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The Mystery of Herxheim: Was an Entire Village Cannibalized?Ritual deposition of human bones Herxheim, Germany ( Museum Herxheim)Of all the screen villains, none is so disturbing as Hannibal Lector, in The Silence of the Lambs. It’s not just that he kills people. He also eats them, proudly exhibiting one of our deepest and most ancient taboos: that to consume human flesh is the ultimate betrayal of our humanity. References to acts of cannibalism are sprinkled throughout many religious and historical documents, such as reports of cooked human flesh being sold in 11th-century English markets during times of famine.[1]But not all cultures have shared this taboo. In ancient China, for instance, human body parts would appear on Imperial menus.[2] Medical cannibalism was all the rage in Europe during the 17th to 18th centuries.[3] Recent research has demonstrated that in the animal kingdom, cannabalism is extremely common.[4]A construction team working in Herxheim, Germany, unearthed something absolutely horrifying in 1996.[5] Underneath the ground where they had intended to build was a massive pit full of skeletons—more than 1,000 in all. The bodies had been resting there for more than 7,000 years. Whatever happened to them, though, was a fate worse than death. They hadn’t just been killed. Their skulls had been scraped clean. Their ribs had been peeled from their vertebrae like a butcher preparing a pig. Some of the bones had been snapped and the marrow inside sucked out.These people, it seems, were scalped, skinned, butchered, and cannabilized.[6] This, though, was no act of desperation by starving people. There were more than 1,000 victims, and the way they’d been skinned was too ritualized. This was not a crime of passion or a temporary lapse of sanity. It was a planned ritual that a whole community had come together to perform.[7]Beginning in 5300 BC, a Linearbandkeramik or Linear Pottery culture (LBK) developed in the region of Herxheim in southwest Germany, one that could be described as an idyllic Stone Age settlement.[8] The houses were the same, the rudimentary farm plots were the same, the small village seemed to be relatively safe from invaders and predators. Yet sometime around 4950 BC, the community abruptly disappeared.[9] The town was abandoned, leaving behind shattered pottery, hundreds of butchered bodies, and a huge pile of bones. Today, researchers are not certain what happened but signs suggest that a rise in ritual sacrifice, and possibly cannibalism, had something to do with it.Map of the Herxheim site. ( These Bones Of Mine)When Herxheim was first excavated in 1996, the huge cache of bones pointed to a ceremonial reburial site. Closer examination revealed disfigurement associated with enemies, suggesting that outside victims were captured and brought back to be killed and eaten.[10]What was intially thought to be a large structure, was found at Herxheim, a large village that was up to 6 hectares in size and surrounded by 80 large ovoid pits dug over many centuries.[11] Some of these pits cut into each other and created triple semi-circular areas that split into three sections.[12] The patterns of pits suggest that there was a predetermined layout, with the pits built and infilled in episodic periods.[13] Early excavations revealed a groundplan in the form of an irregular double ring around the settlement of the Linear Pottery culture.[14]The overall plan of the trenched area that was explored in Herxheim together with the remains of the settlement inside it. (http://www.academia.edu/download/9286533/Zeeb-Lanz_TEA%2034.pdfHowever, the supposed ditches were in fact elongated pits with different depths, lying behind and overlapping each other. Reseachers applied the Rosheim model published by Jeunesse and Lefranc (1999)as a linear concept to provide an explanation of the pits’ puzzling features. In the first phase, a series of elongated pits was dug, each with its own individual measures and cross sections; the pits appear not to have all been open at the same time, but instead were dug successively, with at least some of them already in the process of re-filling while new ones were still made. In a later phase, the pits started to overlap and were sometimes cut within existing backfilled pits.[15]The end product is a rather complex pattern of elongated pits, with highly variable cross-sections and an overlap of different longitudinal profiles at the same location, pits that at first glance were construed as a ditches or possibly fortifications during initial excavations.[16] Dating based on the typology of the pottery indicates that the site was constructed and used from the Flomborn phase to the final phase of the LBK.[17]Due to their age, the pits have eroded considerably; the fragments of structures inside the pits have also eroded over time- not many still exist. The pits around the settlement at Herxheim, contained the remains of both human and animals. The pits contained material goods, such as bone and stone tools, pottery, and decorative artifacts. Interestingly, remains of whole dogs have been found intact in some of these pits.