the list at Canada Archives or Canada Scholarships Website if you want to have the possibility of studying in Canada for free.[ If you cannot afford to study in places like USA, Australia and UK where the tuition fees are high, you can study in Canadian low tuition universities. It might interest you to know that some universities in Canada charge very low tuition fees for international students. These tuition fees fall in the range of $5,000 to $10,000 per year for undergraduate, master and doctorate degree programs.Today, I will like to provide an updated list of these low tuition universities with their current tuition fees and contact information. ]Cost of living refers the amount of money an individual needs to take care of his/her expenses like feeding, accommodation, transportation etc in a particular period of time. In Canada, a student needs approximately $600 to $800 a month for his/her living expenses. This amount will take care of expenses such as feeding, buying of books, transportation etc. Please find below a breakdown of the cost of living in Canada for students:Accommodation (bedroom apartment) – $400 approximately per month. Shared can be less ;Bus Metro pass $50 monthCellular $ 50Internet high speed $65.Average restaurant meal – $10 – $25 per personMovies – $8.50 – $13Books and supplies – $1000 per yearGroceries – $250 – $400 per monthMedical Insurance $ 550. ( depending on the Province )So you can see from this breakdown that a student needs approximately $600 to $800 a month to live in Canada. Please note that these figures are estimated, a student can live on less or more depending on his/her spending habit.The main Hub are Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal, Moncton & Fredericton New Brunswick, Halifax NS, St-John Newfound Land Manitoba, Saskatchewan, & Alberta ( Some Quebec & New Brunswick universities offer courses in french)Most are based in the Old Canada constitution; as per University Magasine[ It’s a confusing post-secondary landscape out there, with universities that are home to colleges and colleges becoming universities. Then there are the polytechnics. A true polytechnic offers four-year bachelor’s degrees, but isn’t a university. It offers apprenticeship programs and on-the-job learning, but isn’t a community college. The wrong thing to do would be to go by the name. ]Mc Gill University Montreal CWUR World University Rankings 2018-2019[ Some go with “institute,” while one, Sakatchewan Polytechnic, tells it like it is. Ontario’s Sheridan College and Humber College tack on “Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning” on their names, while Seneca is a college of applied arts and technology. What it boils down to is that polytechnic schools don’t try to teach everything to everyone, unlike, say, a college, which has to serve the community and accommodate everyone, including students who want to do two years at college, then transfer to university to continue their education.][ “You don’t go here to study psychology or sociology or ancient history, as vital as those may be,” explains Nobina Robinson, CEO of Polytechnics Canada, a member-funded association that conducts research, development and analysis. “You go to Sheridan because they’re world leaders in animation arts. You attend Seneca to do their bachelor’s in open-source-software technical development, because they’re working with Mozilla and Firefox.”][ Polytechnics teach theory, but “in a way that’s more sticky,” says Glenn Feltham, president of the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology. He calls it competency-based education, and points to engineering programs at universities as an example of how far removed some disciplines have gone from their practical roots. ]HEC Polytechnique Montreal ( FRENCH )[ Polytechnics also have a very close relationship with businesses, and their research is all about solving problems that businesses bring to them. At the Humber Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning in Toronto, they offer “the practical education that’s going to make students job-ready,” says president Chris Whitaker. “Meeting the needs of industry and employers, that’s something that we’re very focused on.”][ Polytechnics engage in research, just like universities, but with a different approach. At Humber, it’s all about “helping small- and medium-sized businesses find solutions to challenges in their business, and it’s really an extension of the learning environment,” says