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Tallgrass prairie once covered about 40% of the United States. They are one of the most recently developed ecosystems in North America, formed by glaciers about 8,000 years ago. Today, only about 1% of North American prairies still exist. Prairies are dense in grass and herbaceous plants and low on tree coverage except in groves along larger streams. Over 100 plant species can occur in a prairie of less than 5 acres. The major grasses are the big bluestem, the little bluestem, Indiangrass and switchgrass. These grasses can grow as tall as ten feet and average a height of six to eight feet. The soil underneath the prairie is a dense tangle of roots and bulbs, with some plants putting out roots that extend 12 feet below the surface. This makes the plants drought resistant, but each year some of the roots die, adding large quantities of organic matter to the soil, which decompose making the soil rich and fertile.Up to 60 million bison grazed on the plains and prairies of North America when European explorers first arrived and fewer than 600 existed by 1885. A bison can consume 30–40 pounds of feed each day. Grazing was an integral part of the prairie ecosystem and increased the growth of prairie plants.Another animal of the prairie are the prairie dogs which gravitated to the patches of close-cropped grass left by grazing bison where they could watch for prowling predators. Prior to pioneer settlement, some five billion prairie dogs in extensive colonies spread across hundreds of miles of prairie. Saving prairie dogs means saving other prairie wildlife as well. For example, the burrowing owl roosts and nests in prairie dog town burrows. And other animals such as hawks, foxes and ferrets that hunt prairie dogs, disappear when the prairie dog population diminishes. Prairie chickens once flourished on the grasslands. As the grass disappeared, so did the prairie chicken. Today, only about 400,000 survive in the entire country, in 11 states.The prairie ecosystem has evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. It doesn’t destroy the grasses because they grow from the stem up rather than from the tips of the blade. The quantity of nutrients in the soil are usually increased due to the ash that is generated, and this is made quickly available, as opposed to the slow release of nutrients by decomposition. Moreover, many plant species in fire-affected environments require fire to germinate, establish or reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only eliminates these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.In conclusion, prairies are important because they provide rare native habitat for birds, butterflies, insects, reptiles and other small wildlife. They require little maintenance, are long lasting and do not need fertilizers or pesticides. They are perfectly adapted to our climate with root systems that are drought resistant, hold soils in place and absorb water contributing to groundwater recharge.Source:Prairie Quick Facts

As a wildlife biologist and a proponent of repairing, re-establishing, maintaining biodiversity in ecological systems, I say “Yes!”…But…it is not as simple as releasing these wild animals back into this land.WARNING: This is a Long post.I will address the possible release of these animals back into the highlands later, but first, the rationale and a little lesson in “architectural ecology.” Be patient; the actual answer to your question is coming!This (below) is an image used to illustrate a “keystone.” Keystone is an architectural term describing an overall concept related to the distribution of forces when constructing an arch.(Image in the public domain. Accessed 12Sept2018 at: File:Keystone.svg (https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Keystone.svg)- (https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Keystone.svg) Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Keystone.svg) )The darkened block (green, in case you are a bit colorblind) at the top of the arch in this image is the “keystone.” It serves to accept and direct the forces imposed from the sides of the arch and from anything built on top of the arch pushing downward.(Image: licensed under Creative Common. Accessed 12Sept2018 at: http://www.venipedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=File:Keystone.png )The keystone is “key” or most important, to the arch, for if you remove the keystone or place it incorrectly, the forces at the top of the arch will be unbalanced and lead to the failure (immediate to eventual as far as time frame) of the arch structure itself and everything it supports.Consider the Roman aqueduct shown below. Each arch has a keystone at the top. Each keystone was individually hewn and chiseled to fit its particular arch.