State Forms - Final 1213: Fill & Download for Free

Just to make sure everybody’s on the same page, Upper Egypt (Arabic Sa’id) is the southern part, which is upriver as the Nile flows. Its historic centre in antiquity was Thebes “of a hundred gates”. Its patron god was Set, also the god of foreigners and wild places, the ruler of the red land [desert sand]. Lower Egypt, including the Delta, is the northern part, downriver of Upper Egypt, and its historical centre was Memphis. Its patron god was Horus, guardian of the pharaoh and ruler of the black land [soil washed by the Nile, Egypt itself].Pharaohs were crowned with the Hedjet, a white crown bearing a vulture, for Upper Egypt, and the Deshret, a red crown bearing a cobra, for Lower Egypt. On most occasions affecting both kingdoms, pharaohs then wore the Pschent or double crown, bearing both animals.^ Someone has cool schoolbooks, I think.The question kind of answers itself — it was still celebrated millenia after the time of Menes (32nd-31st c. BC), the proto-dynastic ruler to whom this union is credited, because it remained politically relevant. The “Two Lands” of Egypt remained real places, with their own cultural-religious identities, which more than once drifted apart over the 26 dynasties of classical Egyptian history.In fact, the main periodization of Egyptian history into the Old, Middle & New Kingdoms separated by three Intermediate Periods chronicles just that: every “kingdom” is one period of unity of the “Two Lands” under a coherent government, spanning several dynasties each. Every “intermediate period” is one span of disunity, in which Upper and Lower Egypt drifted apart.For example, the 3rd Intermediate Period (11th-7th c. BC) followed the collapse of the last vigorous native dynasties of Egypt. Ramses “the Great” (d. 1213 BC) and the the broader Ramesside period (1292–1077 BC) was the last time the Two Lands were securely unified under a native dynasty (the final or 26th dynasty was also native, but less than secure).After the Ramessides, Upper and Lower Egypt drifted apart during the first half of the Third Intermediate Period, and would not be unified until the 25th or Nubian dynasty 350 years later. In the meantime, Lower Egypt was occupied by the migrating Libyans/Berbers, the Meshwesh, who formed the 22nd dynasty. Upper Egypt drifted away on its own, effectively ruled by the priesthood of its chief city, Thebes; until another branch of the Meshwesh came and established the 23rd dynasty there, separate from their cousins in the north. For most of the Third Intermediate period, Upper and Lower Egypt were distinct Berber kingdoms following native Egyptian ceremonies. They would both be replaced by the Nubians, who similarly adopted Egyptian ceremonies and ruled as pharaohs through native elites.11th century Egypt; all chiefs and dynasties north of Herakleopolis are Meshwesh.Division also happened during the 100-years-long Second Intermediate period (17th-16th c. BC), when the invading Hyksos - a foreign people who introduced horses and war-chariots to Egypt - established a kingdom in the eastern Nile Delta, dominating Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt was ruled separately by native dynasties, who eventually expelled the Hyksos.The First Intermediate Period (22nd-21st c. BC) was a division of Egypt between native dynasties during the collapse of the Old Kingdom. The outbreak of all three intermediate periods was attended by population reduction and material devastation.For all these reasons, the portrayal of every pharaoh as “Uniter of the Two Lands” was a guarantee to his people of “peace in our time.” Remember always that, despite often being depicted as some sort of timeless monolith, Egypt was like Mesopotamia or Greece composed of many individual cities with their own cults and identities. In Upper Egypt alone, the priests at Hermopolis worshipped the Ogdoad (a set of eight gods, with an associated mythology); the priests at Thebes the Ennead (a set of nine gods, with another mythology). Lower Egypt collectively had Horus as its guardian, Upper Egypt had Set; these gods represented a dualism between self and other, civilization and barbarism. I’m sure the reader can easily imagine how Egyptians might have pictured the cultural contrast between themselves.Consider how such cultic conflicts expressed deep feuds in other parts of the Near East. When a Mesopotamian city defeated a rival, it penetrated its sanctuary and stole the idol - physical figure of its god - to put it in its own temples, adding its power to its own. The longer such “feuds” between cities lasted centuries - in a couple extreme cases, too many centuries - until one dishonoured city took back its idol with great slaughter.The cults of