Whitaker.]Dalhousie New Brunswick medical hospital[ According to Robinson, having the curricula designed with employers and industry sectors in mind, combined with a strong focus on graduate employment outcomes, makes polytechnic schools a solution for the massive social and economic challenge of youth underemployment, at 33 per cent, and youth unemployment, now at roughly 15 per cent.She says they play a crucial role in education right now, as Canada’s workforce ages and employers complain that entry-level workers don’t have the skills for the jobs. At the same time, these employers are not investing in entry-level training and have “been using a bachelor’s degree as an HR filter.”][ For that reason, Thomas Carey, a Vancouver-based supporter of undergrad education, sees polytechnic education only growing. “Ultimately, it’s the outcomes that matter: what our students are able to do [in the workplace].”Whitaker thinks the polytechnic is the education model of the future. “It’s one that students want; it’s one that industry wants, and I think it’s a great example of where learning is going.” he says. “So, like all good things, they just catch on and take a life of their own.” ]GRADUATE EMPLOYMENT RATE (within six months of graduation)https://universitymagazine.ca/affordable-cities-canada-students-2018/#1- Windsor Ontario Expand Your Mind#2- Quebec City Quebec French / Universite Laval :https://www.ulaval.ca/#3- Moncton New Brunswick / Université de Moncton#4- Gatineau Quebec French / UQO | Université du Québec en Outaouais english#5-London Ontario / WESTERN UNIVERSITY : Western University#6- Abbotsford BC /University Frazer Valley :/ University of the Fraser Valley (UFV.ca)#7-Tunderbay Ontario /Lakehead University#8-Kitchener Ontario Conestoga College /Your Ontario Community College for Full and Part-time studies#9-Fredericton New Brunswick / University of New Brunswick#10-St-Catherine Ontario /Welcome to Brock University¸#11-Montreal Quebec Concordia University / Concordia International#12-Peterborough Ontario / Trent University /Future Students - Trent University /International Undergraduate#13-Montreal Quebec Mc Gill University /INTERNATIONAL /Graduate fees (Summer 2018)#14-Halifax Nova Scotia /Dalhousie University ‑ Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada#15- Westman Manitoba / Brandon Universty /Brandon University improves in 2018 Maclean’s magazine rankings#16- Memorial University New Found land /Newfoundland and Labrador’s University#17- Ottawa Ontario / ST-Paul University /Tuition fees and scholarships18- Waterloo Ontario University of WaterlooGRADUATE EMPLOYMENT RATE (within six months of graduation)INSTITUTION ENROLMENT ( Quebec Universities not included)GRADUATE EMPLOYMENT RATE (%)Algonquin College, Ottawa /23,386/ 85%British Columbia Institute of Technology, Burnaby, B.C. / 45,097 /82 %Conestoga College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning, Kitchener, Ont. / 17,806 / 87 %George Brown College, Toronto / 33,358 /82 %Humber Institute of Technology & Advanced Learning, Toronto / 41,883 / 83%Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, Edmonton / 29,439 / 92 %Red River College, Winnipeg / 13,766 / 96 %SAIT Polytechnic, Calgary / 24,976 / 94 %Saskatchewan Polytechnic, Saskatoon / 14,465/ 93 %Seneca College, Toronto / 35,991 / 76 %Sheridan College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning, Oakville, Ont / 30,827 / 82 %Polytechnics Canada: Data from 2013-2014 Academic yearCanada Universities list, ( Complete) 100 Universities with linkRanking ,Presence, Impact, Openness, Excellence rankWorld Rank / University / Presence Rank* / Impact Rank* / Openness Rank*/ Excellence Rank#1 / 21 /University of Toronto /177/ 31/ 56 /9#2 /30 / University of British Columbia / 191 /39 / 51 /28#3 / 56/ McGill University / 242 /64 / 41 / 58#4 /64 University of Alberta / 372 / 70 / 34 /74#5 / 97 / University of Waterloo 343/ 76 /183 /166#6 / 102 / University of Calgary / 380/ 102/ 227 /136#7 /127 /Simon Fraser University/ 298/ 67 /109 /303#8 / 133 / McMaster University / 588 / 168 / 17 /158 / 161#9 / Université de Montréal French / 333 / 175 / 101 /205 /10 /169#10 / University of Western Ontario / Western University578 / 180 / 157 / 200 / 11 /184#11 / Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa 571 / 208 / 221 / 212 /12/ 191#12 / University of Victoria British Columbia 534 / 108 / 320/ /364 / 13 /199#13 / Queen's University Kingston 783 / 132 / 167 / 346 / 14 / 218#14 / York University / 370 / 119 /243 / 408 / 15 / 236#15 / Dalhousie University / 849 / 214 / 267 / 299 /16 /246#16 / Université Laval FRENCH / 399 / 263 / 240 /304/ 7 /268#17 / University of Manitoba / 748 / 257 / 356 /318 / 18 / 296#18 / University of Saskatchewan / 725 / 228 / 293 / 407 / 19 /332#19 / University of Guelph / 607 / 249 / 427 / 443 / 20 / 338#20 / Carleton University / 849 / 241 / 315 / 476 / 21 / 390#21 / Concordia University Montréal / 872 / 315 / 447 / 538 / 22 / 416#22 / Université du Québec Montréal FRENCH / 433 / 319 / 507 / 618 / 23 /432#23 / Memorial University of Newfoundland / 948 / 331 / 516 / 632 / 24 / 475#24 / Ryerson University /1313 /369 / 750 / 631 / 25 /522#25 / Université de Sherbrooke FRENCH / 668 / 593 / 536 / 633 / 26 /622#26 / University of Windsor / 1056 / 444 / 636 / 938 / 27 /629#27 / University of New Brunswick / 1402 / 488 / 455 /947 /28 /664#28 / École Polytechnique de Montréal FRENCH / 1701 / 959 / 464 / 691 /29 / 683#29 / University of Regina 1817 / 664 / 634 / 880 / 30 /747#30 / Brock University / 1351 / 628 /978 / 1037 /31 / 882#31 / Wilfrid Laurier University / 2445 / 833 / 859 / 1229 / 32 / 955#32 / University of Lethbridge / 1848 / 963 / 481 / 1431 /33 / 965#33 / Lakehead University / 2207 /1255 / 741 / 1180 / 34 /980#34 / Université du Québec FRENCH / 2570 / 1066 / 9321 / 435 / 35 / 1098#35 / Trent University /2879 / 1140 / 1137 / 1396 / 36 /1106#36 / HEC Montréal École de Gestion FRENCH / 2632 / 1594 / 393 / 1357 / 37 /1127#37 / Université INRS Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique FRENCH3359 / 3304 / 608 / 799 / 38 / 1127#38 / University of Ontario Institute of Technology4208 / 1952 /1021 / 1037 /39 /1139#39 /École de Technologie Supérieure FRENCH / 2666 /1859 / 895 / 1153 / 40 /1165#40 /University of Winnipeg / 3021 / 814 /1478/ 1751 / 41 / 1277#41 /Université du Québec Chicoutimi FRENCH /1486 /1203 /1312 / 1760 / 42 /1367#42 / Saint Francis Xavier University / 3397 / 1267 /1263 / 1841 / 43 / 1383#43 / University of Prince Edward Island / 2970 / 1265 / 1432 / 1875 /44 / 1392#44 /Athabasca University / 2361 / 1069 / 1459 / 2052 / 45 / 1396#45 / Saint Mary's University /3404 / 1463 / 1143 / 1796 / 46 /1430#46 /Acadia University / 3998 / 1054 / 1761 /2044 /47 / 1455#47/ (1) Université Laurentienne / Laurentian University3077 / 1836 / 1344 / 1702 / 48 /1491#48 /University of Northern British Columbia/ 2306 /1513 / 1379 / 1953 / 49 /1578#49 /Université du Québec Trois-Rivieres FRENCH/2947 /2633 /1499 /1586 /50 /1707#50 /Mount Allison University / 5019 / 1506 / 1528 / 2319 / 51 / /1848#51 / Université de Moncton / 2637 / 1914 / 2685 /2271 /52 /2048#52 / Université du Québec Outaouais FRENCH 3781 / 3595 /1465 /2150 /53 /2091#53 /Mount Royal University / 3571 /1804 /2289 /2834 /54 / 2103#54 /Université du Québec Rimouski FRENCH /4743 / 4772 / 1318 / 1869 / 55 /2217#55 /Nipissing University / 3557/ 2205 / 2016 /2897 56//2249#56 /Thompson Rivers University / 3404 / 1633 / 1935 / 3303 /57 / 2435#57 /Mount Saint Vincent University/ 5149 /2257 / 2184 /3226 / 58 /2450#58 /Bishop's University / 5356 / 2289 / 2974 / 3100 / 2559#59 / Royal Roads University 4400 / 2143 /2192 /3414 / 60 /2654#60 / Brandon University / 5040 / 2302 / 2521 / 3593 / 61 / 2657#61 / Université du Québec Abitibi-Temiscamingue FRENCH/ 5460 / 5197 / 1643 / 2669 / 62 / 2663#62 / Cape Breton University / 7030 / 3594 / 2079 / 3100 / 63 / 3073#63 / Royal Military College of Canada / 14090 / 4199 / 8/ 10776 / 1743 / 64 / 3116#64 / Northern Ontario School of Medicine (Laurentian University Lakehead University) / 20889 / 9198 /­ 1985 / 2288 / 65 / 3399#65 / Trinity Western University / 4450 / 2185 / 3213 / 4723 / 66 /3516#66 / Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College /15767 / 7105 / 4795 / 3173 / 67 /3548#67 / British Columbia Institute of Technology /3540 / 1090 / 3007 /5529 /68/4043#68 / Vancouver Island University (Malaspina)2894 / 1291 / 3077 /5974 /69 /4185#69 / University of the Fraser Valley / 3679 / 1580 / 2974 / 5974 / 70 /4267#70 / Algonquin College / 2669 / 1259 / 5601 / 5974 / 71 / 4322#71 / OCAD University (Ontario College of Art & Design)4293 / 1730 / 3576 / 5974 / 72 / 4331#72 / Humber College / 3298 / 1401 / 5284 / 5974 / 73 /4511#73 / Saint Thomas University /6694 / 4650 / 4082 / 5243 /é74 /4556#74 / George Brown College / 5198 / 1884 / 5007 / 5974 / 75 / 4563#75 / MacEwan University (Grant MacEwan College)4358 / 2682 / 2721 / 5974 / 76 / 4641#76 / Sheridan College Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning4887 / 2040 / 5231 / 5974 / 77 / 4663#77- / Kwantlen Polytechnic University (Kwantlen University College)3375 / 2420 / 4477 / 5974 /78 / 4821#78 / Seneca College / 3354 / 2099 / 6812 / 5974 / 79 / 4834#79 / Nothern Alberta Institute of Technology /5674 / 2538 / 5277 / 5974 /80 4838#80 / Centennial College Toronto / 4682 / 1847 / 7504 / 5974 / 81 /4857#81 / Okanagan College / 4358 / 762 /5149 / 5974 / 82 / 5166#82 / Conestoga College -6363 -2730 - 7181 - 5974 - 83 - 5177#83 / Tele-Université TÉLUQ FRENCH / 5559 / 4439 / 3256 / 5974 / 84 /5180#84 / Capilano University / 4083 / 3165 / 6521 / 5974 / 85 / 5209#85 / Redeemer University 10170 /6952 / 5617 / 5243 / 86 / 5247#86 / Niagara College / 4947 / 3107 / 6852 / 5974 / 87 / 5331#87 / Langara College / 5586/4258 / 8523 / 5529 / 88 /5421#88 / Douglas College / 5234 / 4210 / 5354 /5974 / 89 / 5440#89 / Dawson College Westmount Montreal/ 5736 / 3661 /6626 / 5974 /90 /5502#90 / Georgian College /5001 /3472 /7403 /5974 /91 / 5532#91 / Algoma University / 5093 / 5828 / 2919 / 5974 / 92 / 5669#92 / Emily Carr University of Art + Design / 4163 / 5082 / 5202 / 5974 /93 /5724#93 / École Nationale d'Administration Publique FRENCH/ 6136 /5861 / 3848 / 5974 /9 /5753#94 / Mohawk College / 5149 / 2552 / 9853 / 5974 / 95 /5756#95 / Nova Scotia Community College 9271/ 4706 / 5779 / 5974 /96 /5829#96 / Concordia University of Edmonton / 9153 / 5361 / 5089 / 5974 / 97 /5840#97 / John Abbott College / 9697 / 5239 / 5286 / 5974 / 98 / 5915#98 / Red Deer College / 5040 / 5005 / 6546 /5974 / 99 / 6050#99 / Yukon College / 10784 / 4144 / 8110 / 5974 / 100 / 6122#100- / Fanshawe College / https://www.fanshawec.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/fees/international18.pdfLow Tuition Universities in Canada with Tuition Fees from $5000 to $16000A- University or college? Polytechnics fall somewhere in between.B-http://www.webometrics.info/en/North_america/CanadaC-https://www.isnpo.org/blog/2017/08/17/list-of-low-tuition-universities-in-canada-for-international-students-with-fees-ranging-from-5000-to-10000/D-Tuition and incidental fees 2018-2019E-22 Cheap Universities in Canada - Scholarships for International Students 2018-2019F-International Student-Deposits, Payments & RefundsG-Tuition and Course related feesH-International Tuition and FeesI-University of Manitoba - -J-Graduate Tuition: Fall/Winter 2018 – 2019K-Tuition and Fees for Graduate StudentsL-Fee CalculatorM-Graduate Studies Tuition and FeesN-https://students.usask.ca/documents/tuition-factsheet.pdfO-Concordia InternationalP-22 Cheap Universities in Canada - Scholarships for International Students 2018-2019Q-Faculty of Graduate Studies and ResearchR-University FeesS-University fees | University of OttawaT-McMaster University - Future StudentsU-Faculty of Graduate Studies and ResearchV-University Rankings 2018: Canada’s top Comprehensive schoolsW-Visa offices outside Canadax-Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada website.Y-Internationalization Office website.Z-Study in Canada: Guide for International Students

Scholars divide the Middle Ages into three periods:Early Middle Ages – 476-1000 CEHigh Middle Ages – 1000-1300 CELate Middle Ages – 1300-1500 CEThere were many famous women throughout these three eras but the following twelve are among the best-known:Empress Theodora of ByzantiumHilda of WhitbyEnde the IlluminatorAethelflaed, Lady of the MerciansMatilda of TuscanyHildegard of BingenEleanor of AquitaineMarie de FranceJulian of NorwichChristine de PizanMargery KempeJoan of ArcTheodora of ByzantiumTheodora (l. 500-548 CE) was an actress in Constantinople (and possibly a prostitute) who converted to Christianity and took up wool-spinning and weaving as a profession. How she met the future emperor Justinian (r. 527-565 CE) is unclear, but he was so in love with her that he changed the law which forbade royalty from marrying actresses and made her his wife and partner in rule.Theodora ITheodora was an empress regnant, a female monarch with power equal to the emperor, and Justinian regularly took her counsel to heart. The most famous example of this is when she talked Justinian and his court out of fleeing the city during the Nika Riots of 532 CE. She is said to have cleverly conceded to the court that she was aware a woman should not speak in the presence of men but that the situation at hand called for extreme measures. She then advised them against fleeing the city simply to preserve