Temporary Work Rules: Fill & Download for Free

The explosion of the gig economy continues unabated.Last year, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 55 million people in the U.S. are “gig workers,” which is more than 35% of the U.S. workforce. That number is projected to jump to 43% by 2020.If you’ve never heard the term, “gig work” is basically just a buzzy way of describing an independent contract or part-time job, like driving for Uber or freelance copywriting.Millennials, the generation credited with disrupting everything from housing to marriage, are gravitating towards gig work for the promise of greater work-life balance. Boomers and other generations on the brink of retirement are drawn to gig work because it brings in a little extra income without a major time commitment. And recent technologies like Skype, Slack, and DropBox have made the gig life a reality, giving you maximum freedom, an ideal work-life balance, and the chance to pursue your passions.If you’re thinking of joining the gig economy, it’s never been easier. But freelance work also comes with challenges, like unsteady workloads and pay schedules, lack of benefits, and a ton of self-discipline.Here’s what you need to know before you make the jump:You’re your own boss, so discipline is key.One of the great things about the gig economy is that you don’t have a boss breathing down your neck.As a freelancer, you no longer have to cater to a company culture or work schedule that might cause physical or emotional stress. Instead, you get to choose the type of work you do and who you work with. Plus, you get to make your own decisions about when to wake up, when to work, when to exercise, when to run errands, and how much work you take on. You’re able to make choices that suit your personality and unique needs.But this degree of freedom requires a corresponding amount of discipline, and that doesn’t come easily to everybody.With no boss to make sure you’re on task, it’s all on you. If you wake up late and miss a client call, no one else can help smooth things over. It's your responsibility to apologize, call to reschedule or lose the client altogether. Not everybody is suited to be his or her own timekeeper. Some people need structure and the pressure of an authority figure to stay motivated.But if you’re a self-starter who chafes at being told what to do, the gig life could be a perfect fit.The gig economy is great for creatives.The other day, I asked my Uber driver if driving was his full-time job or a side gig. He said he’s a freelance graphic designer and works on projects for clients roughly three hours a day. The rest of his working hours, he drives Uber to keep himself occupied.When you’re a young creative just starting out, and your resume is more or less a blank slate, gig work can help you get a foot in the door.The gig economy allows creatives to pay the bills while also giving them time to pursue their passions. Visual artists like my Uber driver can supplement freelance design work by driving for rideshare services. Aspiring novelists can freelance as copywriters to make their rent payments.Plus, you can do these jobs from almost anywhere. You could be in the North Pole as long as you have internet access. You can find work wherever you feel inspired.Just make sure your artist’s late nights don’t keep you from turning projects around on time.You have to continuously up-level your skills and industry knowledge.The workforce is becoming more advanced and educated by the day.There’s a high volume of overqualified candidates entering the job market every single year, so landing a job in a competitive field is tough. The idea that you can get a degree and expect to land your dream job right out of college is a thing of the past. You have to keep learning and keep up with industry trends to maintain a competitive edge.This is true even for people in traditional office settings, but it’s critical if you’re your own boss.When you go solo, you basically have to sell yourself. And to do that, you have to stay relevant. This means constantly educating yourself—such as by taking online classes or buying the newest trade books relevant to your industry. There is no boss and no established rules to force you to stay up-to-date. The onus is on you. And if you want to keep landing gigs, you have to keep up.The marketplace won’t wait for you.You have to get crafty when it comes to traditional work benefits.Traditional jobs often provide employees with a lot of protections—like health benefits and a 401k.But if you’re a freelancer, you need to figure out your own retirement plan and buy your own healthcare, both of which can be time-consuming and expensive. Going freelance also means you no longer have paid sick days or vacation time. Every day you don’t work is a day you won’t get paid. And if you want to take a vacation, you have to save up and make arrangements, or otherwise work while you travel.What I’m saying is, gig work isn’t some magical solution to the tedious office life of the past. It comes with hurdles. If you have health concerns or kids to feed, freelance might not be ideal for you.But you aren’t without options."Multiple Employer" plans, in which a single 401(k) plan is sponsored by multiple employers, is a retirement plan option for gig workers. These plans could be sponsored by states or a group of gig economy companies. Oregon is working on developing a state-sponsored retirement plan that will apply to freelance workers. Both Uber and Lyft offer retirement options to their drivers.So despite the drawbacks, there are ways to swing it—especially as legislators and companies alike start taking the gig economy more seriously.It may take longer to build a depth of experience.Gone are the days where you had a job that lasted a whole lifetime.Fifty years ago, you’d land your first (and often last) job at a stable company, clock in and out for several decades, and then retire. You usually didn’t have to worry about when your next paycheck would be coming. If you were especially good at what you did, you’d move through the ranks until you climbed to the level of manager—maybe even higher.And there’s something to be said for having years of experience in a particular industry and developing expertise in that space.But young people today go into the workforce knowing that their career will likely be in flux. They have to be prepared to keep learning and anticipating trends so they don’t find themselves unexpectedly out of work. A lot of gig workers start their careers by hopping on a project because the employer is desperate and in need of help now. An aspiring chef may fill in when a restaurant’s head chef is out sick. But it’s difficult to develop the skills to become a head chef without stability and mentorship.In any field, climbing the ranks requires a lot of years of practice and growth.And on the employer’s end, it’s tough to recruit people for higher management positions when the pool of talent is full of gig workers who haven’t been given an opportunity to hone their skills. Businesses have to evolve to learn how to account for an influx of temporary workers. This means employers must invest in that mentorship and training—such as by having established protocol for gig workers to help them move up the ladder. When companies learn how to thrive with gig workers, everyone wins.The pace of change in the global workforce is accelerating. To succeed, we have to adapt just as quickly.

Knowing what procedures COST across different hospitals and statesIts part of the Trump planToday, President Trump is unveiling a new health care plan that will put Americans firstThe President and his Administration have taken numerous actions to increase choice and competition in health care to bring down costs, saving Americans billions of dollarsThe Trump Administration has expanded the use of short-term, limited-duration health insurance (STLD) plans, which offer more choices at lower costs to consumersThe Trump Administration has expanded access to Association Health Plans (AHPs), which make it easier for small businesses to band together to offer better insurance and lower premiums for their workersThe Trump Administration expanded Health Reimbursement Arrangements (HRAs), allowing employees to use money from their employer to buy the insurance of their choicePresident Trump has taken a number of actions to dismantle Obamacare, and his Administration’s policies have lowered Obamacare premiums for the first timeThe Trump tax cuts repealedObamacare’s unpopular individual mandate, which primarily hurt middle-class and lower-income AmericansPresident Trump signed legislation to repeal the unpopular Obamacare Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB)Over the last two years, premiums for Obamacare plans are declining for the first timeThe Trump Administration is working to protect the most vulnerable in our health care systemPresident Trump is committed to protecting Americans with pre-existing conditionsPresident Trump signed the historic Right to Try legislation, giving terminally ill patients hope and the ability to try new experimental drugsPresident Trump signed the Childhood Cancer STAR Act, investing $30 million a year for child cancer researchPresident Trump has taken action to expand the availability of organ donationsPresident Trump is working to set ambitious health care goalsPresident Trump put forwardprinciples to stop surprise medical billingIn 2019, President Trump set a goal to end the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the United States within a decadePresident Trump is aggressively fighting to bring down drug prices and the American people are seeing the resultsThe White House Council of Economic Advisors has said the U.S. is making progress on drug prices at rates not seen since the 1960sSo far, in every year of the Trump Administration, the FDA has approved a record number of generic drugs, delivering cheaper alternatives to name brandsThe Trump Administration released new principles for reducing the cost of prescription drugs which was praised by both Republicans and DemocratsPresident Trump signedlegislation to improve transparency in drug pricing and is fighting to bring lower drug prices that the rest of the world sees to AmericaThe Trump Administration is helping Medicare recipients by providing better price transparency and eliminating kickbacks, saving thousands of dollars for America’s seniorsThe Trump administration has worked to allow the importation of cheaper drugs from Canada and other countries to reduce prescription drug costsPresident Trump worked to help lower income Americans gain access to life-saving medications, including insulin, at affordable costsPRESIDENT TRUMP HAS TAKEN ACTION TO EXPAND CHOICE AND COMPETITION IN HEALTH CARE, LOWERING PRICESExpanding Short-Term, Limited Duration Health Plans (STLDs)The Trump Administration Has Expanded The Availability Of Short-Term, Limited-Duration (STLD) Plans, Which Offers Consumers More Choice And Plans That “Typically Cost Less Than Half Of Obamacare Plans.”