[18]In the infill of these pits, a considerable number of human skeletons were found - some 500 skeletons that were deformed and/or broken in various different ways. Using a quantification theorem known as the “minimum number of individuals,”[19] , the researchers decided that the site contains up to 500 humans, ranging from infants to the elderly. However, only half the site has been excavated to date. Few human remains in the pits are intact, and many were shattered and had been dispersed across a pit.It has been suggested that the ring-like ditch-structures were basically burial grounds, for the inhabitants of Herxheim.[20] Zoning the perimeter of LBK settlements, as grave-yards, has hygienic benefit; but, also, implies that the deceased were apparently perceived as protecting, safe-guarding, or otherwise ensuring, the borders & boundaries of LBK settlements.[21] Perhaps this suggests some sort of ancestor worship, wherein the ancestors were perceived as "watching over" the living ?Undermining this proposal is that continued excavation has failed to discover passages or entryways through the rings to the exterior of the community.[22] Surely no one walked over the graves, of their own (or their neighbors') ancestors? So, there must have been a break, in the ditch-structures, through which some sort of "main-street Herxheim" once ran? If half of Herxheim has been excavated, with no known indications of any such gate-ways through the rings; then probably no more than one (or two) such entry-ways existed.Since research was implemented on only about half of the area, it is believed that there may be up to 1000 individuals buried there. Such a large number of bodies could hardly have come from the surrounding settlements, characterized as small in both their scale and duration.[23]The people who resided in Herxheim in the Neolithic period were known to practice a style of burial called “secondary burial”[24] This means that the whole of the corpse or partial pieces of it are removed and placed elsewhere. “Standard” burials in a crouching position occurred only minimally.[25]It is also possible that they practiced “sky burials,” in which some parts of the decomposing bodies may have been allowed to be carried off by scavengers.[26]In 2006, osteological analysis revealed that many had been intentionally broken and cut apart, either at death or just after, and stone tools were most likely used to achieve the observed fractures.[27] The study concluded that Herxheim was most likely a ritual mortuary center, otherwise known as a necropolis, where the remains of the dead were destroyed, for reasons as of yet unknown.[28]In 2009, excavations unearthed a mass grave with hundreds of human remains, belonging to at least an additional 500 people and possibly over 1,000.[29] The bones were of men, women, and children, as well as infants and fetuses. Tool marks on the bones show that the flesh had been carefully scraped off while larger bones were broken, possibly to get at the marrow.[30] Even the skulls were broken, providing access to the nutrient rich brains.(r/UnresolvedMysteries - The dead of Herxheim, mystery from 4950 BC.)As in previous excavations, researchers attributed the presence of predominantly incomplete skeletons to the fact that these were probably secondary burials, whereby the body or a portion thereof was transported from another location.[31] The bones also bear traces of sawing, scraping or having been hit. Such marks found on animal bones would be considered an indicator of butchery. These signs clearly indicate the separation of the soft tissues, scalping, the removal of the brain, the separation of the tongue, chipping the ribs, etc.Researchers asked themselves how do you butcher a cow? First you cut the meat off the bones. You start by severing the muscles from the joints with a sharp knife. The fibrous meat can then easily be scraped off, from top to bottom. After you've removed the flesh there's still a lot of goodness left. Deep in the long bones and vertebrae lies the marrow. To get at this delicacy you smash the bones and scrape out the marrow or simply boil it out in water. What's left is a pile of naked bones with traces of scratching and scraping as well as the small debris of bone that likely contained marrow.[32]Concerning the Herxheim skeletons, cannibalism is a likely suspect.The butchering all occurred shortly after the victims’ death and was clearly done by someone who knew what they were doing. The butchering was done with the same practiced techniques of slaughtering cattle or sheep, leading researchers to speculate what became of the human flesh.[33] Some believe the villagers of Herxheim ate the meat; others say that it would have been buried along with the bones as part of the ritual.[34] One researcher suggested that some of the victims could have been spit-roasted.