gods, manifested in specific cities and patronized by rulers, were the vehicle of the idea of the state. The Hebrew Bible, for example, represents the cult centre of Jerusalem (look how far we’ve come), and its associated kings of Judah. The denouncement of other gods, i.e. the cults of the larger kingdom of Israel which the kings of Judah claim as their patrimony in the same text, was tantamount to the concentration of all Canaan around the Temple at Judah and the Judean kings. The temple as an economic centre, its priesthood, and the physical Ark kept in its Holy of Holies were as close as tribal Judean kings could get to a state apparatus and collective identity.Successful states sought to assert their cult centre, or to confederate several; Egypt existed by virtue of the confederation of its cult centres, whose literate tradition consecrated the existence of an Egyptian whole out of many parts.Horus & Set, the patron gods of the Two Lands, tying the Sema-Tawy hieroglyph together; binding stems of the papyrus plant [native to Lower Egypt] with stems of lilies [native to Upper Egypt] in a knot around a spine and trachea. Papyrus, lilies, and the spine were symbols for Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt and Unity respectively.Other depictions have the Sema-Tawy tied by Hapi, androgynous god of the seasonal flooding of the Nile (notice his breasts and pregnant belly) - the association of the life-giving river with political unity should be obvious.Political tradition is the art of framing narratives. Unification is not something that is ever “done” nor is it about the theoretical drift of states or borders. It is a myth living in the minds of people, which legitimizes the political process by giving it purpose. By reiterating certain myths, every successive generation of the body politic makes promises and expects certain returns. It was this collective effort - the celebration of “events” mythical and real - that let the Egyptians establish a certain beneficial status quo across diverse situations and times.If I may re-borrow a phrase,“And a temple is comprised of stones. One stone crumbles and another takes its place. And the temple holds its form, for 1,000 years or more.”~Tywin Lannister, A Game of Thrones

The origin of the Székely Hungarians is still debated. There are four main theories:The first theory is based on a medieval Hungarian chronicle (Gesta Hungarorum) which claims that the Székelys are descendants of those Huns who remained in Pannonia after the collapse of Attila’s Hunnic Empire. According to the theory, the Székelys welcomed the Magyars (close relatives of the Huns) when those returned to Pannonia around 900 AD, participated in the (re)conquest of the region, then received a part of the conquered territory. The majority of modern scholars refute this theory.Some scholars say that the Székelys are the descendants of the "Late Avar" population of the Carpathian Basin. The "Late Avar" period started around 700 A.D. when a new archaeological culture—the so-called "griffin and tendril" culture—appeared in the Carpathian Basin. Historians attribute this new archaeological horizon to nomadic tribes who had fled from the Pontic steppes to the West after the Khazars destroyed their empire around 680 AD. Hungarian archaeologist Gyula László’s “double conquest” theory claims that the Magyar conquest that took place around 900 (confirmed by all historians( must have been essentially a second entrance that followed an earlier, less well documented invasion around 700 AD. The essence of the theory is that the Late Avar culture is similar, or sometimes identical to Magyar culture. Gyula László proposed that the Late Avars were a Hungarian-speaking group. He cites a 9th-century charter of Louis the German, King of East Francia that mentions the Wangariorum marcas in the westernmost part of the Carpathian Basin. It is suggested that most of the remaining Avar population fled to the western parts of Pannonia and sought refugee in the Frankish Empire after the collapse of their state. Surprising fact that the dialect of the Székelys is similar to the dialects spoken by the Hungarian communities near Bratislava, Slovakia and in Burgenland, Austria. Archeological findings and place names also support the theory that the Székelys initially inhabited the westernmost regions of the Kingdom of Hungary.According to the third theory, the Székelys were part of the Magyar tribal confederation and arrived in the region around 900. Supporters of this theory say that the Székelys were descended from the border guards of the Kingdom of Hungary who settled in the easternmost region of the Carpathian Basin and preserved their special privileges for centuries. Their distinct identity is only a result