“President Trump’s Administration took action last year to expand short-term, limited-duration plans, giving Americans more access to plans that fit their needs. Subject to State regulation, these plans can be offered for up to 364 days and renewed for up to 36 months after the Obama Administration limited them to 3 months. Short-term health plans are a particularly attractive option for the nearly 30 million uninsured people with gaps in employment, and those most hurt by rising premiums. Short-term health plans typically cost less than half of the cost of Obamacare plans.” (“President Donald J. Trump’s Healthcare Actions To Expand Choices And Lower Costs Are Producing Real Results,” The White House, 2/8/19)An Estimated 1.7 Million People Who Would Otherwise Be Uninsured Are Expected To Enroll In STLD Plans, According To An Estimate From The Urban Institute. “About 1.7 million of the people buying STLD policies would have been uninsured (in the traditional sense) under current law, and 2.6 million STLD policy holders would otherwise have had insurance of some type.” (Linda J. Blumberg, Matthew Buettgens, And Robin Wang, “Updated: The Potential Impact Of Short-Term Limited-Duration Policies On Insurance Coverage, Premiums, And Federal Spending,” Urban Institute, 3/18)A Report By The White House Council Of Economic Advisers Found That The Trump Administration’s Expansion Of STLDs Will Produce $82 Billion Of Benefits Over A Ten Year Period. (The Council Of Economic Advisors, “Deregulating Health Insurance Markets: Value To Market Participants,” The White House, 2/19)Increasing Access To Association Health Plans (AHPs)The Trump Administration Issued A Rule Making It Easier For Small Businesses And Self-Employed Workers To Join Together To Form Association Health Plans (AHPs), Increasing The Availability And Choice Of Insurance For These Workers. “Last year, the Administration introduced a second pathway for employers to join together to form Association Health Plans and provide more affordable health coverage to employees. A new report found that 28 AHPs have formed already, with more under development, and offer coverage similar to employer-based coverage. Some AHPs show up to 30 percent savings on premiums.” (“President Donald J. Trump’s Healthcare Actions To Expand Choices And Lower Costs Are Producing Real Results,” The White House, 2/8/19)There Are A Number Of Examples Of Association Health Plans Leading To Lower Premiums For Workers: (“Successful Association Health Plans,” U.S. Chamber Of Commerce, Accessed 11/1/19)The Las Vegas Metro Chamber Of Commerce’s AHP Reduced Employees’ And Employers’ Costs By An Average Of 49 Percent And 13 Percent Respectively. “The Las Vegas Metro Chamber has reported that it was able to negotiate terms, such as a two-year rate lock, to prevent precisely the sort of premium volatility that made the individual and small-group markets untenable before the Final Rule. Specifically, their plan reduced employees’ and employers’ costs by an average of 49% and 13%, respectively.” (“Successful Association Health Plans,” U.S. Chamber Of Commerce, Accessed 11/1/19)In Southern Nevada, Clark County’s AHP Allows Members To Save Up To 30 Percent On Annual Premiums. “The Clark County Health Plan Association in Southern Nevada, led by the Henderson Chamber of Commerce, covers more than 10,000 people. Since September 2018, it has offered a range of health plans for working owners and small businesses that save members up to 30% on annual premiums, with no rate increases until summer or fall of 2020.” (“Successful Association Health Plans,” U.S. Chamber Of Commerce, Accessed 11/1/19)The Lubbock, Texas Chamber Of Commerce’s AHP Offered Savings Of Up To 30 Percent On Premium Rates. “The Lubbock Chamber of Commerce created an association health plan that offered several plan designs and resulted in similar savings of up to 30% on premium rates.” (“Successful Association Health Plans,” U.S. Chamber Of Commerce, Accessed 11/1/19)Expanding Health Reimbursement Arrangements (HRAs)The Trump Administration Issued A Rule To Expand Health Reimbursement Arrangements (HRAs), Which Allow Workers Use Money From Their Employer To Buy The Insurance Of Their Choice On The Individual Market. “President Donald J. Trump is expanding Health Reimbursement Arrangements (HRAs), opening new coverage options for American workers. The Trump Administration has finalized a rule to expand HRAs, giving businesses a better way to offer health insurance coverage. Under the rule, employers will be able to provide their workers with tax-preferred funds to pay for the cost of health insurance coverage that workers purchase in the individual market. This rule will particularly benefit small businesses that face significant costs in offering a traditional group health plan and businesses that do not currently offer coverage.” (“President Donald J. Trump Is Working To Improve Health Insurance Coverage For American Workers And Help Small Businesses,” The White House, 6/14/19)Expanding Access to TelehealthUnder The Trump Administration, The Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Expanded Medicare Coverage For Telehealth. “Bold action by President Trump and his administration made this explosive growth possible. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services dramatically expanded Medicare coverage for telehealth, doubling the number of services that can be provided through telehealth to include everything from emergency department visits to eye exams and therapy services.” (Secretary Alex M. Azar II, “Trump Administration Aims To Keep Telehealth Revolution Here To Stay,” USA Today, 7/31/20)DISMANTLING OBAMACARE, LOWERING PREMIUMSEliminating The Individual Mandate PenaltyPresident Trump’s Tax Cuts Eliminated Obamacare’s Burdensome Individual Mandate Penalty, Which Forced Americans To Buy Health Insurance Whether They Wanted To Or Not. “President Trump’s historic tax reform legislation removed the burdensome individual mandate tax penalty. Obamacare’s individual mandate coerced people into buying health insurance they did not want and burdened taxpayers because the plans are so heavily subsidized.” (Fact Sheets, “President Donald J. Trump’s Healthcare Actions To Expand Choices And Lower Costs Are Producing Real Results,” The White House, 2/9/19)Despite The Elimination Of The Individual Mandate Penalty, The Insured Rate Has Held Steady. “The newest evidence comes from census data released Tuesday, which shows health coverage in the United States held relatively steady in 2019, even though the elimination of the mandate penalties took effect that year.” (Sarah Kliff, “Republicans Killed the Obamacare Mandate. New Data Shows It Didn’t Really Matter.,” The New York Times¸ 9/21/20)“Many Experts Now View The Individual Mandate As A Policy That Did Little To Increase Health Coverage.” (Sarah Kliff, “Republicans Killed the Obamacare Mandate. New Data Shows It Didn’t Really Matter.,” The New York Times¸ 9/21/20)In 2016, Nearly 5 Million Americans Were Forced To Pay The Individual Mandate Penalty, Costing Them $3.6 Billion. (“Obamacare’s Poverty Tax: Americans Paying individual Mandate Tax Penalty,” Senator Steve Daines, 2016)77 Percent Of These Taxpayers Earned Less Than $50,000 A Year. (“Obamacare’s Poverty Tax: Americans Paying individual Mandate Tax Penalty,” Senator Steve Daines, 2016)34 Percent Of These Taxpayers Earned Less Than $25,000 A Year. (Alex Hendrie and Gillian Richards, “GOP Tax Cuts Abolished Obamacare Individual Mandate Tax,” Americans For Tax Reform,10/9/18)Repealing Obamacare’s Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB)In February 2018, President Trump Signed Legislation Repealing Obamacare’s Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB). “This week, Congress did away with another unpopular provision: the law’s Independent Payment Advisory Board. The IPAB, which has been unfairly labeled a rationing board or ‘death panel,’ was designed to help tame runaway Medicare costs, should they ever arise.” (Margot Sanger-Katz, “Another Of Obamacare’s Unloved Provisions Is Gone,” The New York Times, 2/9/18)In February 2018, President Trump Signed H.R. 1892, The Bipartisan Budget Act Of 2018, Which Included A Provision That Repealed IPAB. (H.R. 1989, Signed 2/9/18)The IPAB Was Viewed As Unpopular Among Both Democrats And Republicans. “But the idea was never particularly popular, even in the Congress that voted for it. The IPAB would have taken away Congress’s power to make the cost-saving choices it wanted — or its choice to avoid them.” (Margot Sanger-Katz, “Another Of Obamacare’s Unloved Provisions Is Gone,” The New York Times, 2/9/18)For The First Time, Obamacare Premiums Are Going DownIn 2019, Average Premiums For Obamacare Plans Dropped, The First Time Since Obamacare Was Signed Into Law. “After two years of double-digit price hikes, the average premium for individual health coverage on the federal health law’s insurance marketplace will drop by 1.5 percent for 2019, the Trump administration said Thursday.” (“Obamacare Premiums Dip For First Time. Some Call It A Correction,” Kaiser Health News, 10/11/18)In 2019, The Average Premiums For The Lowest-Cost Bronze, Silver, And Gold Plans All Declined. (Kaiser Family Foundation, Accessed 9/11/19)In 2020, The Average Premium For The Benchmark Obamacare Plan Dropped By 4 Percent. “The Affordable Care Act is looking stronger for 2020 -- and the Trump administration is claiming credit for it, even as officials try to upend the landmark health reform law. The average premium for the benchmark plan will drop by 4% next year in the 38 states using the federal Obamacare exchanges -- the second year in a row of lower rates.” (Tami Luhby, “Obamacare Premiums Are Dropping 4% For 2020 Plans.” CNN, 10/22/19)For 2020, The Average Premiums For The Lowest-Cost Bronze, Silver, And Gold Plans Are All Declining. (Kaiser Family Foundation, Accessed 11/1/19)From 2014 To 2017, Average Premiums For Benchmark Obamacare Plans Increased From $273 To $359, Or 31.5 Percent, According To The Kaiser Family Foundation. (Kaiser Family Foundation, Accessed 9/23/20)For The Last Two Years, 2019 – 2020, The Cost Of A Benchmark Obamacare Plan Has Dropped By 4 Percent.(Kaiser Family Foundation, Accessed 9/23/20)There Are More Health Insurers On The Obamacare ExchangesThe Trump Administration Has Seen An Increase In Issuers That Participate In States That Use Obamacare Exchanges. “Additionally, 20 more issuers will participate in states that use the Federal Health Insurance Exchange platform in 2020 bringing the total to 175 issuers compared to 132 in 2018, delivering more choice and competition for consumers. As a result of the Trump Administration’s actions to stabilize the market, Americans will experience lower premiums along with greater choice for the second consecutive year.” (Press Release, “Premiums For HealthCAre.Gov Plans Are Down 4 Percent But Remain Unaffordable To Non-Subsidized Consumers,” Center For Medicare & Medicaid Services, 10/22/19)In 2020, 68 Percent Of Obamacare Enrollees Had A Choice Of Three Or More Insurers, Up From 44 Percent In 2018. (“Plan Year 2020 Qualified Health Plan Choice And Premiums In HealthCare.Gov States,” Center For Medicare & Medicaid Services, 10/22/19)Under President Trump, Obamacare Enrollees Have Enjoyed Greater Choice In Healthcare Insurers. “Insurance company margins have continued to improve during 2018, and a number of insurers entered the market or expanded their service area for 2019. The average number of companies per state in 2019 is 4.0, ranging from one company in five states (Alaska, Delaware, Mississippi, Nebraska, and Wyoming) to more than 10 companies in three states (California, New York and Wisconsin). In 2019, 58% of enrollees (living in about 23% of counties) have a choice of three or more insurers, up from 48% of enrollees in 2018.” (Rachel Fehr, Cynthia Cox, And Larry Levitt, “Insurer Participation On ACA Marketplaces, 2014-2019,” Kaiser Family Foundation, 11/14/18)PRESIDENT TRUMP IS PROTECTING THE MOST VULNERABLEProtecting Americans With Pre-Existing ConditionsPresident Trump Is Committed To Protecting Americans With Preexisting Conditions. “The President has reaffirmed that protecting Americans with preexisting conditions is fundamental to his healthcare agenda.” (Fact Sheets, “President Donald J. Trump’s Healthcare Agenda Puts Seniors And American Patients First,” The White House, 10/3/19)Signing The Right To Try ActIn May 2018, President Trump Signed The Right To Try Act Into Law. “President Donald Trump signed the ‘Right to Try Act’ Wednesday, a measure aimed at helping terminally ill patients access drug treatments that are yet to be fully approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Trump, at a White House ceremony surrounded by patients and families who will be affected by the legislation, said his administration ‘worked hard on this’ but said repeatedly he didn't understand why it hadn't been done before.” (Allie Malloy, “Trump Signs ‘Right To Try Act’ Aimed At Helping Terminally Ill Patients Seek Drug Treatments,” CNN , 5/30/18)The Right To Try Act Allows Certain Unapproved Experimental Drugs To Be Used By Terminally Ill Patients.