(Image: Pont du Gard, Roman Empire, October 2007; by Emanuelle, licensed in Creative Commons 2.0; accessed 12Sept2018 at: File:Pont du Gard Oct 2007.jpg )If a single keystone were to be removed from, say, the arch directly over the river, the change in balance of forces and the small instability introduced would lead to the eventual collapse of the entire aqueduct—or at least enough of it that a reasonable person would look at it and see it was destroyed. It is testament to ingenuity and both architectural and mason skills that a number of Roman aqueducts built 2000 years ago (or so) still stand and that, while time, weather, and human interference have caused much damage, there are arches, keystones intact, still standing and supporting walls, bridges, and portions of working aqueducts. “Keystone” is a good term to use to impart the idea of stability and balancing of forces.***Thank you*** for being patient while learning or reviewing this connected concept. Now I can make the following statement and you may begin to have a new understanding.Wolves are a keystone species in most every ecosystem they naturally inhabited.In ecology, one or a few species can be so integrated into the ecosystem, so important to the stability of that ecosystem and its proper functioning, that if they are removed, the ecosystem suffers a form of “collapse.” As in architecture, we label these species as “keystone species.”Wolves are a keystone species. We did not always know or appreciate that fact. At one time we (even ecologists) thought that a keystone species must necessarily be an organism near the base of an ecological pyramid; part of the supporting “foundation” (implying something upon which the ecosystem was built. Certainly, if you remove the dominant producer (the main plant species or type that serve as the means to convert solar energy into energy useful to organisms that live in that ecosystem), the ecosystem will immediately collapse, but, again, think of the arch.There is, indeed, a foundation at the bottom and it defines to a great degree what can be built above, but it is a means of support and not really a stabilizer or balancer of forces. In effect, the “foundation” can stand on its own. Nothing needs to be built on the foundation for it to exist. The grasses in a prairie or the heathers in a heath can exist pretty much independently of the other organisms that are (or were) in that ecosystem. However, such a “system” is really not much of true ecosystem without the interaction of a community of organisms. Without a community or organisms, you are really looking at a monoculture (at least functionally so).Back to the wolf…We now better (but still not fully) understand the immense complexity of living, dynamic ecosystems. Yes, the foundation needs to be there to have some place on which to build and something (the producers) on which to develop important and complex systems of energy flow and nutrient transfer. However, the maintenance of stability within the dynamics—maintaining a sort of homeostasis in a couplex system—is performed by the interactions between and/or among species that do not appear to have any direct connections. A keystone of an arch does not appear to have a connection to a stone in the middle of the wall some 10 meters away, but remove the keystone and there is an effect on that stone; a change in the wall’s dynamic tensions and forces upon that stone. Depending upon the change in forces, that stone might be cracked under pressure, popped right out of the wall like squeezing a watermelon seed, or it may, in turn, transfer forces to an adjacent stone or stones.What we have learned from the “Yellowstone Experiment” and other long-term field research is that wolves have an impact (both direct and largely indirect) on dynamics within their ecosystem that we could hardly previously imagine. For instance, since the re-introduction of wolves, there have been increases in invertebrate biodiversity. Insects, spiders, and other invertebrate populations have changed (usually grown), species that had not been witnessed for many years have returned, and apparently some new species have shown up of which we weren’t previously aware.What does a work have to do with insects/invertebrates? Except for young wolves ocassionally snacking on grasshoppers and the presence of dog ticks and fleas on the wolves themselves, and a small handful of internal parasites, wolves have very little direct interaction with invertebrates. Yet, wherever the wolf became part of the ecosystem dynamics, invertebrate dynamics (and even presence) was impacted.We see a similar effect on flowering plants. Where wolves have become part of the ecosystem community dynamics, flowering plant biodiversity has increased. Plants that had not been seen in a couple generations are now back in relative abundance—and along with them comes their pollinators and other adventitious and opportunistic insects that use these plants as working and living spaces.The plant connection is sometimes easier to first apprehend and then to comprehend, because it is often related to the dynamic these plants have with large (and sometimes small) herbivores—the animals that directly eat the plants.Before the re-introduction of the wolves at Yellowstone, the large herbivores (predominantly the mule deer and elk) were already known to be overgrazing the land. There were many observations of habitat degradation throughout the entire area and most people quickly realized the problem: concentrations of deer and elk populations in areas with no serious predators and little or no hunting (by humans). The wolves reduced the wild populations of these particular