of centuries-long isolation from other Hungarian-speaking communities. The Székelys speak the Hungarian language "without any trace of a Turkic substratum", indicating that they did not have a language shift during their history. However, if we presupposes that the so-called Late Avar population was not Turkic-speaking, the absence of a Turkic substratum in the Székely dialects is not that surprising, and does not support the “border guard theory”.Finally, the strongest theory combines the other 3: it says that the Székelys had originally been a non-Hungarian-speaking tribe who joined the Magyar tribal confederation in the Pontic steppes (to the east of the Carpathian Basin) in the 9th century. Supporters of this theory emphasize that the Székelys were regarded a separate ethnic group in the Middle Ages. In 1250, a royal charter enumerated the Saxons, Vlachs, Székelys and Pechenegs when mentioning a Hungarian campaign against Bulgaria. A charter of William, Bishop of Transylvania, wrote of “Hungarians and Székelys” in 1213. The Székely’s participation against Bohemian forces near the Olsava River was mentioned in a 12th-century chronicle. The theory’s final conclusion is that the Székelys, an originally distinct ethnic group, formed the Magyars' vanguard, because nomadic peoples always placed the associated tribes in the most vulnerable position. After the establishment of the Principality of Hungary, they became border guards, and initially settled along the most vulnerable western borders (where the presence of “Avar remnants” in the 10th century is not refuted). In 997 AD, prince Géza concluded a peace treaty with Emperor Henry II and renounced the lands east of the river Leitha. The Székelys gradually moved to the eastern regions of the kingdom. First, they settled in Bihar, where dozens of place names attest their presence during the medieval ages. After the introduction of the feudal system in Hungary, the crown prince's command over the associated ethnic groups transformed into his authority over the territories where they settled, and Bihar became one of the duchies of the kingdom (governed separately by members of the Árpád dynasty). From the 13th century, when the Cuman and Mongol / Tatar incursions became more and more frequent, they moved to Transylvania to defend the eastern borders of the Hungarian realm. It is hypothesized that the establishment of the Voivodeship of Transylvania as a separate administrative division of the kingdom (and the simultenous abolishment of the institution of the ducatus) was connected to the settlement of the Székelys and other associated peoples in the region. Some scholars identify the Székelys with the Kabar, the Khazar rebels who joined the Magyar confederation in the 9th century.

Looks like you have already decided Arjuna was a coward.Arjuna and Krishna went out of the battlefield for some times to meet Yudhisthira. But when they returned to the battlefield the Bharagavastra was still in action as per BORI CE? Isn’t it?Krishna stated the same -Karna obtained a weapon from Bhargava Rama, supreme among rishis in earlier times, and it has exhibited its extremely terrible and calamitous form. Its form is fierce and extremely terrible and it is scorching all the soldiers. Blazing in its energy, it has surrounded the large army.651 The arrows released from Karna’s bow are traversing in the field of battle. They are tormenting those on your side, like a storm of bees. O descendant of the Bharata lineage! Having encountered Karna’s irresistible weapon in the battle, the weak-spirited among the Panchalas are seen to run away in all the directions.Reference - Karna Vadha Parva, The critical edition translated by Bibek Debroy.Arjuna stated the same -I can see Bhargava’s weapon coursing in every direction. O Varshneya! It has been released by Karna, like the great vajra by Shakra. O Krishna! But as long as the earth exists, beings will talk about what will be done by me in the battle.Reference - Chapter 1202(52) Karna Vadha Parva, The critical edition translated by Bibek Debroy.Let me share the summarized events of what happened afterwards with chapter numbers from BORI CE.Chapter 1203(53) mentions a general clash between two groups with who was clashing against whom.Chapter 1204(54) mentions Bhima taking on a large number of Kuru army alone. Bhima speaks to his charioteer claiming Yudhsithira abandoned him and Arjuna not yet returned. Vishoka inspired him. Vishoka also informed him that Arjuna has returned to battlefield making Bhima exceedingly happy.Arjuna then asked Krishna to proceed to the place where Bhima was stationed - Chapter 1205(55).Vivid descriptions of Arjuna shattering Kuru troops as he proceeds - Chapter 1205(55).Bhima routes the Kuru army after