“The bill amends Federal law to allow certain unapproved, experimental drugs to be administered to terminally ill patients who have exhausted all approved treatment options and are unable to participate in clinical drug trials.” (“President Donald J. Trump To Sign Right To Try Legislation Fulfilling The Promise He Made To Expand Healthcare Options For Terminal Americans,” The White House, 5/30/18)Investing In Pediatric Cancer ResearchIn 2019, President Trump Asked Congress For $500 Million In Pediatric Cancer Research Over The Next Ten Years. PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP: “Many childhood cancers have not seen new therapies in decades. My budget will ask the Congress for $500 million over the next 10 years to fund this critical life-saving research.” (President Donald Trump, President Donald J. Trump’s State Of The Union Address, Washington, D.C., 2/5/19)In 2018, President Trump Signed The Childhood Cancer STAR Act, Which Appropriates $30 Million A Year For Pediatric Cancer Research, All While Increasing The NIH’s Budget From $36 Billion To $39 Billion. “Last year, Trump signed the Childhood Cancer STAR Act, which appropriates $30 million a year for the NIH and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to spend on research for childhood cancer. Under Trump, the NIH’s budget has increased from $36 billion in 2017 to an estimated $39 billion in 2019.” (Victoria Knight, “Trump’s Pediatric Cancer crusade A Drop In Bucket Compared With Past Presidential Pitches,” Kaiser Health News, 2/8/19)Making Organ Implants Easier And Increasing The Supply Of OrgansIn 2019, President Trump Signed An Executive Order To Help Over 113,000 Americans Who Are Waiting For A Life-Saving Organ Donation. “As a key goal, the President’s Executive Order and this proposed rule seek to help the more than 113,000 people in the United States currently on the wait list for a lifesaving organ transplant, which far exceeds the number of transplantable organs available.” (Press Release, “Organ Procurement Organization (OPO) Conditions For Coverage Proposed Rule: Provisions to Outcome Measures For OPOs,” U.S. Centers For Medicare & Medicaid Services, 12/17/19)Under President Trump, The U.S. Health Resources & Services Administration Proposed Changes To Cover The Expenses Lost Wages, Child-Care, And Elder-Care For Living Organ Donors. “On December 17, 2019, Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) announced a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) which proposes to expand the scope of reimbursable expenses incurred by living organ donors to include lost wages and child-care and elder-care expenses. This proposal, once finalized, would remove potential barriers to living organ donations.” (“Notice Of Proposed Rulemaking (NRPM) To Amend The Regulations Implementing The National Organ Transplant Act Of 1984 (NOTA),” U.S. Health Resources & Services Administration, 12/17/19)This New Proposal Will Increase The Number Of Transplants And Improve Overall Health Outcomes Of Americans Receiving Organ Transplants. “Health outcomes would also improve, since recipients of kidneys from living donors fare better than those whose donors have died.” (Mary Vought, “Trump Delivers A Vital Christmas Gift,” The Wall Street Journal, 1/8/20)The Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Services Issued New Proposed Rules That Would Improve The Transparency Of the Organ Procurement Organizations (OPO), Allowing Better And Reliable Support For Higher Donation Rates. Specifically, this proposed rule would revise the outcome measures for assessing OPO performance to ensure they are transparent, reliable, and enforceable; support higher donation rates; help shorten transplant wait lists; reduce discarded but viable organs; and increase safe, timely transplants that save lives.” (Press Release, “Organ Procurement Organization (OPO) Conditions For Coverage Proposed Rule: Provisions to Outcome Measures For OPOs,” U.S. Centers For Medicare & Medicaid Services, 12/17/19)SETTING AMBITIOUS HEALTH CARE GOALSStopping Surprise Medical BillingIn May 2019, President Trump Put Forward Principles To Address The Issue Of Surprise Medical Billing.“The Trump Administration believes that any effort to address the issue of surprise billing should be undertaken with these principles in mind.” (“President Donald J. Trump Wants To Protect Patients And Their Families From Surprise Billing,” The White House, 5/9/19)Patients Receiving Emergency Care Should Not Be Forced To Shoulder Extra Costs Billed By A Care Provider But Not Covered By Their Insurer.(“President Donald J. Trump Wants To Protect Patients And Their Families From Surprise Billing,” The White House, 5/9/19)Patients Receiving Scheduled Care Should Have Information About Whether Providers Are In Or Out Of Their Network And What Costs They May Face. (“President Donald J. Trump Wants To Protect Patients And Their Families From Surprise Billing,” The White House, 5/9/19)Patients Should Not Receive Surprise Bills From Out-Of-Network Providers They Did Not Choose. (“President Donald J. Trump Wants To Protect Patients And Their Families From Surprise Billing,” The White House, 5/9/19)Federal Spending On Health Care Should Not Increase.(“President Donald J. Trump Wants To Protect Patients And Their Families From Surprise Billing,” The White House, 5/9/19)There Is Bipartisan Congressional Support To Address Surprise Medical Billing. “Following the announcement, Energy and Commerce Chairman Frank Pallone Jr, D-New Jersey, and Ranking Member Greg Walden, R-Oregon, released a joint statement voicing their commitment to working on bipartisan legislation. ‘No family should be left in financial ruin through no fault of their own, which is why we have been working together on a bipartisan solution to protect patients that we hope to announce soon,’ they said.” (Jaime Rosenberg, “Trump Outlines Plan To Tackle Surprise Medical Billing,” AJMC, 5/9/19)Ending HIV/AIDS TransmissionDuring President Trump’s 2019 State Of the Union Address, The President Pledged To End The AIDS Epidemic In America Within A Decade. PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP: “In recent years we have made remarkable progress in the fight against HIV and AIDS. Scientific breakthroughs have brought a once-distant dream within reach. My budget will ask Democrats and Republicans to make the needed commitment to eliminate the HIV epidemic in the United States within 10 years. We have made incredible strides. Incredible. Together, we will defeat AIDS in America. And beyond.” (President Donald Trump, President Donald J. Trump’s State Of The Union Address, Washington, D.C., 2/5/19)The U.S. Department Of Health And Human Services Plans To Invest In Resources And Data Tracking Efforts To Bolster Disease Prevention. “Health and Human Services Secretary Alex Azar, who provided details of the initiative after Trump’s announcement, said the administration will target viral hot spots by providing local groups more resources, using data to track the spread of the disease and creating local task forces to bolster prevention and treatment.” (Carmen Heredia Rodriquez, “Trump Pledges To End HIV Transmission By 2030. Doable But Daunting.,” Kaiser Health News, 2/6/19)THE TRUMP ADMINISTRATION’S DRUG POLICIES ARE GETTING RESULTSThe Council Of Economic Advisors Have Said Prescription Drug Prices Have Fallen Below Their Historical TrendDuring The Trump Administration, Increases In The Cost Of Prescription Drugs Have Fallen Below The Historic Trend According To The Council Of Economic Advisors. “While the media continues to claim prescription drug prices are rising, a recent Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) paper shows the opposite: Under President Trump, prescription drug prices are decreasing at rates not seen since the 1960s. In the eight years prior to President Trump’s inauguration, prescription drug prices increased by an average of 3.6 percent per year. Fast forward to today, and prescription drug prices have seen year-over-year declines in nine of the last ten months, with a 1.1 percent drop as of the most recent month. In June 2019, the United States saw the largest single-year drop (2.0 percent year-over-year decline) in prescription drug prices since 1967.” (“Prescription Drug Prices Are Falling at Historic Levels Thanks to Trump Administration Policies.” Council Of Economic Advisors, The White House, 11/5/19)Council Of Economic Advisors: “Under President Trump, Prescription Drug Prices Are Decreasing At Rates Not Seen Since The 1960s.” (“Prescription Drug Prices Are Falling at Historic Levels Thanks to Trump Administration Policies.” Council Of Economic Advisors, The White House, 11/5/19)Council Of Economic Advisors: “The Media’s Narrative About Rising Drug Prices, While Perhaps True For Individual Drugs Or Certain Classes Of Drugs, Is Not True For General Drug Prices.” “The media’s narrative about rising drug prices, while perhaps true for individual drugs or certain classes of drugs, is not true for general drug prices due to limitations in frequently cited reports. These misleading reports make broad claims even though they consider only narrow measures like list prices, brand name drugs, or drugs with recent price increases. Additionally, some reports use unknown methodologies (see the Appendix of CEA’s paper for more details about other reports’ flaws).” (“Prescription Drug Prices Are Falling at Historic Levels Thanks to Trump Administration Policies.” Council Of Economic Advisors, The White House, 11/5/19)The Trump Administration Has Approved A Record Number Of Generic Drugs Every Year From 2017 Through 2019, Saving Americans BillionsIn 2019, The Food And Drug Administration (FDA) Approved A Record Number Of Generic Drugs, From 971 In 2018 to 1,171 In 2019.(Press Release, “Secretary Azar Statement On FDA’s 2019 Generic Drug Approval Record,” U.S. Department Of Health And Human Services, 10/16/19)“In 2018, The Food And Drug Administration (FDA) Approved A Record Number Of Generic Drugs, Breaking The Previous Record Set By The Administration In 2017.”