ungulates and the plant life began to recover in less than 3 years. Evidence of recovery was seen in the second year after re-introduction in a couple places within the park property. Plant biodiversity improvement and recovery was evident (to all but the most ardent anti-wolf observers) within a decade.It IS amazing, but by simply bringing back a single species—and even at a relatively low initial number—dramatic (positive) impacts have been made on the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. We have seen similar, but necessarily smaller impacts in the Northwoods (the border regions between Canada and the USA centered around northern Minnesota) where wolves were protected or allowed to re-establish.So, what about the highlands of Scotland?Wolves were a keystone species there as well and I would encourage re-introduction.But not before several things happen first:The general population as well as the local population must be educated as to:The fact that the wolf is a keystone species (and what a keystone species is);That wolves are not inherently dangerous to people;That their heaths and surrounding areas will be improved with respect to ecological health and biodiversity—the presence of more really cool wildlife should be a boon to locals and to tourists alike (birders, in particular should LOVE the idea); i.e. there are economic as well as ecological benefitsto the locals;Local landowners, farmers, and populace should be assured that any depredation will be fairy and quickly compensated. A (probably dedicated) fund and transpatent protocol for such compensations needs to be established. There WILL be cases of wolves taking sheeps and calves. It IS going to happen for two reasons: 1) wolves will take easy prey and 2) people are sometimes just too dense or recalcitrant to change their old ways to better and more sensibly protect their livestock investments. It is usually the livestock owners fault that they lose an animal to wild predators.Local livestock farmers/owners need to be educated and persuaded to alter a handful of current practices—like allowing pregnant ewes or cows to lamb or calve in the fields. That just invites depredation and can easily be changed to preserve stock and prevent such destructive and negative interactions.How about the lynx?In this situation, I would wait until wolves have been re-established before I would re-introduce this large cat. These cats are not “as” keystone as wolvesand present more problems with depredations because of their solitary and secretive habits. Without the wolves, they become a kind of niggling problem nearly every night. With the wolves and a return of general biodiversity of the region, they may be occasional pests in particular areas close to human habitation, but overall will serve the good of a healthy ecosystem.

America's EstuariesBy: Sarah BlountEstuaries are found around the world, offering productive habitat to thousands of species of birds, mammals, fish, and other wildlife, including more than two thirds of the fish and shellfish consumed in the US. A source of important economic and ecologic resources, these areas are home to 22 of the largest 32 cities in the world, and have been prime locations for human communities dating back to at least 3800 BCE. There are more than 100 of these water bodies along the coast of the United States—is there an estuary near you? Read on to learn about some of America's estuaries.Kachemak Bay, AlaskaOld Woman Creek, OhioHudson River, New York and New JerseyMission-Aransas Estuary, TexasJobos Bay, Puerto RicoJacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve, New JerseyGuana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve, FloridaGreat Bay Estuary, New Hampshire and MaineGrand Bay Estuary, Mississippi and AlabamaElkhorn Slough, CaliforniaApalachicola Bay System, FloridaKachemak Bay, AlaskaLocated on the southern end of the Kenai Peninsula in south central Alaska, Kachemak Bay is the largest unit in the National Estuarine Research Reserve system, covering 366,100 acres. Kachemak is a fjord-type estuary, where retreating glaciers carved a deep channel in the land reaching out into the Gulf of Alaska. As the glaciers scraped across the land, they chiseled out a large mass of dirt and rock, which formed a pile that the glaciers pushed across the continental crust. When the glaciers finally reached the end of their path and melted away, they left behind this pile of rubble, otherwise known as a moraine. As sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age with the influx of water from melting across the planet, this new valley was filled with seawater, drowning the moraine. The moraine rests at what is now the mouth of Kachemak Bay, acting as a barrier to the water body and restricting saltwater input, giving the bay its distinction as a fjord-type estuary. Typically with these types of estuaries a layer of fresh water coming off of the coast will flow above the near-stagnant salt water below, but Kachemak is located at such a high latitude that during the six-month winter the mainland watershed freezes, cutting off the supply of fresh water to the estuary, rendering the bay almost completely marine.Thinking of visiting Kachemak Bay for some