hearing Arjuna’s news - Chapter 1205(55).Shakuni was asked by Duryodhana to counter Bhima. Bhima defeats Shakuni and Kouravas withdrew - Chapter 1206(55)They sought refuge in Karna - Chapter 1206(55)Karna leads the counter-attack against Panchalas - Chapter 1206(56)Karna slaughters Panchala army in hundreds and thousands - Chapter 1206(56)Karna counters the combined group attack against - Shikhandi, Bhima, Parshata Dhrishtadyumna, Nakula, Sahadeva, Droupadi’s sons and Satyaki - Chapter 1206(56)Karna forces everyone to retreat. Vivid descriptions were given for Karna’s valour and forcing Pandavas to retreat and how he slaughtered Pandavas / Panchalas - Chapter 1206(56)Sons of Dhritarashtra perused the retreating Pandava army. Huge destruction caused by Karna and other Kuru warriors also mentioned - Chapter 1207(56)On seeing the destruction caused by Karna, Arjuna asked Krishna to proceed towards Karna. He declares without killing Karna he wouldn’t retreat. - Chapter 1207(57).Salya states that Dhananjaya is coming for Karna. He inspired Karna to kill Arjuna - Chapter 1207(57)Karna, in turn, realizes that Salya was now friendly towards him. He talks greatly about Arjuna and Krishna and declares he would achieve his objective; that either he would kill two Krishnas or killed by them - Chapter 1207(57)Karna asked prominent Kuru warriors to attack Arjuna and Krishna so that they get exhausted and then he would be able to easily kill them - Chapter 1207(57)The Kuru warriors following Karna’s advice swiftly try to stop Arjuna but fail as he defats them while proceeding. He slaughters the Kuru army on their way - Chapter 1207(57)Arjuna was followed by Satyaki, Shikhandi and twins and then they counter the enemy - Chapter 1207(57)Arjuna saw Bhima was submerged in Kurus and wished to rescue him. A vivid description of Arjuna’s valour and his slaughtering the opposing army was mentioned. Kurus abandon Bhima and retreat- Chapter 1208(58)Arjuna meets Bhima finally and gives him the news of Yudhisthira and then proceeds - Chapter 1208(58)10 Kouarava brothers were killed probably by Bhima or Dhananjaya - Chapter 1208(58)Kurus and Shamshapatakas attack Arjuna as he proceeds towards Karna and Arjuna slaughters them. A vivid description of kuru army’s defeat was mentioned - Chapter 1209(59)Bhima joins Arjuna and destruction caused by Bhima and Arjuna was mentioned. Kurus retreat after being defeated by Arjuna - Chapter 1209(59)Sons of Dhritarashtra again go to Karna and Karna again becomes their saviour. He attacks Panchalas again - Chapter 1209(59)Karna again slaughters Pancahala army and kills Vishoka a prince from Kekeya and Ugradhanva a general of Kekeyas. He also kills the son of Dristadyumna and Shikhandi , saves Satyaki from Karna - Chapter 1210(60)Krishna urged Arjuna to kill Karna. Then they proceed towards him killing the enemies. Bhima followed them protecting the rear - Chapter 1210(60).Karna confronts five Panchalas and defeats them - Uttamouja, Janamejaya, Yudhamanyu and Shikhandi united with Parshata. Draupadi’s sons save them - Chapter 1210(60)Satyaki makes a counter-attack and sliced down many arrows that Karna fires. He fought the group attack of Kurus and becomes saviour of Panchalas - Chapter 1210(60)Dussashana attacked Bhima - Chapter 1210(60)Bhima killed Dussashana by tearing apart his chest with a sword and drank his blood. Everyone was terrified and fled. He fulfilled his promise and told that to Krishna and Arjuna - Chapter 1211(61)Bhima killed 10 brothers - Kavachi, Nishangi, Pashi, Dandadhara, Dhanurdhara, Alolupa, Shala, Sangha, Vatavega and Suvarchasa - Chapter 1212(62)Watching Karna was distressed while watching Bhima’s valour Shalya tried to inspire him - Chapter 1212(62)Vrishasena then advanced against Bhima and confronts Nakula. After the brief battle he completely defeats Nakula and Nakula went to Bhima’s chariot - Chapter 1212(62)Then there is a group battle between both sides. A vivid description of who attacked who was mentioned - Chapter 1212(62)Karna’s son then pierced Shatanika, Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula and Krishna. Kurus applauded but also got concerned about him - Chapter 1212(62)Arjuna attacked Vrishasena and after a few moments he killed him - Chapter 1212(62)Then Karna became enraged and challenged Arjuna to a fight - Chapter 1213(63)The complete build up towards duel is mentioned vividly - Chapter 1213(63).The battle commenced by two army - it’s still not kind of direct duel but fight with the army - Chapter 1214(64).Duryodhana, Bhoja, Soubala, Kripa and Sharadvata’s son— these five maharathis attacked Arjuna together and Arjuna defeated them - Chapter 1214(64).Arjuna pierced Karna and Shakas, Tukharas and Yavanas and the best of Kambojas who