(“The Historic Results Of President Donald J. Trump’s First Two Years In Office,” The White House, 1/20/19)“The FDA’s Fiscal Year (FY) 2017 Generic Drug Approvals Are Expected To Bring Nearly $9 Billion In Savings In 2017 Alone.” (“The Historic Results Of President Donald J. Trump’s First Two Years In Office,” The White House, 1/20/19)“[These] Included The First-Ever Approvals Of A Generic Competitor To The Epipen And A Generic Competitor For A Common Asthma Inhaler.” (Alex Azar, “How President Trump Is Delivering Results On Drug Prices,” The Kansas City Star, 5/30/19)Since January 2017, The Influx Of Generic Drugs Had “Saved Consumers $26 Billion” And Is Providing “An Estimated $43 Billion In Annual Benefits To Consumers” According To A 2018 Report From The White House Council Of Economic Advisers. “We find that relative annual price growth for prescription drugs has slowed since January 2017, and estimate that lower prices from new generic drug products saved consumers $26 billion through July 2018. We also argue that the influx of new brand name drugs should be viewed as implicitly lowering the price of improved health, even though the methods currently being used to estimate changes in drug prices do not reflect this. Implicit price reductions from new, brand name drugs since January 2017 are providing an estimated $43 billion in annual benefits to consumers.” (“The Administration’s FDA reforms And Reduced Biopharmaceutical Drug Prices,” Council Of Economic Advisers, 10/18)White House Released Principles For Reducing Drug CostsIn March, The White House Outlined Principles For Reducing Prescription Drug Prices. (Press Release, “Statement from the Press Secretary,” The White House, 3/10/20)Capping Out-Of-Pocket Expenses Will Help Seniors Who “Often Bear The Brunt Of The High Cost. “Cap out-of-pocket expenses in Medicare Part D. Seniors with the most expensive conditions often bear the brunt of high drug prices, despite a program ostensibly designed to mitigate catastrophic costs. The unlimited cost-sharing of the Medicare Part D benefit leaves more than one million beneficiaries on the hook for potentially thousands in additional spending annually.” The Wall Street Journal, 3/10/20)A Cost Gimmick In Obamacare Caused Some Seniors To Have To Pay Up To An Additional $1,250 Per Year. “Offer protection against the cost cliff created by ObamaCare. The recent expiration of a temporary ObamaCare gimmick has increased the amount some seniors must pay out-of-pocket by up to $1,250 a year. They need relief until the new out-of-pocket cap can be implemented.” (Stephanie Armour and Thomas M. Burton, “U.S. Advances Plan to Allow Imports of Some Drugs in Bid to Cut Prices., The Wall Street Journal, 12/18/19)Limiting Drugmakers’ Price Increases Will Limit Price Gouging. “Limit drugmakers’ price increases. The price Medicare Part B pays for one common rheumatoid-arthritis drug increased on average more than 15% each year from 2014-18. That increased spending in Medicare on this one drug alone by more than $340 million a year during that span. This price gouging can be limited without jeopardizing future innovation.” (Stephanie Armour and Thomas M. Burton, “U.S. Advances Plan to Allow Imports of Some Drugs in Bid to Cut Prices., The Wall Street Journal, 12/18/19)The Trump Administration’s Principles For Drug-Pricing Have Been Labeled As “Achievable” And Endorsed By Both Republicans And Democrats In Congress. “These White House principles for drug-pricing legislation are achievable. They have been endorsed by members of Congress from both sides of the aisle. Elements of each principle are reflected in the bipartisan policies in both Senate Finance Committee Chairman Chuck Grassley and Ranking Member Ron Wyden’s drug package and a bill introduced by Rep. Greg Walden (R., Ore.), ranking member of the House Energy and Commerce Committee. Additionally, though the White House opposes the Democrat-backed H.R. 3 (styled the Elijah E. Cummings Lower Drug Costs Now Act), elements of the bill, such as the Part D redesign, are consistent with these principles.” (Joe Grogan, “White House Principles For Reducing Drug Costs,” The Wall Street Journal, 3/10/20)Taking Action To Lower Drug PricesIn 2018, The Trump Administration Released The American Patients First Blueprint, “A Comprehensive Plan To Bring Down Prescription Drug Prices And Out-Of-Pocket Costs.” “To address this issue, in May 2018, President Donald Trump and Health and Human Services (HHS) Secretary Alex Azar released the American Patients First blueprint, a comprehensive plan to bring down prescription drug prices and out-of-pocket costs. Since the launch of the blueprint, the men and women of HHS have been taking action across the department’s programs and authorities to turn the President’s vision into action, and improve the health and well-being of every American.” (“Drug Pricing,” Department Of Health And Human Services, Accessed 7/1/19)Within 100 Days Of The Blueprint’s Release, “15 Drug Companies…Reduced List Prices, Rolled Back Planned Price Increases, Or Committed To Price Freezes For The Rest Of 2018.” (Press Release, “100 Days of Action On The President’s American Patients First Blueprint,” Department Of Health And Human Services, 8/20/18)Signing Legislation To Give Americans More Information On Drug PricingThe President Signed The Know The Lowest Price Act And The Patient Right To Know Drug Prices Act In October 2018. (“President Donald J. Trump Is Ensuring Patients Receive The Information They Need To Save Money On Prescription Drugs,” The White House, 10/10/18)In 2018, President Trump Signed Into Law Legislation That Eliminated The Pharmacy ‘Gag Clause,’ Increasing Health Care Transparency And Savings. “Pharmacists around the country say they have often been forbidden to share information on drug pricing with customers. The restrictions, they say, have been imposed by companies that manage drug benefits for insurers and employers. The legislation will ‘completely end these unjust gag clauses once and for all,’ Mr. Trump said.” (Robert Pear, “Trump Signs New Laws Aimed At Drug Costs And Battles Democrats On Medicare,” The New York Times, 10/10/18)Pharmacists Are Now Able To Inform Patients About Cheaper Methods To Buy Prescription Drugs. “Today, @POTUS signed legislation banning pharmacy gag clauses which prevent pharmacists from informing patients when they can pay less out of pocket for a Rx drug. This bipartisan legislative accomplishment was secured by President Trump’s historic leadership on drug pricing.” (Secretary Alex Azar, Twitter, 10/10/18)President Trump Implemented Medicare Reforms To Save Seniors $320 Million In Drug Prices In 2018“The Administration Implemented Reforms To The Amount Medicare Pays Hospitals For Drugs That Are Purchased Under The 340B Program, Saving Seniors $320 Million In 2018.” (“The Historic Results Of President Donald J. Trump’s First Two Years In Office,” The White House, 1/20/19)By April 2018, It Was Estimated That Medicare Recipients Had Saved $320 Million On Out-Of-Pocket Payments On These Drugs.“Due to CMS’s policy change last year, Medicare beneficiaries are currently benefiting from the discounts that 340B hospitals receive. Beneficiaries are saving an estimated $320 million on out-of-pocket payments for these drugs in 2018 alone.” (Press Release, “CMS Lowers The Cost Of Prescription Drugs For Medicare Beneficiaries," Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Services, 4/2/18)Fighting To Modernize The Medicare Payment System To Lower The Cost Of Prescription Drugs For Millions Of Medicare RecipientsIn November 2017, The Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Took An “Important Step” And Released A Memo Regarding A Revision In The Physician Fee Schedule That Would “Modernize The Medicare Payment System.” “As part of the President's priority to reduce drug costs for Americans, CMS is taking an important step in the Physician Fee Schedule to modernize the Medicare payment system through innovation in the biopharmaceutical market.” (Press Release, “CMS Finalizes Policies That Reduce Provider Burden, Lower Drug Prices,” Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Services, 11/2/17)The Notice Announced That In 2018, CMS Would Begin Updating Payments For "Biosimilars," Which Are Lower-Cost Alternatives To Certain Prescription Drugs Which Would Promote Competition And Make Sure That Patients “Have Access To Lower Cost Therapies.”“Beginning in 2018, CMS will update payment for biosimilars, which are lower-cost alternatives to certain types of drugs known as ‘biologicals.’ This change promotes competition to ensure millions of patients will have access to new lower cost therapies.” (Press Release, "CMS Finalizes Policies That Reduce Provider Burden, Lower Drug Prices," Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Services, 11/2/17)In April 2018, CMS Released Final Policies That Would Reduce The “Maximum Amount” That A Low-Income Beneficiary Would Pay For Certain Prescription Biosimilars. “The final policies announced today further the Trump Administration's commitment to lowering drug prices. CMS is finalizing a reduction in the maximum amount that low-income beneficiaries pay for certain innovative medicines known as ‘biosimilars.’” (Press Release, "CMS Lowers The Cost Of Prescription Drugs For Medicare Beneficiaries," Centers For Medicare And Medicaid Services, 4/2/18)The Trump Administration Has Finalized New Actions To Increase Drug Price Transparency And Drug Pricing Negotiating Power For Medicare PlansIn May 2019, CMS Finalized New Regulations That Require Medicare Part D Plans To Provide Better Price Transparency Tools To Physicians To Use When Discussing Out Of Pocket Costs With Medicare Beneficiaries. “Today’s rule requires Part D plans to adopt tools that provide clinicians with information that they can discuss with patients on out-of-pocket costs for prescription drugs at the time a prescription is written. By empowering patients with information on the cost of their prescription drugs, today’s rule will ensure that pharmaceutical companies have to compete on the basis of price.” (Press Release, “CMS Takes Action To Lower Prescription Drug Prices And Increase Transparency,” Centers For Medicare & Medicaid Services, 5/16/19)In 2018, CMS Rescinded A Policy That “Discouraged Medicare Advantage Plans From Using Tools That Are Widely Used In Private Insurance Plans To Negotiate Lower Prices From Pharmaceutical Companies.” “The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services is rescinding a policy regarding Medicare Part B drugs that discouraged Medicare Advantage plans from using tools that are widely used in private insurance plans to negotiate lower prices from pharmaceutical companies. Specifically, patients will now be able to choose Medicare Advantage plans that require enrollees to try certain more cost-effective drugs first (known as “step therapy”). Plans will also be able to cross-manage between the drugs covered by different parts of Medicare, allowing them to pay for the most appropriate, most affordable drugs, regardless of whether patients receive them in a doctor’s office (Part B) or at a pharmacy (Part D).” (Press Release, “Trump Administration Gives Medicare New Tools To Negotiate Lower Drug Prices For Patients,” Department Of Health And Human Services, 8/7/18)The Trump Administration Is Enforcing Anti-Kickback Laws That Will Save Hundreds Of Thousands Of Dollars For Prescription Drug RecipientsIn July 2020, President Trump Signed An Executive Order That Will Lower Prices For Patients By Eliminating Kickbacks To Middlemen. (“Executive Order On Lowering Prices For Patients By eliminating Kickbacks To Middlemen,” The White House, 7/24/20)President Trump’s Executive Order Will Initiate Anti-Kickback Statues, Allowing Tens Of Billions Of Dollars Of Prescription Drug Rebates To Go Directly Back To Patients, Saving Them Hundreds Or Thousands Of Dollars A Year.