[35]Anthropolgist Bruno Boulestin conducted a close examination of the bone fragments, from one pit eight meters long.The pit contained a total of 1,906 bone fragments from at least 10 people. Two of them were infants or still-born children, one was a fetus in the 34th to 36th week of pregnancy, there were two children aged six and 15 and six adults, at least one of whom was male.[36]r/UnresolvedMysteries - The dead of Herxheim, mystery from 4950 BC.All of them -- babies, children, adults -- were butchered by expert hands while the bones were still fresh, as indicated by the breaks and cuts. Boulestin concluded that the human bones bore the same marks as those of slaughtered livestock, and that the dead of Herxheim were prepared as meals. [37] He believes that marks on the bones indicate that body parts were cooked on skewers.[38] His conclusions contradict other researchers who believe the meat was taken off the bones as part of a burial ritual, and wasn't consumed.[39]Until now, the only convincing evidence of Neolithic cannibalism in Europe came from 6,000-year-old bones at Fontbrégoua Cave (southeastern France).[40] A 1986 report concluded that the remains of various animals and at least six people were butchered and discarded there.[41] The analysis of these bones strongly suggests that humans were butchered, processed, and probably eaten in a manner that closely parallels the treatment of wild and domestic animals at Fontbrbégoua.[42] Again, others suggest reburial rather than cannibalism may explain those findings.[43]Besides the cannibalism hypothesis, another hypothesis postulates that the dead were manipulated in this anomalous way for ritual or religious reasons.[44] The latter hypothesis is definitely supported by the special treatment of the skulls, which as a general rule were reduced to skull caps.[45] But it cannot be denied that there are also strong arguments for the cannibalization of the individuals deposited in the ”concentrations”.A view into one of the pits associated with the apparent trench in Herxheim where there is a concentration of human bones and fragments of pottery and parts of stone grinder.(Herxheim - the Centre of a Cult, of Bloody Rituals or of Other Ceremonies?)Archaeologists expected the number of dead to be twice as high, even though such a large number is highly peculiar for a small village with only 10 buildings. Carbon-14 dating analysis confirms that the bones found at the Herxheim site are the last known inhabitants of that settlement.[46]The artefact assemblage within the long fosses is dominated by pottery with a considerable proportion of complete vessels. Flaked stone tools of flint and chert were present, accompanied by ground stone artefacts and a number of mill stones.[47] Bone, antler and tooth artefacts like pendants and saddle querns were frequent elements within the animal bone inventory.[48]The silex raw material, as well as the pottery decoration styles, is widespread in origin. Analysis of 482 silex artefacts showed 50 percent of high-quality flint, the main variants of which can be found at a distance of at least 250 km to the north of Herxheim in the Netherlands, though some of the other flint at Herxheim originates in the Paris Basin and Champagne region. Another considerable quantity of imported raw material is unspecific Jurassic hornstein from the Swabian and/or Franconian Alb; nearest deposits are located about 100 km SW of Herxheim.[49]Linearbandkeramik assemblage from Herxheim, Germany (english)The high- quality pottery found associated with the human remains in the latest phase at Herxheim creates both similarities and differences. Besides a local Palatinate style, a large number of northern and eastern late LBK pottery styles can be observed, though there is no evidence of imports from the NW or west. The origins of the pottery styles found at Herxheim are widespread[50] : Plaidt and Leihgestern types are present, as well as pottery from the Lower Main, the Rhine-Neckar, and the Elster-Saale group.The most distant styles come from Bohemia and the Elbe valley, about 400–500 km away.[51]However, analysis of the artifacts found in the pit has revealed that the victims were not natives of the village. Indeed, they came from all over Europe, including the Moselle River region (some 62 miles (100km) away) and the Elbe River region (some 250 miles (400km) away).[52]Strontium analysis provided crucial data, indicating a non-local origin of the buried individuals. In addition, this corresponds with the findings in regard to ceramic analyses.[53]LBK ceramic assemblages can be stylistically attributed to eight geographical areas that were as far apart from each other as 400-500 km.Sr isotopes of tooth enamel have been analyzed to establish the possible origins of the individuals at Herxheim. Initial results for individuals found in the regular Bandkeramik burial position and for samples from a concentration of fragmented skeletons indicate the presence of a significant amount of non-local individuals, in proportions higher than reported for other LBK settlements to date.