their own lives because such lives afterwards would not be worth living. Justinian accepted her advice and dealt with the problem instead of running from it. The couple ruled the Byzantine Empire jointly until Theodora’s death, possibly from breast cancer, in 548 CE.Hilda of WhitbyHILDA ROSE FROM A NOVICE TO ABBESS OF HER ORDER & FOUNDED WHITBY ABBEY, WHICH BECAME A CENTER FOR LEARNING AND CULTURE.Hilda (l. 614-680 CE) was a noblewoman in the early days of the Kingdom of Northumbria who chose a life of piety and devotion to one at court. She rose from a novice to abbess of her order and founded Whitby Abbey, which became a center for learning and culture. Hilda was an able administrator who took care of the many facets of running the sizeable estate of the abbey but was always available for counsel and encouragement. She is known as the patron saint of poets for inspiring the shepherd Caedmon to write his famous hymn, the oldest extant poem in Old English. In 664 CE, King Oswiu of Northumbria chose Hilda’s abbey as the site for the synod which decided to accept Roman Catholicism over Celtic Christianity as the official religion of the region, and he did so because of Hilda’s reputation for wisdom and the strength of her counsel. She became even more famous after her death when a number of miracles were attributed to her and she was venerated as a saint.Ende the IlluminatorIt is well-established that by the 13th century CE women were involved in book production as scribes, illustrators, and illuminators of manuscripts, but Ende’s work makes clear that women were involved in this process as early as the 10th century CE. Ende was a nun at a monastery in Spain when she worked on the manuscript now known as the Gerona Beatus compiled by the monk Beatus of Liebana in c. 786 CE. The manuscript, now housed at the Gerona Cathedral in Catalonia, Spain, is signed by the artists who worked on it and includes the line "Ende pintrix et Dei adiutrix" (Ende, painter and God’s helper); the feminine form of the Latin makes clear that the illuminator was a woman. Other female illuminators and scribes are known from later centuries, including Guda (12th century CE) and Claricia (13th century CE), but Ende is the earliest known to date.Aethelflaed, Lady of the MerciansAethelflaed (r. 911-918 CE) was the daughter of Alfred the Great (r. 871-899 CE) and became Queen of Mercia following the death of her husband Aethelred II. As a daughter of Alfred, who believed literacy encouraged piety, she was highly educated and cultured. Her court was a well-known center of culture at which her nephew Athelstan, future King of the Anglo-Saxons and first King of England, grew up under her patronage.Statue of AethelflaedShe is best known as the Lady of the Mercians who defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Chester in 907 CE by carefully planning the defense of the city as an offensive ambush. She formed alliances with Irish mercenaries to aid in defense of her kingdom, planned and organized the cities and villages for maximum efficiency and aesthetic charm, and worked with her brother Edward the Elder of Wessex to protect the region against further Viking raids and boost the economy. At her death, she was briefly succeeded by her daughter Aelfwynn before her kingdom was absorbed by Edward into Wessex.Matilda of TuscanyMATILDA PERSONALLY SUPERVISED MILITARY OPERATIONS & EXPEDITIONS WHILE ABLY MANAGING THE AFFAIRS OF STATE.Matilda (1046-1115 CE, also known as Matilda of Canossa) was one of the most powerful women in the Middle Ages and the preeminent political force in medieval Italy. She is best known for her military prowess in defending her lands and the authority of Pope Gregory VII (c. 1073-1085 CE) from the aggression of Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire (r. 1056-1105 CE). Matilda personally supervised military operations and expeditions while ably managing the affairs of state which included administration over a vast kingdom. Following the death of Gregory VII, Matilda continued to defend the papacy and her reign until finally defeating Henry IV in battle personally in 1095 CE. In 1111 CE she was crowned Imperial Vicar and Vice-Queen of Italy by Henry V.Hildegard of BingenHildegard (1098-1179 CE) was a German polymath; a mystic, healer, scientist, visionary, author, composer, and abbess who claimed to receive visions from God from the time she was three years old and never doubted their truth. In 1150 CE, she is said to have