“Fixing this problem could save Medicare patients billions of dollars. The Office of the Inspector General at the Department of Health and Human Services has found that patients in the catastrophic phase of the Medicare Part D program saw their out-of-pocket costs for high-price drugs increase by 47 percent from 2010 to 2015, from $175 per month to $257 per month. Narrowing the safe harbor for these discounts under the anti-kickback statute will allow tens of billions in dollars of rebates on prescription drugs in the Medicare Part D program to go directly to patients, saving many patients hundreds or thousands of dollars per year at the pharmacy counter.” (“Executive Order On Lowering Prices For Patients By eliminating Kickbacks To Middlemen,” The White House, 7/24/20)Health And Human Services Secretary Alex Azar Estimated The Reform Would Save Seniors $30 Billion Each Year. “Alex Azar, secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services, told reporters on a conference call after the signing ceremony that drug companies currently pay about $150 billion in undisclosed kickbacks to middlemen often in exchange for more favorable insurance coverage for their drugs. ‘The new rule would require those kickbacks be passed through to our seniors when they walk into the pharmacy,” Azar said, adding that it would reduce prescription drug costs for senior by about 26% to 30% or $30 billion a year.’” (Noah Higgins-Dunn, Jasmine Kim and Berkeley Lovelace Jr. “Trump Signs Series Of Executive Orders Aimed At Lowering Drug Costs,” CNBC, 8/6/30)GLOBAL FREELOADING PROPOSALFighting To Eliminate The Price Difference Between Drugs In The U.S. And In Foreign CountriesPresident Trump Has Proposed Ending So-Called “Global Freeriding” By Linking The Price Of Some Drugs To Its Price Overseas – Which Is Often Lower Than In The United States. “Another major proposal by the Trump administration would limit the price of some drugs covered by Medicare that are administered in a clinic or doctor’s office — expensive medications used for serious illnesses like cancer — by tying them to an index based on the price of the drugs in other countries. The United States pays higher prices for drugs than any other country does, a situation that Mr. Trump describes as ‘global free-riding.’” (Katie Thomas, “Drug Prices Are A Populist Campaign Issue. Here Are The Latest Proposals To Lower Costs.,” The New York Times, 6/16/19)Allowing Drug ImportationIn December 2019, The Trump Administration Announced A Plan To Allow The Importation Of Cheaper Drugs From Canada And Other Countries To Reduce Prescription Drug Costs. “The Trump administration is moving forward on a plan to allow the importation of cheaper drugs from Canada and other countries as part of its effort to reduce prescription costs. The Food and Drug Administration will announce a rule letting states develop plans to import certain prescription drugs from Canada, federal officials said. About a dozen states, including Colorado and Florida, have pressed for permission to import drugs that meet U.S. quality standards.” (Stephanie Armour and Thomas M. Burton, “U.S. Advances Plan to Allow Imports of Some Drugs in Bid to Cut Prices., The Wall Street Journal, 12/18/19)The Plan Followed A Similar Release In July 2019 That Could Lead To The Importation Of Lower-Cost Prescription Drugs From Canada. “The Trump administration on Wednesday said it was taking steps that might eventually lead to the importation of some lower-cost prescription drugs from Canada, an idea supported by President Trump but long opposed by many Republicans, including some of his own aides.” (Asmeen Abutaleb and Laurie McGinley, “Trump Administration Outlines Plans For Eventual Importation Of Cheaper Drugs,” The New York Times,7/31/19)In July 2020, President Trump Signed An Executive Order On Increasing Drug Importation To Lower Prices For American Patients. (“Executive Order On Increasing Drug Importation To Lower Prices For American Patients,” The White House, 7/24/20)President Trump’s Executive Order Increases The Trade Of Prescription Drugs Between Nations With Lower Prices.“One way to minimize international disparities in price is to increase the trade of prescription drugs between nations with lower prices and those with persistently higher ones. Over time, reducing trade barriers and increasing the exchange of drugs will likely result in lower prices for the country that is paying more for drugs.” (“Executive Order On Increasing Drug Importation To Lower Prices For American Patients,” The White House, 7/24/20)Improving Access To Insulin And Other Life Saving MedicationsIn July 2020, President Trump Signed An Executive Order That Will Grant Lower Income Americans Access To Affordable Life-Saving Medications. (“Executive Order On Access to Affordable Life-Saving Medications,” The White House, 7/24/20)President Trump’s Executive Order Allows Qualified Lower Income Americans To Have Access To Decreased Prices Of Insulin, Epinephrine, And Other Medication Through Federally Qualified Health Centers. “To the extent permitted by law, the Secretary of Health and Human Services shall take action to ensure future grants available under section 330(e) of the Public Health Service Act, as amended, 42 U.S.C. 254b(e), are conditioned upon FQHCs’ having established practices to make insulin and injectable epinephrine available at the discounted price paid by the FQHC grantee or sub-grantee under the 340B Prescription Drug Program (plus a minimal administration fee) to individuals with low incomes.” (“Executive Order On Access to Affordable Life-Saving Medications,” The White House, 7/24/20)

Several common ethanol fuel mixtures are in use around the world. The use of pure hydrous or anhydrous ethanol in internal combustion engines (ICEs) is only possible if the engines are designed or modified for that purpose, and used only in automobiles, light-duty trucks and motorcycles. Anhydrous ethanol can be blended with gasoline (petrol) for use in gasoline engines, but with high ethanol content only after minor engine modifications.Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol fuel in the mixture by volume, for example, E85 is 85% anhydrous ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low-ethanol blends, from E5 to E25, although internationally the most common use of the term refers to the E10 blend.Blends of E10 or less are used in more than 20 countries around the world, led by the United States, where ethanol represented 10% of the U.S. gasoline fuel supply in 2011.[1]Blends from E20 to E25 have been used in Brazil since the late 1970s. E85 is commonly used in the U.S. and Europe for flexible-fuel vehicles. Hydrous ethanol or E100 is used in Brazilian neat ethanol vehicles and flex-fuel light vehicles and hydrous E15 called hE15 for modern petrol cars in the Netherlands.[2]Contents1E10 or less1.1Availability2E153hE154E20, E255E70, E756E857ED958E1009Use limitations9.1Modifications to engines9.2Other disadvantages10See also11Notes12References13External linksE10 or less[edit]E10, a fuel mixture of 10% anhydrous ethanol and 90% gasoline sometimes called gasohol, can be used in the internal combustion engines of most modern automobiles and light-duty vehicles without need for any modification on the engine or fuel system. E10 blends are typically rated as being 2 to 3 octane numbers higher than regular gasoline and are approved for use in all new U.S. automobiles, and mandated in some areas for emissions and other reasons.[3]The E10 blend and lower ethanol content mixtures have been used in several countries, and its use has been primarily driven by the several world energy shortages that have taken place since the 1973 oil crisis.Typical warning placed in the fuel filler of U.S. vehicles regarding the capability of using up to E10 and warning against the use of blends between E20 and E85.Other common blends include E5 and E7. These concentrations are generally safe for recent engines that should run on pure gasoline. As of 2006, mandates for blending bioethanol into vehicle fuels had been enacted in at least 36 states/provinces and 17 countries at the national level, with most mandates requiring a blend of 10 to 15% ethanol with gasoline.[4]One measure of alternative fuels in the U.S. is the "gasoline-equivalent gallon" (GEG). In 2002, the U.S. used as motor fuel, ethanol equal to 137,000 terajoules (TJ), the energy equivalent of 1.13 billion U.S. gallons (4.3 billion liters) of gasoline. This was less than 1% of the total fuel used that year.[5]E10 and other blends of ethanol are considered to be useful in decreasing U.S. dependence on foreign oil, and can reduce carbon monoxide (CO) emissions by 20 to 30% under the right conditions.[6]Although E10 does decrease emissions of CO and greenhouse gases such as CO2by an estimated 2% over regular gasoline, it can cause increases in evaporative emissions and some pollutants depending on factors such as the age of the vehicle and weather conditions.[7]According to the Philippine Department of Energy, the use of not more than a 10% ethanol-gasoline mixture is not harmful to cars' fuel systems.[8]Generally, automobile gasoline containing alcohol (ethanol or methanol) is not recommended to be used in aircraft.[9]Availability[edit]E10 Logo required on Delaware fuel dispensersE10 was introduced nationwide in Thailand in 2007, and replaced 91 octane pure gasoline in that country in 2013.[10]E10 is commonly available in the Midwestern United States. It was also mandated for use in all standard automobile fuel in the state of Florida by the end of 2010.[11] Due to the phasing out of MTBE as a gasoline additive and mainly due to the mandates established in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, ethanol blends have increased throughout the United States, and by 2009, the ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply reached almost 8% by volume.[12][13]The Tesco chain of supermarkets in the UK have started selling an E5 brand of gasoline marketed as 99 RON super-unleaded.[citation needed] Its selling price is lower than the other two forms of high-octane unleaded on the market, Shell's V-Power (99 RON) and BP's Ultimate (97 RON).Many petrol stations throughout Australia now also sell E10, typically at a few cents cheaper per litre than regular unleaded. It is more commonly found throughout the state of Queensland due to its large sugarcane farming regions. The use of E10 is also subsidised by the Queensland government.[citation needed] Many petrol stations no longer offer a "Regular 91" petrol option, instead only offering Regular E10 (91), Premium (95) and Premium (98), although regular unleaded remains commonly available in Victoria.In Sweden, all 95-octane gasoline is E5, while the status of 98-octane fuel is currently unclear.