[54] Nevertheless, the strontium analysis indicates that these people originated in mountainous areas, while the “standard” burials were probably of people of local origin.[55]Figure 3 from “Widely travelled people” at Herxheim? Sr isotopes as indicators of mobility - Semantic ScholarExperts have deduced this anomaly by the fragments of pottery, typically considered luxury wares, lying between each victim’s ribs.[56] The strangers brought only the finest pottery from their home regions -- in many cases even more beautiful than the pottery they placed inside the graves of their own dead at home. But the pottery was intentionally smashed to pieces and scattered over the bones, along with brand new millstones and stone blades.[57]In addition to the broken pots, there were some smaller relatively undamaged containers, the handles of which had been intentionally broken off.[58] Everything was hacked to pieces, broken up, mixed together and poured into pits. Most of the shards were subjected to intense fire, whilst some of the shards from the upper layer retained their original composition.[59]Who were the dead? The dead were not killed in battle, they were not sickly, and they were not malnourished. Many were not even old. Conquered enemies perhaps? Probably not, because the bones showed no signs of battle wounds. None of the skulls found were smashed, and there were no arrow heads between the ribs. The dead of Herxheim appear to have been in good health when they died. Their joints weren't worn down, their teeth were in exceptionally good condition and there was no signs of malnutrition.[60]One scholar has suggested that the Herxheim inhabitants purchased people, along with the finer wares of LBK vessels, from distant communities, amongst the LBK culture-continent.[61]The theory of conquered enemies[62] also seems unlikely given that the small group of Herxheim villagers is unlikely to have vanquished people hundreds of kilometers away and dragged 1,000 of them back to their little hamlet in the space of just 50 years. Researchers postulate that people volunteered to come here and be ritually sacrificed.[63]V(otum) S(olvit) L(ibens) M(erito)Researchers believe that the answer to the Herxheim mystery lies in the victims’ skulls. The breaking of the skulls was completed by a practiced hand. After peeling off the skin, each skull was carefully struck via percussion, in a way that caused them to fracture into symmetrical shapes.[64] The lower third of the skull was removed, leaving behind the vault of the skull as a sort of cap or drinking vessel. Given the fragile nature of human skulls and the basic stone tools the butcher had at his or her disposal, only an expert could have done this. The skull caps/cups were then carved with intricate symbols.[65] Currently, historians are unable to decifer the meaning behind the incisions. It was part some kind of ritual, most likely of religious significance. All of the skulls were found piled together in one location.[66]Human Skull ‘Cups’ and Butchered Bones Lead Archaeologists to One Conclusion – Neolithic CannibalsArchaeologists speculate that no-one drank from the skulls. Even with grinding the fresh breaks, the edges are still so sharp that one would cut one's lips on them.[67] It is not known at this point why these people used such a ritualistic method of burial. It's clear that it wasn't hunger that drove the inhabitants of this mysterious hamlet to carve up humans. What they did with their victims was part of a ritual, a religious ceremony. Many theories are being shared about why this site exists, including ritual sacrifice or religious use, but it is still very unclear at present.No one is certain how such a small village could have become so popular over such a short time. That over 1000 people made the pilgrimage over great distances to Herxheim represents a significant logistical and communicational feat. But by 4950 BC, whatever was drawing people to Herxheim abruptly ended.[68]Near the end of the occupation period, within a brief time-span, of only 2-10 years, roughly 1000 foreigners, from mountainous regions, up to 250 miles away, were killed & cannibalized, in an oft-repeated ritual of sacrifice.[69] The foreigners included men, womem (including pregnant ones(, and children[70] Plausibly, the foreigners were relic remnant populations, of mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The sacrificial slaughter, of pregnant women & children, suggests seeking the annihilation & extirpation of a people.After about 4950 BCE the ditches were no longer cleaned out, but were intentionally filled in. And not with dirt -- they were filled with a mixture of human bones and artifacts, obviously the remains of great rituals. Researchers theorize that “50 years is the maximum occupation history for the site, based on ceramic sequencing. It could all have happened in just two years or even a few weeks.”