hiking, fishing, camping, or kayaking? Check out this helpful advice from the Alaskan Department of Natural Resources to keep yourself and the bay safe during your trip!Sources: Alaska Department of National Resources Division of Parks & Outdoor Recreation “Kachemak Bay State Park and State Wilderness Park” Kachemak Bay State Wilderness Park; EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; Kachemak Bay Research Reserve “A Site Profile of the Kachemak Bay Research Reserve: A Unit of the National Estuarine Research Reserve System” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/KBA_SiteProfile.pdf; National Estuarine Research Reserve System “Kachemak Bay, AK” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Reserve.aspx?ResID=KBA; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Fjord” fjord; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; NOAA Ocean Service Education “Fjords” NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: EstuariesOld Woman Creek, OhioYou won’t find Old Woman Creek on the West Coast feeding into the Pacific, nor will you find it on the East Coast spilling out into the Atlantic. In fact, this estuary has no access to salt water at all! Old Woman Creek is a freshwater estuary located in Huron, Ohio where the fresh water of the creek mixes with the chemically distinct fresh water of Lake Erie, creating a highly productive wildlife habitat, including freshwater marshes, swamp forests, a barrier beach, upland forests, and a riparian stream, all scattered across the estuary’s watershed.The estuary and its surrounding landscape help to remove pollutants and sediment from water flowing off of the landscape before it hits Lake Erie, which supplies water to millions of Ohio residents every day. In addition to helping provide potable water to the people of Ohio, Old Woman Creek estuary also serves as a giant protective sponge, soaking up potentially dangerous floodwaters and slowly releasing the excess moisture back to the open lake.Interested in visiting Old Woman Creek? The visitor center is open Tuesday through Friday, from 9 am to 4 pm, and on Saturday and Sunday from 1-5 pm during the April through October months. Check out the reserve’s calendar of events to plan your visit!Sources: Charles E. Herdendorf, David M. Klarer, and Ricki C. Herdendorf. 2006. The Ecology of Old Woman Creek, Ohio: An Estuarine and Watershed Profile (2nd Ed.). Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife, Columbus, Ohio. 452 pp. Retrieved from http://www.coast.noaa.gov/data/docs/nerrs/Reserves_OWC_SiteProfile.pdf; EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; National Estuarine Research Reserve System “Old Woman Creek National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://nerrs.noaa.gov/reserves/old-woman-creek.html; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “Ocean Service Education: Freshwater Estuaries” NOAA's National Ocean Service Education: Estuaries; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; NOAA and Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Wildlife “2015 Estuary Explorations Community Calendar” http://wildlife.ohiodnr.gov/Portals/wildlife/pdfs/public%20areas/estuaryexplorations.pdf; NOAA and Ohio Division of Wildlife “Old Woman Creek National Estuarine Research Reserve Management Plan 2011-2016” http://coast.noaa.gov/data/docs/nerrs/Reserves_OWC_MgmtPlan.pdfThe Hudson River, New York and New JerseyFor those who aren’t native to New York or New Jersey, hearing that the Hudson River is actually an estuary may come as a surprise! The river begins 315 miles away from the coast as fresh water from Lake Tear of the Clouds in the Adirondack Mountains, and flows south towards Upper New York Bay, also called New York Harbor. Of this extent, only the southern 153 miles (from Troy, New York to the Harbor) make up the estuary. This designation comes from the unusual trait the Hudson acquires in its final stretch—it will flow two different ways, depending on the time of day.The waters of the Hudson are affected by the Atlantic’s tides, meaning that when the New York coast is experiencing a flood tide (when the tide is rising) the tidal force is so strong that it rushes in through the bay and pushes the Hudson’s waters back upstream. The tides are forceful enough that they impact the flow of the Hudson’s waters all the way through the Albany area, finally losing their influence at the city of Troy. During an ebb tide (when the tide is receding), the Hudson’s waters flow south once again. The Hudson sees two high tides and two low tides each day, constantly shifting the water’s flow.Not only does the Atlantic change the Hudson’s direction of flow, but it also affects the water’s salinity. Depending on the season, the “salt front,” or the leading edge of the salt water flowing in from the bay, shifts along the Hudson’s track. In the high-river flow of spring, the freshwater of the river pushes the salt front south to the Tappan Zee, but as the flow decreases in the summer, the salt front encroaches north to Newburgh Bay, sometimes even reaching Poughkeepsie in times of drought.This unusual water body and its tributaries are home to more than 200 species of fish, as well as blue crab, bald