attacked him , and killed them - Chapter 1214(64).Ashvathamma tried the last attempt to make peace between two sides but Duryodhana ignored the advice - Chapter 1214(64)Duryodhana believed Arjuna was exhausted and Karna would kill him. But he was also burning in the way Bhima killed Dussashana and laughed - Chapter 1214(64)Chapter 1215(65) is where great duel finally takes place.Karna pierced Arjuna with 10 arrows and that made Bhima angry. He reminds Arjuna of his great past deeds. Arjuna invoked Brahmastra - Chapter 1215(65)Karna not only counters that but also struck Arjuna, Bhima and Krishna - Chapter 1215(65)Arjuna then counter-attacked and pierced Sushena, Shalya and Karna. He killed Shabhapati. He also slew thousands of elephant, soldiers horses etc - Chapter 1215(65) This first incident that loosened Karna’s resistance.The battle goes on and one moment Karna struck Arjuna with 100 Khudraka arrows. Somakas ran away and Arjuna’s body was mangled. Then he countered Karna’s arrows and Somakas returned. Then he mangled Karna and his limbs - Chapter 1215(65)Karna pierced Krishna with arrows who were sons of Takshaka. They pierced and were returning to Karna but Arjuna slew them. - Chapter 1215(65)Then Arjuna attacked those who were protecting Karna at Duryodhana’s instruction. Arjuna killed them all. He killed thousands of Rathas. It is clearly mentioned that Dritaratsra’s sons and other Kurus abandoned Karna and flew. The second crucial moment of battle. - Chapter 1215(65)Karna was not distressed and he attacked Arjuna again. He struck Arjuna with innumerable arrows. Battle took a dreadful form - Chapter 1215(66)Karna’s use of serpent Aswasena was mentioned and vivid details followed how it destroyed the diadem and how Krishna pressed the chariot and horses also bent their knees. This is another crucial point of the battle. - Chapter 1215(66)Krishna informed Arjuna about Aswasena and finally, he killed Aswasena- Chapter 1215(66)Then Karna pierced Arjuna with 10 arrows. Arjuna shattered Karna’s armour and went through Karna’s body - Chapter 1215(66)Karna struck Arjuna with 99 other arrows and shouted loudly in joy. Arjuna could not tolerate his joy and he broke Karna’s earring, crown and shattered the expensive armour of Karna. I think this is third biggest turn around in the duel - Chapter 1215(66)Vivid description followed with metaphors on how Karna’s body was heavily mangled by Arjuna’s arrows. Such description and metaphors are used first time in entire narration on a warrior giving an indication on Karna’s situation. His inner organs were pierced by Arjuna - Chapter 1215(66)Arjuna also struck Karna’s horses and chariot. - Chapter 1215(66)Karna does put a brave resistance but curses started happening and his chariot was dislodged and he started forgetting his weapons. He was wounded because of the downpour of Arjuna’s arrows. But he remembered Brahmastra and fired it. Arjuna countered it with Aindrastra - Chapter 1215(66)Karna was able to counter all weapons of Arjuna and also able to cut off Arjuna’s bowstring. But it didn’t give any benefit as Arjuna was able to put the string back in a twinkle of the eye. But thus Karna was able to afflict him and Krishna suggested Arjuna to go closer and strike him with superior weapons. Karna’s valour was appreciated by Sanajaya and in fact, regarded as greater than Arjuna at that moment - Chapter 1215(66)Arjuna invoked Rudrastra and earth swallowed one of the wheels of Karna’s chariot. Karna invoked dharma and rules and asked Arjuna to stop - Chapter 1215(66)Krishna harshly reminded Karna about his past deeds to counter him and that made Arjuna angry - Chapter 1216(67)Karna invoked Brahmastra and tried to extract the chariot wheel. Arjuna countered that weapon. Arjuna invoked weapon of fire which Karna countered with Varuna weapon. Arjuna used Vayavya weapon to counter Karna’s Varuna weapon - Chapter 1216(67)Arjuna then uproots Karna’s chariot’s standard indicating the victory. Then he beheaded Karna - Chapter 1216(67)Look at the résistance that Arjuna fought till he killed Karna. Bhargavastra possibly gave Karna an initial victory but Arjuna entered battle when it was still there. From there to kill Karna there was much resistance put by Kurus. Karna was clearly abandoned by Kurus and his protectors were killed. His armour was shattered and his inner organs were pierced and as mentioned by Sanajaya , “severely wounded”. Enough for the poet to compare as mountains covered with trees.Yes, agreed Karna was killed with the help of destiny. But when curses started affecting, Karna was at his most vulnerable moment. Arjuna had to fight to bring him to that situation. Kurus didn’t abandon him that easily from their eyesight.Right?There is a limit to everything!