[citation needed] The product data sheets of the major fuel chains do not clearly state ethanol content of their 98-octane gasoline. In the early-mid-1990s, some fuel chains sold E10. From January 2011, the Fuel Quality Directive (Directive 2009/30/EC) will apply through its transposition into the law of Sweden as a member of the 27 member states of the EU[14].From January 2011, all 95-octane fuel in Finland is E10, and 98E5 octane fuel is also available.Mandatory blending of ethanol was approved in Mozambique, but the percentage in the blend has not been specified.[15]South Africa approved a biofuel strategy in 2007, and mandated an 8% blend of ethanol by 2013.[15]A 2007 Uruguayan law mandates a minimum of 5% of ethanol blended with gasoline starting in January 2015.[16] The monopolic, state-owned fuel producer ANCAP started blending premium gasoline with 10% of bioethanol in December 2009, which will be available in all the country by early January 2010.[17] The other two gasolines will follow later in 2010.The Dominican Republic has a mandate for blending 15% of ethanol by 2015.[4]Chile is considering the introduction of E5, and Panama, Bolivia and Venezuela of E10.[18]Low ethanol blends used around the world (E5 to E25)CountryEthanolblendLegal useCountryEthanolblendLegal useCountryEthanolblendLegal useStateEthanolblendStateEthanolblendCountries with mandatory blends or available for optional useEuropean UnionUnited States(states where mandatory only)[n 1]Argentina[21]E5Mandated[n 2]Malawi[15]E10Mandated[n 3]Austria[22]E10OptionalFloridaE10MinnesotaE10Australia[23]E10OptionalMexico[18]E6Mandated[n 4]Denmark[22]E5OptionalHawaiiE10MissouriE10Brazil[25]E18-E27,5MandatedNew Zealand[26]E10OptionalFinland[27]E5/E10MandatedIowaE10MontanaE10Canada[28]E5Mandated[n 5]Pakistan[29]E10OptionalFrance[30][31]E5/E10OptionalKansasE10OregonE10[n 6]China[33]E10Nine provincesParaguay[34]E18/24MandatedGermany[35]E5/E10Optional[n 7]LouisianaE10WashingtonE10Colombia[36]E10Mandated[n 8]Peru[38]E8Mandated[n 9]Ireland[40]E4MandatedCalifornia[41]E10Costa Rica[42][43]E7Mandated[n 10]Philippines[46]E10MandatedNetherlandsE5/E10/hE15OptionalIndia[47]E5MandatedThailand[48]E10/E20MandatedRomania[49]E4MandatedJamaica[50]E10Mandated[n 11]VietnamE5MandatedSweden[22]E5MandatedSee the country notes at the end of the articleA 2011 study conducted by VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland found practically no difference in fuel consumption in normal driving conditions between commercial gasoline grades 95E10 and 98E5 sold in Finland, despite the public perception that fuel consumption is significantly higher with 95E10. VTT performed the comparison test under controlled laboratory conditions and their measurements showed the cars tested used an average of 10.30 liters (2.27 imp gal; 2.72 U.S. gal) of 95E10 per 100 km (62 mi), as opposed to 10.23 liters (2.25 imp gal; 2.70 U.S. gal) of 98E5 per 100 km (62 mi). The difference was 0.07 in favor of 98E5 on average, meaning that using 95E10 gasoline, which has a higher ethanol content, increases consumption by 0.7%. When the measurements are normalized, the difference becomes 1.0%, a result that is highly consistent with an estimation of calorific values based on approximate fuel composition, which came out at 1.1% in favour of E5.[51]E15[edit]Typical manufacturer's statement in the car owner's manual regarding the vehicle's capability of using up to E10.E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline. This is generally the highest ratio of ethanol to gasoline that is possible to use in vehicles recommended by some auto manufacturers to run on E10 in the US.[52][53]This is due to ethanol's hydrophilia and solvent power.As a result of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, which mandates an increase in renewable fuels for the transport sector, the U.S. Department of Energy began assessments for the feasibility of using intermediate ethanol blends in the existing vehicle fleet as a way to allow higher consumption of ethanol fuel.[54]The National Renewable Energy Laboratory(NREL) conducted tests to evaluate the potential impacts of intermediate ethanol blends on legacy vehicles and other engines.[54][55]In a preliminary report released in October 2008, the NREL presented the results of the first evaluations of the effects of E10, E15 and E20 gasoline blends on tailpipe and evaporative emissions, catalyst and engine durability, vehicle driveability, engine operability, and vehicle and engine materials.[54][55]This preliminary report found none of the vehicles displayed a malfunction indicator light as a result of the ethanol blend used; no fuel filter plugging symptoms were observed; no cold start problems were observed at 24 °C (75 °F) and 10 °C (50 °F) laboratory conditions; and as expected, computer technology available in newer model vehicles adapts to the higher octane causing lower emissions with greater horsepower and in some cases greater fuel economy.[54]In March 2009, a lobbying group from the ethanol industry, Growth Energy, formally requested the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15% from 10%. Organizations doing such studies included the Energy Department, the State of Minnesota, the Renewable Fuels Association, the Rochester Institute of Technology, the Minnesota Center for Automotive Research, and Stockholm University in Sweden.[56]EPA's E15 label required to be displayed in all E15 fuel dispensers in the U.S.In October 2010, the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15% of ethanol blended with gasoline to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15% of vehicles on U.S. roads.[57][58][59]In January 2011, the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy-duty vehicles, or nonroad engines because current testing data do not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, the E15 waivers now cover 62% of vehicles on the road in the US, and the ethanol group estimates if all 2001 and newer cars and pickups were to use E15, the theoretical blend wall for ethanol use would be approximately 17.5 billion gallons (66.2 billion liters) per year. The EPA was still studying if older cars can withstand a 15% ethanol blend.[60][61]The EPA waiver authorizes sale of E15 only from Sep 15 to May 31 out of a black hose and a yellow hose to flex fuel vehicles only from June 1 to Sep 14. Retailers have shunned building infrastructure due to the costly regulatory requirements which have created a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend. Most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and no dedicated tanks are readily available to store E15. Also, some state and federal regulations would have to change before E15 can be legally sold.[57][58]The National Association of Convenience Stores, which represents most gasoline retailers, considers the potential for actual E15 demand is small, "because the auto industry is not embracing the fuel and is not adjusting their warranties or recommendations for the fuel type." One possible solution to the infrastructure barriers is the introduction of blender pumps that allow consumers to turn a dial to select the level of ethanol, which would also allow owners of flexible-fuel cars to buy E85 fuel.[61]In June 2011 EPA, in cooperation with the Federal Trade Commission, issued its final ruling regarding the E15 warning label required to be displayed in all E15 fuel dispensers in the U.S. to inform consumers about what vehicles can, and what vehicles and equipment cannot, use the E15 blend. Both the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers and the National Petrochemical and Refiners Association complained that relying solely on this warning label is not enough to protect consumers from misfueling.[62][63]In July 2012, a fueling station in Lawrence, Kansas became the first in the U.S. to sell the E15 blend. The fuel is sold through a blender pump that allows customers to choose between E10, E15, E30 or E85, with the latter blends sold only to flexible-fuel vehicles.[64]As of June 2013, there are about 24 fueling stations selling E15 out of 180,000 stations across the U.S.[65]Blender fuel pump in East Lansing, Michigan selling E15 together with the standard gasoline (E10), and the higher blends E30 and E85.In December 2010, several groups, including the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the American Petroleum Institute, the Association of International Automobile Manufacturers, the National Marine Manufacturers Association, the Outdoor Power Equipment Institute, and the Grocery Manufacturers Association, filed suit against the EPA in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. The plaintiffs argued the EPA does not have the authority to issue a “partial waiver” that covers some cars and not others. Among other arguments, the groups argued that the higher ethanol blend is not only a problem for cars, but also for fuel pumps and underground tanks not designed for the E15 mixture. It was also argued that the rise in ethanol has contributed to the big jump in corn prices in recent years.[66][67]In August 2012, the federal appeals court rejected the suit against the EPA. The case was thrown out on a technical reason, as the court ruled the groups did not have legal standing to challenge EPA's decision to issue the waiver for E15.[67][68]In June 2013 the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from industry groups opposed to the EPA ruling about E15, and let the 2012 federal appeals court ruling stand.[65]2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid fuel filler cap showing warning regarding the maximum ethanol blend allowed by the carmaker, up to E10 gasoline. The warning label indicates that ethanol blends between E15 to E85 shall not be used in this vehicle.As of November 2012, sales of E15 are not authorized in California, and according to the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the blend is still awaiting approval, and in a public statement the agency said that "it would take several years to complete the vehicle testing and rule development necessary to introduce a new transportation fuel into California's market."[69]According to a survey conducted by the American Automobile Association (AAA) in 2012, only about 12 million out of the more than 240 million light-duty vehicles on the U.S. roads in 2012 are approved by manufacturers are fully compliant with E15 gasoline. According with the Association, BMW, Chrysler, Nissan, Toyota, and Volkswagen warned that their warranties will not cover E15-related damage.[70]Despite the controversy, in order to adjust to EPA regulations, 2012 and 2013 model year vehicles manufactured by General Motors can use fuel containing up to 15 percent ethanol, as indicated in the vehicle owners' manuals. However, the carmaker warned that for model year 2011 or earlier vehicles, they "strongly recommend that GM customers refer to their owners manuals for the proper fuel designation for their vehicles." Ford Motor Company also is manufacturing all of its 2013 vehicles E15 compatible, including hybrid electrics and vehicles with Ecoboost engines.[71]Also Porsches built since 2001 are approved by its manufacturer to use E15.[70]Volkswagen announced that for the 2014 model year, its entire lineup will be E15 capable.[72]Fiat Chrysler Automobiles announced in August 2015 that all 2016 model year Chrysler/Fiat, Jeep, Dodge and Ram vehicles will be E15 compatible.