received a vision to move her order to Rupertsburg and, when her male superior refused the request, she pressed the issue until her request was granted. A female cleric standing up to a male superior in an order never ended well for the woman and yet Hildegard prevailed and even founded a second order on her own after establishing herself at Rupertsburg. She never received a formal education but was highly literate as well as being well-versed in musical composition. She corresponded with others regularly and left behind a large collection of letters in addition to her literary, religious, scientific, medical, and musical works.Eleanor of AquitaineEleanor (l. c. 1122-1204 CE) was Queen of France, Queen of England, wife of two kings, mother of King Richard I (the 'Lion-heart'), King John of Magna Carta fame, Marie de Champagne (patroness of Chretien de Troyes), as well as a number of other notable children. She personally participated in the Second Crusade along with her ladies-in-waiting, allegedly riding bare-breasted into battle at one point to distract the Saracens.Eleanor of AquitaineHer accomplishments were numerous, but among them was her role as patroness of the arts which encouraged the development of the concepts of courtly love and chivalry in French literature. Although the impact of these concepts on medieval society is still debated, there is evidence that the works of authors like Chretien de Troyes and Andreas Cappelanus significantly influenced the aristocracy to regard women more as individuals and less like property.Marie de FranceMarie (wrote c. 1160-1215 CE) was a multilingual French poet, translator, and proto-feminist best known for her poetic work The Lais of Marie de France which popularized the concept of courtly love, the chivalric code, and the power of women. She is recognized as the first female poet of France but seems to have spent the majority of her time in Britain and was closely associated with the court of Henry II and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine. She is usually credited with establishing the medieval genre of chivalric literature but this is challenged on the grounds that Andreas Cappelanus and Chretien de Troyes – two notable pioneers of the genre - were writing at the same time and, probably, for the same patroness (Eleanor) and her daughter Marie de Champagne. Marie de France’s poetry and fables were very popular among the aristocracy of France and England even though they directly challenged the position of the Church on women as the weaker sex, subordinate to male authority. Marie’s poetry frequently features strong women who dominate men and are able to direct their own fates, even if they eventually are destroyed by their resistance to the patriarchy.Julian of NorwichJulian (l. 1342-1416 CE, sometimes given as Lady Juliana of Norwich) was a mystic, visionary, and author of the masterpiece of religious literature, Revelations of Divine Love. Julian’s actual name is unknown, and her pen name comes from her residence at St. Julian’s Church in Norwich, England. In May 1373 CE, Julian believed she was dying and, as she lay in her bed, received a number of visions from God which she wrote down shortly afterwards. She expanded on her original manuscript years later, developing her earlier thoughts to greater extent. Her essential message focused on God’s compassion and love for all, and she empowered women by comparing God’s love to a mother’s love which accepts all her children’s failings without judging. The anger and condemnation so often seen in the official position of the Church came not from God but from men because God had only the best in mind for humanity and, as she wrote, “all will be well and every manner of thing will be well” in spite of how circumstances might appear. Her work was relatively unknown until the early 20th century CE when it inspired and influenced poets such as T. S. Eliot, but in her own time she was well-known for her counsel and is known to have influenced the medieval mystic Margery Kempe.Christine de PizanChristine (l. 1364-1430 CE) was the first professional female writer in Europe, counselor to kings and aristocracy, and proto-feminist whose works were highly influential in her own time and continued to be in later centuries. Christine was married to an aristocratic court secretary who died of the plague in 1389 CE. With no means to support herself, her children, and her elderly mother, Christine turned to writing. Her father had