[71]Without horses having yet been tamed, traveling 250 miles, on foot, could have taken weeks, each way. And, the ritualistic slaughter, of a thousand persons, in a few years, represents hundreds of persons per year. The larger sacrifices involved roughly 10 persons. So, several hundred sacrificial rituals, of several persons per each (on average), occurred quickly, in several years. So, perhaps such rites were undertaken at a rate of about a hundred per year. Such seems an extreme spree of sacrificial slaughter. Soon afterwards, Herxheim was abandoned, seemingly without any indications of conquest, raids, burning, fire, or fighting.Many sensational articles published on Herxheim proclaim cannibalism. However, the excavation’s leader Zeeb-Lanz cautions against such astonishing conclusions. “We mustn't forget that this was no giant settlement. Who is supposed to have eaten all this?”[72]The complex in Herxheim is considered as being a necropolis of another type, one that is associated with ritual practices and perhaps also with a religious background.[73] Groups of incomers from the wider surrounding region brought with them the bodies of their dead, which were then handled as part of a special ceremony. Fire can have an important role in regard to ritual behaviour. What can be considered safely is the deliberate destruction of various types of artefacts and handling human remains, perhaps associated with cannibalism.Footnotes[1] Thinking about Cannibalism[2] http://Key Ray Chong (August 1990). Cannibalism in China. Hollowbrook Publishing. [3] The Gruesome History of Eating Corpses as Medicine[4] Cannibalism—the Ultimate Taboo—Is Surprisingly Common[5] Evidence of mass cannibalism uncovered in Germany[6] Sticks, Stones, and Broken Bones[7] Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany) | Antiquity | Cambridge Core[8] An Introduction to the Neolithic Linearbandkeramik Culture[9] Controversial Signs of Mass Cannibalism[10] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279294037_Violence_on_the_living_violence_on_the_dead_Evidence_of_a_crisis_on_the_human_remains_from_Herxheim_Germany&ved=2ahUKEwjF-9P2_6jjAhURac0KHQ5RD2cQFjABegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw0ezc6f5FzSNcZdAOgAt04J[11] Herxheim - DFG-Projekt Bandkeramische Grubenanlage[12] Neolithic, Grim Feast Found - World Archaeology[13] Imgur[14] https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Herxheim-Linear-Pottery-Culture-settlement-a-site-location-in-Germany-b-plan-of_fig1_49132749/amp[15] Population Dynamics in Prehistory and Early History[16] https://www.jstor.org/stable/41053236[17] The LBK settlement with pit-enclosure at Herxheim near Landau (Palatinate). First results. [18] Sticks, Stones, and Broken Bones[19] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://etd.fcla.edu/CF/CFH0004669/Tran_Vu_N_201408_BA.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjRhMS3__viAhUlB50JHeyXCiAQFjAHegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw3FOUYiEuKCxRlhSA_Ryzyy[20] Herxheim cannibals c. 5000 BC[21] Religion 101: Ancestor Worship in Ancient Europe and the Arctic[22] Talheim Death Pit - Wikipedia[23] Herxheim cannibals c. 5000 BC[24] Skull Retrieval and Secondary Burial Practices in the Neolithic Near East: Recent Insights from Çatalhöyük, Turkey[25] Early Neolithic executions indicated by clustered cranial trauma in the mass grave of Halberstadt[26] Herxheim archaeological site[27] Ancient site reveals signs of mass cannibalism[28] The LBK Enclosure at Herxheim: Theatre of War or Ritual Centre? References from Osteoarchaeological Investigations in: War and Sacrifice[29] Herxheim, an archaeological site in southwest Germany, was a ritual center and mass grave from the Neolithic Era[30] http://Orschiedt, J., and M. N. Haidle. 2007. The LBK enclosure at Herxheim: Theatre of war or ritual centre? References from osteoarchaeological investigations. Journal of conflict archaeology 2: 152–167.[31] Controversial Signs of Mass Cannibalism[32] German Excavation Reveals Signs of Mass Cannibalism[33] http://Schmidt, K. 2004. Das bandkeramische Erdwerk von Herxheim bei Landau, Kreis Südliche Weinstrasse. Untersuchung der Erdwerksgräben. Germania 82: 333–349.[34] Evidence of mass cannibalism uncovered in Germany[35] Evidence of mass cannibalism uncovered in Germany[36] Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany) | Antiquity | Cambridge Core[37] German Excavation Reveals Signs of Mass Cannibalism[38] Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany) | Antiquity | Cambridge Core[39] Ancient site reveals signs of mass cannibalism[40] Page on revolvy.com[41] Cannibalism in the neolithic.[42] Europe’s Hypocritical History of Cannibalism[43] Stone Age Cannibals Engraved Marks on Human Bones[44] http://Zeeb-Lanz, A. 2009. Gewaltszenarien oder Sinnkrise? Die Grubenanlage von Herxheim und das Ende der Bandkeramik. In Krisen – Kulturwandel – Kontinuitäten. Zum Ende der Bandkeramik in Mitteleuropa. Beiträge der internationalen Tagung in Herxheim bei Landau (Pfalz) vom 14.–17. 6. 2007, ed. A. Zeeb-Lanz, 87–101. Rahden: Leidorf. 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