[73]In November 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency opened for public comment its proposal to reduce the amount of ethanol required in the U.S. gasoline supply as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The agency cited problems with increasing the blend of ethanol above 10%. This limit, known as the "blend wall," refers to the practical difficulty in incorporating increasing amounts of ethanol into the transportation fuel supply at volumes exceeding those achieved by the sale of nearly all gasoline as E10.[74][75]hE15[edit]Example of public gas station with hE15 next to diesel and regular gasoline in the Netherlands.A 15% hydrous ethanol and 85% gasoline blend, hE15, has been introduced at public gas stations in the Netherlands since 2008. Ethanol fuel specifications worldwide traditionally dictate use of anhydrous ethanol (less than 1% water) for gasoline blending. This results in additional costs, energy usage and environmental impacts associated with the extra processing step required to dehydrate the hydrous ethanol produced via distillation (3.5-4.9 vol.% water) to meet the current anhydrous ethanol specifications. A patented discovery reveals hydrous ethanol can be effectively used in most ethanol/gasoline blending applications.[76][77]According to the Brazilian ANP specification, hydrous ethanol contains up to 4.9 vol.% water. In hE15, this would be up to 0.74 vol.% water in the overall mixture. Japanese and German scientific evidence revealed the water is an inhibitor for corrosion by ethanol.[78]The experiments show that water in fuel ethanol inhibits dry corrosion. At 10,000 ppm water in the E50 experiments by JARI and 3,500 ppm water in the E20 experiments by TU Darmstadt the alcoholate/alkoxide corrosion stopped. In the fuel ethanol this resembles 20,000 ppm or 2 volume% in the case of JARI and 5 x 3500 = 17,500 ppm of 1.75 volume% in the case of TU Darmstadt. The observations are in line with the fact that hydrous ethanol is known for being less corrosive than anhydrous ethanol. The reaction mechanism will be the same at lower-mid blends. When enough water is present in the fuel, the aluminum will react preferably with water to produce aluminum oxide, repairing the protective aluminum oxide layer, which is why the corrosion stops. The aluminum alcoholate/alkoxide does not make a tight oxide layer, which is why the corrosion continues. In other words, water is essential to repair the holes in the oxide layer. Based on the Japanese/German results, a minimum of 2 vol.% or 2.52% m/m water is currently proposed in the revision of the hydrous ethanol specification for blending in petrol at E10+ levels. Water injection has additional positive effects on the engine performance (thermodynamic efficiency) and reduces overall CO2 emissions.[citation needed]hE15 promotion AmsterdamOverall, a transition from anhydrous to hydrous ethanol for gasoline blending is expected to make a significant contribution to ethanol's cost-competitiveness, fuel cycle net energy balance, air quality, and greenhouse gas emissions.[79]The level of blending above 10% (V/V) is chosen both from a technical (safety) perspective and to distinguish the product in Europe from regular unleaded petrol for reasons of taxes and customer clarity. Small-scale tests have shown many vehicles with modern engine types can run smoothly on this hydrous ethanol blend. Mixed tanking scenarios with anhydrous ethanol blends at 5% or 10% level do not induce phase separation. As avoiding mixing with E0, in particular at extremely low temperatures, in logistic systems and engines is not recommended, a separate specification for controlled usage is presented in a Netherlands Technical Agreement NTA 8115. The NTA 8115 is written for a worldwide application in trading and fuel blending.[80]E20, E25[edit]Historical evolutionof ethanol blends used in Brazil1931–2010(Selected years only)YearEthanolblendYearEthanolblend1931E52003E20-251966E252004E201976E112005E221978E18-20-232006E201981E20-12-202007E23-251987-88E222008[81]E251993-98E222009[81]E252000E202010[82]E20-252001E222011[83]E18-E252015E18-E27,5Source: 1937–2007, J.A. Puerto Rico (2007), Table 3.8, pp. 81–82[84]Note: The 2010 reduction from E25 to E20 was temporary and tookplace between February and April.[82]The lower limit was reducedfrom 20% to 18% in April 2011.[83][85]E20 contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline, while E25 contains 25% ethanol. These blends have been widely used in Brazil since the late 1970s.[84]As a response to the 1973 oil crisis, the Brazilian government made mandatory the blend of ethanol fuel with gasoline, fluctuating between 10% to 22% from 1976 until 1992.[84]Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline (E0) is no longer sold in Brazil. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% anhydrous ethanol (E22) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries, and since 2003, these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% (E25) and a minimum of 20% (E20) by volume.[25][84]Since then, the government has set the percentage on the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane harvest and ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.[84]Since July 1, 2007, the mandatory blend was set at 25% of anhydrous ethanol (E25) by executive decree,[81]and this has been the standard gasoline blend sold throughout Brazil most of the time as of 2011.[86]However, as a result of a supply shortage and the resulting high ethanol fuel prices, in 2010, the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1, 2010.[82][87]As prices rose abruptly again due to supply shortages that took place again between the 2010 and 2011 harvest seasons, some ethanol had to be imported from the United States, and in April 2011, the government reduced the minimum mandatory blend to 18%, leaving the mandatory blend range between E18 and E25.[83][85]A blender pump is a multifuel blend dispenser that allows customers to choose between E20, E30, E85, or any other preselected blend.All Brazilian automakers have adapted their gasoline engines to run smoothly with this range of mixtures, thus, all gasoline vehicles are built to run with blends from E20 to E25, defined by local law as "common gasoline type C".[88][89]Some vehicles might work properly with lower concentrations of ethanol, but with a few exceptions, they are unable to run smoothly with pure gasoline, which causes engine knocking, as vehicles traveling to neighboring South American countries have demonstrated.[90]Flex-fuel vehicles, which can run on any type of gasoline E20-E25 up to 100% hydrous ethanol (E100 or hydrated ethanol) ratios,[91]were first available in mid-2003. In July 2008, 86% of all new light vehicles sold in Brazil were flexible-fuel, and only two carmakers build models with a flex-fuel engine optimized to operate with pure gasoline (E0): Renault with the models Clio,[90][92]Symbol, Logan, Sandero and Mégane, and Fiat with the Siena Tetrafuel.[93][94]Thailand introduced E20 in 2008,[95]but shortages in ethanol supplies by mid-2008 caused a delay in the expansion of the E20 fueling station network in the country.[96]By mid-2010, 161 fueling stations were selling E20, and sales have risen 80% since April 2009.[97]The rapid growth in E20 demand is because most vehicle models launched since 2009 were E20-compatible, and sales of E20 are expected to grow faster once more local automakers start producing small, E20-compatible, fuel-efficient cars. The Thai government is promoting ethanol usage through subsidies, as ethanol costs four baht a litre more than gasoline.[97]A state law approved in Minnesota in 2005 mandated that ethanol comprise 20% of all gasoline sold in this American state beginning in 2013. Successful tests have been conducted to determine the performance under E20 by current vehicles and fuel dispensing equipment designed for E10.[98]However, this mandate was later delayed to 2015, and has never taken effect because the federal EPA has yet to authorize the use of E20 as a replacement for gasoline.A study commissioned by BP and published in September 2013, concluded that the use of advanced biofuels in the UK, and particularly E20 cellulosic ethanol, is a more cost-effective way of reducing emissions than using plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) in the timeframe to 2030. The study also found that the use of higher blends of biofuels is complementary to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs). Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can deliver strong CO2savings with a decarbonised electric grid, but are expected to have significantly higher costs than internal combustion engine vehicles and hybrid cars to 2030, as the latter are expected to be the most popular models by 2030. According to the study, in 2030 an E20 blend in an HEV can achieve a 10% emission savings compared to an HEV running on E5, for an annual fuel cost premium of GB£13 compared to an annual cost of GB£195 for an all-electric car.[99][100]E70, E75[edit]When the vapor pressure in the ethanol blend drops below 45 kPa, fuel ignition cannot be guaranteed on cold winter days, limiting the maximum ethanol blend percentage during the winter months to E75.[101]E70 contains 70% ethanol and 30% gasoline, while E75 contains 75% ethanol. These winter blends are used in the United States and Sweden for E85 flexible-fuel vehicles during the cold weather, but still sold at the pump labeled as E85.[102]The seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to an E85 winter blend is mandated to avoid cold starting problems at low temperatures.[102][103]In the US, this seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 applies only in cold regions, where temperatures fall below 32 °F (0 °C) during the winter.[104][105]In Wyoming for example, E70 is sold as E85 from October to May.[102][106]In Sweden, all E85 flexible-fuel vehicles use an E75 winter blend.[103]This blend was introduced since the winter 2006-07 and E75 is used from November until March.[107]For temperatures below −15 °C (5 °F), all E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater to avoid cold starting problems.[107]The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below −23 °C (−9 °F).[108]Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank, thus reducing the ethanol content below the E70 winter blend, or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells.[107][108]E85[edit]Typical yellow cap used for the fuel filler cap of U.S. vehicles built to use the E85 blendFurther information: E85See also: Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United StatesE85, a mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline, is generally the highest ethanol fuel mixture found in the United States and several European countries, particularly in Sweden, as this blend is the standard fuel for flexible-fuel vehicles. This mixture has an octane rating of 94-97, which is significantly lower than pure ethanol, but still higher than normal gasoline (87-93 octane, depending on country).Logo used in the United States for E85 fuelThe 85% limit in the ethanol content was set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather, at temperatures lower than 11 °C (52 °F).