encouraged her literary pursuits and so, even though she was never formally educated, she could read and write and never seems to have regarded her lack of professional training a bar to success.Christine de PizanShe is best known for The Book of the City of Ladies and The Book of the Three Virtues, also known as The Treasure of the City of Ladies, both published in 1405 CE. The first is her refutation of misogynist characterizations by the medieval author Jean de Meun in his popular Romance of the Rose, and the second is a hands-on practical advice manual for women in caring for themselves, their finances, husbands, and estates. Her works were quite popular in her lifetime and she was frequently sought for advice.Margery KempeMargery (l. c. 1373 - c. 1438 CE) was a Christian mystic who dictated her experiences and visions to create the first autobiography in English, The Book of Margery Kempe. In her life and work, she consistently challenged the patriarchy of the Church and was tried a number of times for heresy but never convicted. Her devotion to God and belief in the truth of the visions she received made it impossible for her to keep quiet about her faith and she frequently bore witness publicly in the communities where she lived. The prohibition against female clergy and biblical admonition against women teaching men or speaking in a man’s presence led to further conflict with the clergy as well as laymen of the towns she lived in. She visited Julian of Norwich in c. 1413 CE for validation of her visions and mystical experiences, which Julian granted. Margery was either illiterate or poorly educated and dictated her book, in part, to reach a wider audience than she could in person.Joan of ArcJoan (l.1412-1431 CE, also known as Jeanne d’Arc) was a French visionary mystic and military leader known for her victories in the Hundred Year’s War and tragic death by execution in 1431 CE. She claimed to have received a message from God in a vision of three saints who appeared to her when she was 13 directing her to drive the English from France and ensure the coronation of the Dauphin at Rheims.Statue of Joan of ArcJoan, a poor farm girl with no military experience, persevered through repeated obstacles and snubs from French military officials until she was granted access to arms and armor and allowed to join the army. She lifted the siege of Orleans, leading men in battle, and participated in strategic and tactical engagements afterwards but was captured by the Burgundian allies of the English and handed over to an English tribunal who executed her for heresy in 1431 CE through burning at the stake. Joan was 19 years old at the time of her death. The sentence of the court was later invalidated and Joan is honored as one of the patron saints of France in the present day.There were, of course, many other women of note throughout the Middle Ages. Some of these are the German dramatist and poet Hrotsvitha (10th century CE); the Scottish queen Gruoch (11th century CE), model for Shakespeare’s Lady Macbeth; the Italian physician Trota of Salerno (c. 1100 CE); Jeanne de Clisson (c. 1300-1359 CE), the Breton pirate, and the Italian feminist/humanist author Laura Cereta (1469-1499 CE).Many other women’s names are known from court documents, business transactions, land sales, and successfully running their late husband’s business, their own business, as well as managing estates and as valued members of medieval guilds. Lady Eleanor of Montfort (also known as Eleanor of England, l. 1215-1275 CE) negotiated the surrender of Dover Castle so successfully that her supporters were pardoned and Brunhilda of Austrasia (l. c. 543-613 CE) ruled the Frankish kingdoms of Austrasia and Burgundy.There were, no doubt, many other women who also lived notable lives but whose names are now lost because they went unnoticed by the male writers of their time. The names of the most famous women of the Middle Ages are still known in the present day not because the patriarchy of the time valued them, for the most part, but in spite of that social hierarchy which denied women the avenues of expression and autonomy open to men.BibliographyArman, J. The Warrior Queen: The Life and Legend of Aethelflaed, Daughter of Alfred the Great. (Amberley Publishing, 2018).Cantor, N. F. The Civilization of the Middle Ages. (Harper Perennial, 1994).De Hamel, C. A History of Illuminated Manuscripts. (Phaidon Press, 1997).Gies, F. & J. 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