eagles, herons, and other waterfowl, which can be found in the estuary’s tidal marshes and mudflats.You can help safeguard the estuary! The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation has a guide on ways to contribute to the health of the estuary from inside of your home, in your community, on the riverbanks, and from your boat. Check out their advice here.Sources: EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; New York State Department of Environmental Conservation “The Hudson Estuary: A River That Flows Two Ways” The Hudson Estuary: A River That Flows Two Ways; New York State Department of Environmental Conservation “What You Can Do to Protect the Hudson River Estuary” What You Can Do to Protect the Hudson River Estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; Barry A. Vittor & Associates, Inc. and Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve “Ecological Profile of the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://coast.noaa.gov/data/docs/nerrs/Reserves_HUD_SiteProfile.pdfMission-Aransas Estuary, TexasThe Mission-Aransas National Estuarine Research Reserve on the Gulf Coast of Texas contains 185,708 acres of wetland, water, and terrestrial habitats, including oak motte habitats, saltwater marshes, wind tidal flats, mangroves, oyster reefs, and coastal prairie. Protected by Matagorda Island, a barrier island created during the melting of the last ice age, this estuary is shielded from some of the winds and waves coming in off of the Gulf of Mexico, making it an ideal home for ecologically, commercially, and recreationally important species such as blue crabs, alligators, juvenile flounder, and herons. Migratory birds also make up a large part of the community here, as the reserve is ideally located as a place to rest and refuel for Neotropical birds migrating between North and Central America.Perhaps you’ve heard about the stars of the estuary, although it’s unlikely that you’ve seen them in the wild—the whooping crane, the rarest crane species and one of the rarest birds in North America (and also the tallest). This flock travels 2,500 miles from their home in Canada’s Wood Buffalo National Park down to the Mission-Aransas Estuary every year, the progeny of the 15 cranes found wintering at the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge in 1941. Want a chance to spot these beautiful birds? Visit the estuary between October and March, when the flock is in town for the winter. Aransas National Wildlife Refuge or one of the Mission-Aransas National Estuarine Research Reserve facilities are both great places to go learn more!Sources: EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; Evans, A; Madden, K & Palmer, S. M. “The Ecology and Sociology of the Mission-Aransas Estuary: An Estuarine and Watershed Profile” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/MAR_SiteProfile.pdf; Mission-Aransas National Estuarine Research Reserve “About: Mission-Aransas National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://www.missionaransas.org/about.html; National Estuarine Research Reserve System “Mission-Aransas, TX” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Reserve.aspx?ResID=MAR; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; USFWS “Aransas NWR” U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceJobos Bay, Puerto RicoJobos Bay is Puerto Rico’s second-largest estuarine area, and it is home to some of the most extensive networks of mangrove forests on the island. Located on the arid southeastern coast between Guayama and Salinas, this tropical estuarine system was formed 18,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age as rising seas drowned coastal lowlands. What’s unusual about this estuary is its hydrology—rather than being fed by a mighty river, the main source of fresh water for Jobos Bay is groundwater from the South Coastal Alluvial Plain aquifer. Water from the higher-rainfall area of the Cordillera Central mountain slopes is absorbed into the earth and enters the aquifer, where it travels underground across the island before resurfacing in the estuary to the south. With this system, Jobos Bay supports mangroves, coral reefs, lagoons, salt flats, dry forests, and sea grass beds, which are important for a wide array of plants and animals, including large migrating bird populations and many endangered species.The Jobos Bay estuary has natural water filtration occurring in its mangrove forests. Mangroves are found all around this estuary, including Mar Negro, the mangrove forest wetlands complex found on the land side of the mouth of the Jobos Bay, and Cayos Caribe, the linear chain of 15 reef-fringed mangrove islands that reach west from the southern tip of the mouth of the Bay. These trees help to mitigate the impacts of coastal storms, both for human populations on the land and for aquatic communities on the other side of the forests in the sea. The energy of harsh winds and strong waves from the storm are attenuated as they pass through the mangroves, lessening the impact of these forces by the time they reach buildings and houses further inland. On the other side of the trees, stormwater runoff and sediment that fill the streams during these heavy rain events are taken