[104]A further reduction in the ethanol content is used during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 °C (32 °F)[105]and this blend is called Winter E85, as the fuel is still sold under the E85 label. A winter blend of E70 is mandated in some regions in the US,[102][106]while Sweden mandates E75.[103][107]Some regions in the United States now allow E51 (51% ethanol, 49% gasoline) to be sold as E85 in the winter months.As of October 2010, nearly 3,000 E85 fuel pumps were in Europe, led by Sweden with 1,699 filling stations.[109][110]The United States had 3,354 public E85 fuel pumps located in 2,154 cities by August 2014, mostly concentrated in the Midwest.[111]Thailand introduced E85 fuel by the end of 2008, and by mid-2010, only four E85 filling stations were available, with plans to expand to 15 stations by 2012.[97]A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles or fuelling with E85, is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public, as by 2014 only 2 percent of motor fuel stations offered E85,[112]up from about 1 percent in 2011.[113]As of November 2015, there were only 3,218 gasoline fueling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire U.S.,[114]while about 156,000 retail motor fuel outlets do not offer the E85 blend.[112]The number of E85 grew from 1,229 in 2007 to 2,442 in 2011, but only increased by 7% from 2011 to 2013, when the total reached 2,625.[112]There is a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states, and as of November 2015, the leading state is Minnesota with 274 stations, followed by Michigan with 231, Illinois with 225, Iowa with 204, Indiana with 188, Texas with 181, Wisconsin with 152, and Ohio with 126. Only eight states do not have E85 available to the public, Alaska, Delaware, Hawaii, Montana, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.[115]The main constraint for a more rapid expansion of E85 availability is that it requires dedicated storage tanks at filling stations,[108]at an estimated cost of US$60,000 for each dedicated ethanol tank.[116]A study conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy concluded that every service station in America could be converted to handle E85 at a cost of $3.4 billion to $10.1 billion.ED95[edit]See also: BEST: Ethanol-powered bus trialED95 designates a blend of 95% ethanol and 5% ignition improver; it is used in modified diesel engines where high compression is used to ignite the fuel,[117]as opposed to the operation of gasoline engines, where spark plugs are used. This fuel was developed by Swedish ethanol producer SEKAB.[117]Because of the high ignition temperatures of pure ethanol, the addition of ignition improver is necessary for successful diesel engine operation. A diesel engine running on ethanol also has a higher compression ratio and an adapted fuel system.ED95 bus in Sweden running on a modified diesel engineThis fuel has been used with success in many Swedish Scania buses since 1985, which has produced around 700 ethanol buses, more than 600 of them to Swedish cities, and more recently has also delivered ethanol buses for commercial service in Great Britain, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Norway.[118]As of June 2010 Stockholm has the largest ethanol ED95 bus fleet in the world.[118][119]As of 2010, the Swedish ED95 engine is in its third generation and already has complied with Euro 5 emission standards, without any kind of post-treatment of the exhaust gases. The ethanol-powered engine is also being certified as environmentally enhanced vehicle (EEV) in the Stockholm municipality. The EEV rule still has no date to enter into force in Europe and is stricter than the Euro 5 standard.[120]Nottingham became the first city in England to operate a regular bus service with ethanol-fueled vehicles. Three ED95 single-deck buses entered regular service in the city in March 2008. Soon after, Reading also introduced ED95 double-deck buses.[121]Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport project, more than 138 bioethanol ED95 buses were part of demonstration trial at four cities, three in Europe, and one in Brazil, between 2006 and 2009.[2][122][123]A total of 127 ED95 buses operated in Stockholm, five buses operated in Madrid, three in La Spezia, and one in Brazil.[2]In Brazil, the first Scania ED95 bus with a modified diesel engine was introduced as a trial in São Paulo city in December 2007, and since November 2009, two ED95 buses were in regular service.[123][124][125][126]The Brazilian trial project ran for three years and performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass (CENBIO- Portuguese: Centro Nacional de Referência em Biomassa) at the Universidade de São Paulo.[127]In November 2010, the municipal government of São Paulo city signed an agreement with UNICA, Cosan, Scania and Viação Metropolitana, a local bus operator, to introduced a fleet of 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses by May 2011. Scania manufactures the bus engine and chassis in its plant located in São Bernardo do Campo, São Paulo, using the same technology and fuel as the ED95 buses already operating in Stockholm. The bus body is a Brazilian CAIO.[128][129]The first ethanol-powered buses were delivered in May 2011, and the 50 buses will start regular service in June 2011 in the southern region of São Paulo.[127]The 50 ED95 buses had a cost of R$ 20 million (US$12.3 million) and due to the higher cost of the ED95 fuel and the lower energy content of ethanol as compared to diesel, one of the firms participating in the cooperation agreement, Raísen (a joint venture between Royal Dutch Shell and Cosan), supplies the fuel to the municipality at 70% of the market price of regular diesel.[127][130]E100[edit]See also: Flexible-fuel vehicles in BrazilTypical Brazilian flexible-fuel engine with secondary gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F)The Brazilian 2008 Honda Civicflex-fuel has outside access to the secondary reservoir gasoline tank in the front right side shown by the arrow.E100 is pure ethanol fuel. Straight hydrous ethanol as an automotive fuel has been widely used in Brazil since the late 1970s for neat ethanol vehicles[84][131]and more recently for flexible-fuel vehicles.[132][133]The ethanol fuel used in Brazil is distilled close to the azeotrope mixture of 95.63% ethanol and 4.37% water (by weight) which is approximately 3.5% water by volume.[134]The azeotrope is the highest concentration of ethanol that can be achieved by simple fractional distillation. The maximum water concentration according to the ANP specification is 4.9 vol.% (approximately 6.1 weight%)[135]The E nomenclature is not adopted in Brazil, but hydrated ethanol can be tagged as E100, meaning it does not have any gasoline, because the water content is not an additive, but rather a residue from the distillation process. However, straight hydrous ethanol is also called E95 by some authors.[136][137]The first commercial vehicle capable of running on pure ethanol was the Ford Model T, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of both.[108][138][139][140]At that time, other car manufacturers also provided engines for ethanol fuel use.[108]Thereafter, and as a response to the 1973 and 1979 energy crises, the first modern vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol (E100) was launched in the Brazilian market, the Fiat 147,[141]after testing with several prototypes developed by the Brazilian subsidiaries of Fiat, Volkswagen, General Motors and Ford.[131]As of September 2012, there were 1.1 million neat ethanol vehicles still in use in Brazil.[142]Since 2003, Brazilian newer flex-fuel vehicles are capable of running on pure hydrous ethanol (E100) or blended with any combination of E20 to E27,5 gasoline[132][133](a mixture made with anhydrous ethanol), the national mandatory blend.[25][81]As of September 2012, there were 17.1 million flexible-fuel vehicles running on Brazilian roads.[142]E100 imposes a limitation on normal vehicle operation, as ethanol's lower evaporative pressure (as compared to gasoline) causes problems when cold starting the engine at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F).[143]For this reason, both pure ethanol and E100 flex-fuel vehicles are built with an additional small gasoline reservoir inside the engine compartment to help in starting the engine when cold by initially injecting gasoline. Once started, the engine is then switched back to ethanol.[143]An improved flex-fuel engine generation was developed to eliminate the need for the secondary gas tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting,[144][145]and allowing them to start at temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F),[146]the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory.[147]The Polo E-Flex, launched in March 2009, was the first flex-fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start. The warming system, called Flex Start, was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH.[148][149]Swedish carmakers have developed ethanol-only capable engines for the new Saab Aero X BioPower 100 Concept E100, with a V6 engine which is fuelled entirely by E100 bioethanol,[150][151]and the limited edition of the Koenigsegg CCXR, a version of the CCX converted to use E85 or E100, as well as standard 98-octane gasoline, and currently the fastest and most powerful flex-fuel vehicle with its twin-supercharged V8 producing 1018 hp when running on biofuel, as compared to 806 hp on 91-octane unleaded gasoline.[152][153]The higher fuel efficiency of E100 (compared to methanol) in high performance race cars resulted in Indianapolis 500 races in 2007 and 2008 being run on 100% fuel-grade ethanol.[154]Use limitations[edit]Modifications to engines[edit]The use of ethanol blends in conventional gasoline vehicles is restricted to low mixtures, as ethanol is corrosive and can degrade some of the materials in the engine and fuel system. Also, the engine has to be adjusted for a higher compression ratio as compared to a pure gasoline engine to take advantage of ethanol's higher oxygen content, thus allowing an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of tailpipe emissions.[101]The following table shows the required modifications to gasoline engines to run smoothly and without degrading any materials. This information is based on the modifications made by the Brazilian automotive industry at the beginning of the ethanol program in that country in the late 1970s, and reflects the experience of Volkswagen do Brasil.[155]Disadvantages to ethanol fuel blends when used in engines designed exclusively for gasoline include lowered fuel mileage, metal corrosion, deterioration of plastic and rubber fuel system components, clogged fuel systems, fuel injectors, and carburetors, delamination of composite fuel tanks, varnish buildup on engine parts, damaged or destroyed internal engine components, water absorption, fuel phase separation, and shortened fuel storage life.[156][157][158]Many major auto, marine, motorcycle, lawn equipment, generator, and other internal combustion engine manufacturers have issued warnings and precautions about the use of ethanol-blended gasolines of any type in their engines,[159]and the Federal Aviation Administration and major aviation engine manufacturers have prohibited the use of automotive gasolines blended with ethanol in light aircraft due to safety issues from fuel system and engine damage.[156][157][158][160]