up by the wetlands vegetation and knocked out of the water column by the knot of mangrove roots, so that when the water reaches the sensitive coral community further out in the ocean, the impact on these delicate animals is reduced.Sources: EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; Labos, E. N. et al. “Jobos Bay Estuarine Profile: A National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/JOB_SiteProfile.pdf; National Estuarine Research Reserve System “Jobos Bay, PR” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Reserve.aspx?ResID=JOB; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414;Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve, New JerseyThe Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR) in southern New Jersey covers several estuarine areas, including the Mullica River-Great Bay estuary, the lower Barnegat Bat, Little Bay, Reeds Bay, and Absecon Bay. Encompassed in these lands and waters are pine-oak forests, hardwood swamps, tidal marshes, barrier islands, and emergent wetlands, which provide nursery and reproductive habitat to wildlife populations including more than 270 species of macroinvertebrates, 90 species of fish, 350 species of algae, and many more avian, reptilian, amphibian, and mammalian species. In addition to the plants and animals that live in the estuary all year long, the Jacques Cousteau NERR also serves migrating bird populations, providing winter habitat to more than 70,000 individual waterfowl.In addition to making the land habitable for plants and animals, the estuary also helps to keep human coastal communities safe and livable. The sponge-like quality of the wetlands surrounding the estuary waters helps to absorb incoming floodwaters and storm surge, and the emergent plants and submerged aquatic vegetation of the estuary filter out sediment, excess nutrients, and pollution from the waters before they flow out to the ocean.To visit the area and see the estuary in action, check out these public lands:Wharton State ForestEdwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife RefugeSources: EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve “Characterization of the Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve: A Profile Report” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/JCQ_SiteProfile.pdf; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; Rutgers Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences “Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve: General Description of the Reserve” http://jcnerr.org/description.htmGuana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve, FloridaThe Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve in northeast Florida is home to three different estuaries: the Tolomato and Guana River estuaries in the northern section, and the Matanzas River estuary in the southern portion. Together, these estuaries and their surrounding lands contain pinelands, salt marsh, oyster bars, estuarine lagoons, and the northernmost extent of mangrove habitat on the East Coast. As these different types of habitat contain both tropical and subtropical plants and animals, this reserve is a key area for scientists to study how these populations will react to the impacts of climate change.The Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve is a great place to go to look for wildlife! This area is an important place to rest and feed for migrating populations such as shorebirds and calving North Atlantic right whales, and other wildlife like manatees, bald eagles, and peregrine falcons can be found here all year long. The public lands below are all part of the reserve—check them out to plan your visit!Northern component:Guana River Marsh Aquatic PreserveGuana River Wildlife Management AreaSouthern component:Faver-Dykes State ParkFort Mantanzas National MonumentPrincess Place PreserveSources: D. Frazel. 2009. Site Profile of the Guana Tolomato Matanzas National Estuarine Research Reserve. Ponte Vedra, FL. 151 pp. Retrieved from http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/GTM_SiteProfile.pdf; EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire and MaineThe Great Bay estuary is unusual, and can even be a little hard to find. This is because New Hampshire’s largest estuarine system, located on the border between New Hampshire and Maine, does not open directly into the ocean! Instead, this estuary is fed salt water that travels from the Gulf of Maine 15 miles inland through the Piscataqua River, where it then mixes in Great Bay with fresh water from the Salmon Falls, Cocheco, Bellamy, Oyster, Lamprey, Squamscott, and Winnicut rivers. The bay’s placement so far away from the coast makes it one of the most recessed estuaries in the nation. Formed by sea level rise at the end of the last ice age 14,000 years ago, the estuary and its surrounding lands today contain mudflats, salt marshes, swamps, ponds, eelgrass beds, oyster habitat, and more, offering food, shelter, and breeding ground to fish, birds, mammals, and invertebrates alike. Located on the Atlantic Flyway, Great Bay hosts the largest wintering population of bald eagles in New England, and the largest concentration of black ducks in the state.Come visit the estuary! Hike, bike and try your hand at nature photography at the Great Bay National Wildlife Refuge, or head out to the Great Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve for more recreational opportunities. Bring some sunscreen, a water bottle and a sense of adventure!Sources: EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; NOAA “NERRS Reserves: Great Bay, NH; Animals and Rare Species” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/NERRSReserve.aspx?ID=127&ResID=GRB; NOAA, New Hampshire Department of Fish and Game, Great Bay Stewards “Great Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://greatbay.org/; USFWS “Great Bay National Wildlife Refuge” http://www.fws.gov/refuge/Great_Bay/Grand Bay, Mississippi and AlabamaThe Grand Bay estuary, straddling the state line between Mississippi and Alabama, is a major estuarine system contributing to the Gulf of Mexico. Encompassing Mississippi’s Middle Bay, Point Aux Chenes Bay, Bayou Cumbest, Crooked Bayou, and Bayou Heron, this area contains a diverse array of habitats, including some of the most extensive, un-vegetated salt flats found in Mississippi, as well as wet pine savanna, salt marshes, bays, maritime forests, oyster reefs, and areas of submerged aquatic vegetation.While the Grand Bay estuary is home to some of the most biodiverse habitats in North America, housing many species of mammals, birds, insects, and commercially and recreationally important species of finfish and shellfish, it isn’t an ideal habitat for everyone! This estuary is a study in extremes, both on land and in water. Low freshwater input to the Bay means that this estuary is one of the saltiest on the Mississippi coast, making it unsuitable for some species while allowing others to flourish. Things don’t get much easier on land—to remain healthy, the wet pine savanna is maintained with periodic wildfires, which help to clear out invasive species and are a necessary component of the reproduction of many species of plants in the area. Frequently burned wet pine savannas are often home to specialized plants, such as orchids and carnivorous pitcher plants—at least four different kinds of carnivorous plants can be found in Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge alone.Don’t let the carnivorous plants keep you at bay! There are many great ways to get out and enjoy recreating on the estuary:Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge: Visitors can enjoy hiking, fishing, hunting, and wildlife observation and take in environmental education and interpretive events at the refuge, managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve: Managed by NOAA and the Mississippi Department of Marine Resources, the reserve is dedicated to research, but it can also be enjoyed by visitors looking to do some birding, canoeing, kayaking, fishing, hunting, and more.Grand Bay Savanna Preserve: Managed by the Mississippi Department of Marine Resources, this area offers educational resources, as well as opportunities to boat and fish.Sources: EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. 2013. Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve Management Plan 2013-2018: Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Mississippi Department of Marine Resources, Moss Point, Mississippi. 104pp. Retrieved from http://grandbaynerr.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/GBNEER-Plan-Final-8-13-13.pdf; Mississippi Department of Natural Resources “Mississippi GEMS: Grand Bay Savanna Preserve” http://www.dmr.ms.gov/mississippi-gems/213-grand-bay-savanna; Mississippi Department of Marine Resources, NOAA “Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://grandbaynerr.org/; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; Peterson, M.S., G.L. Waggy and M.S. Woodrey (editors). (2007). Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve: An Ecological Characterization. Grand Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Moss Point, Mississippi. 268 pp. Retrieved from http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/GRD_SiteProfile.pdf ; USFWS “Grand Bay National WildlifeElkhorn Slough, CaliforniaEstuaries may be a bit tricky to find along the Pacific—only 10-20% of the western coastline is composed of estuaries, compared to the 80-90% of the eastern coastline. This stark contrast is due to the difference in tectonic activity on the two coasts; craggy cliffs formed by uplift and mountain-building in the west versus relative calm in the east, where the land slopes gently into the ocean.Elkhorn Slough (pronounced “slew”) is a small, shallow estuary that feeds into Monterey Bay at Moss Landing. Found about 20 miles north of Monterey, this water body and its surrounding lands offer a wide variety of habitat including mudflats, eelgrass beds, salt marsh, coastal dunes, open beaches, grasslands, and woodlands. Together, this ecosystem supports more than 50 species of terrestrial mammals and hundreds of species of fish both recreationally and commercially important, but it is best known for its bird population. A critical habitat for resident and migratory bird populations, Elkhorn Slough is one of the few remaining saltwater wetlands on the Pacific Flyway, offering respite to tens of thousands of birds, including rare and endangered species.The slough and the lands surrounding it are managed by several different organizations, offering different opportunities to learn about and interact with the estuary.Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve: Co-managed by NOAA and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, this area is a field laboratory for research and education. Come check out the award-winning exhibits of the Visitor Center, or take a stroll along the five miles of trails that span the reserve.Elkhorn Slough: Managed by the Elkhorn Slough Foundation, this site covers recreational activities which are offered around the slough, including some not available on the reserve.Sources: Elkhorn Slough Foundation, Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve “Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve” http://www.elkhornslough.org/esnerr/index.htm; Elkhorn Slough Foundation, Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve “Recreation at Elkhorn Slough” http://www.elkhornslough.org/recreation/index.htm; Elkhorn Slough Foundation, NOAA, California Department of Fish and Game “Changes in a California Estuary” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/ELK_SiteProfile.pdf; EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414;Apalachicola Bay System, FloridaThe Apalachicola Bay system is located in the Florida panhandle, where the Apalachicola River meets the Gulf of Mexico. This bay system can be broken up into four parts: East Bay, St. Vincent Sound, St. George Sound, and Apalachicola Bay. Guarded by a chain of barrier islands, this 210 square-mile estuary receives water from stream systems that reach beyond state borders into Alabama and Georgia. These waters feed the Apalachicola River, contributing to the estuary’s standing as one of the most productive estuarine systems in North America. About 90% of Florida’s oyster harvest and 10% of the country’s oyster harvest come from these waters, which also serve as a nursery for other commercially and ecologically important species of fish and shellfish. Surrounding the waters of the estuary is a richly diverse landscape, including pine forests, dune fields, barrier islands, floodplain forests, and various types of wetlands. Together, this patchwork landscape provides habitat for over 1,000 species of plants and many different amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including rare and endangered species, such as West Indian manatee and the Indiana bat. The proximity of the estuary to the Mississippi Flyway, an important track for migratory birds, makes this area an important stopover point for many bird species.This estuary is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Florida Park Service, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, and the Northwest Florida Water Management District, so depending on where you go, there are different opportunities to learn about and interact with the estuary.St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge: This undeveloped barrier island is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and is an important migratory bird stopover, as well as habitat for bald eagles, loggerhead sea turtles, and red wolves. Visitors here can hike, fish and photograph wildlife.Apalachicola Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve: This 246,000 acre reserve is managed by NOAA and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, and is a prime forage area for trans-gulf migratory bird species. The refuge offers a guest lecture series, educational exhibits at the nature center, and field trip programs to the site.Other parks and natural resources surrounding the estuary: The Apalachicola Chamber of Commerce has collected information on the many state and local public lands surrounding the estuary.(Sources: Apalachicola Chamber of Commerce “Apalachicola” http://www.apalachicolabay.org/index.cfm/m/20/locationSectionId/0/Museum,_Parks,_Theater; Edmiston, H. L. (2008). A river meets the bay: The Apalachicola estuarine system. Apalachicola, FL: NOAA & Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retreived from: http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/APA_SiteProfile.pdf; EPA “Basic Information about Estuaries” National Estuary Program (NEP) | US EPA; EPA, Narragansett Bay Commission & University of Rhode Island Office of Marine Programs “Estuarine Science: All About Estuaries” http://omp.gso.uri.edu/ompweb/doee/science/descript/whats.htm; National Geographic “Encyclopedic Entry: Estuary” estuary; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve; A River Meets the Bay: The Apalachicola Estuarine System” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Doc/PDF/Reserve/APA_SiteProfile.pdf; NOAA “National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Quick Facts About Estuaries” http://www.nerrs.noaa.gov/ECDefault.aspx?ID=414; NOAA “NERRS Reserves: Apalachicola, FL” http://nerrs.noaa.gov/Reserve.aspx?ResID=APA; NOAA “NERRS Reserves: Apalchicola, FL; Endangered Species” http://nerrs.noaa.gov/NERRSReserve.aspx?ID=88&ResID=APA; USFWS “St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge” http://www.fws.gov/saintvincent/)