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I was a Computer Engineer studying in India - at the University of Mumbai - and I work at a research organisation in Geneva, Switzerland and live nearby in France.Rohan Kamath’s answer[1] seems to cover a lot of ground but I felt like adding a few words here and there, so this is an attempt to provide my perspective to this question.I lived and worked in India for the most part of my life - the reason I chose to take up a job in Switzerland was simply because it was the best opportunity I received at the time. I did receive an offer to continue my studies in the US at a reputed university later on but I turned it down because I really like what I do here which is a mix of two amazing fields:Particle Physics: CERN has the largest Particle Accelerator in the world and is undertaking cutting-edge work that is unparalleled globally. I have recently started delving deeper into Quantum Physics to understand more about what CERN does because I lack the theoretical foundations for it.Computer Science: Like I said, I am an engineer, and I love what I do. I like to mess around with GPUs, working on Deep Learning Models for Multi-jet Classification and B-Tagging (don’t worry I don’t understand what those mean either). Basically, I write code.I’d like to address the second part of your question first. This is because I feel it is completely unrelated to the first part of the question. Just because someone chooses the best opportunities available to them does not imply they dislike or lack a sense of ownership towards their country.Now your question is arguably justified, because I hear a lot of my friends talking about leaving, never to return. However, there are also those of us that want to leave in order to return; just so that we gain enough in standing to be able to drive change. Yes, in theory we can do that without ever leaving in the first place. But not all of us get the best opportunities to enable them to do this. Moreover, not everyone knows how to make the most of every great opportunity.Coming to the point about ownership - it has a rather broad definition so I’d like to discuss a few incidents:A couple of friends and I got together and started a student-run organisation that mentors their peers and their juniors to learn programming. We don’t get anything out of this - it isn’t a for-profit team, nor do we have any plans to make it one. We do it because we know that it helps augment the education system and more importantly, our juniors benefit greatly from it. They know far more than we did at their age, and I’m pretty certain they’ll carry forward the tradition. This is the new generation of engineers that will take India forward (grandiose claims aside, it’s basically true).Students are getting increasingly involved in rural and women empowerment projects and volunteering at NGOs. Some of them do it simply for the tag, or for a certificate - it’s their call; the point is they still do take part in such activities. Again, I could say that it’s not financially rewarding but we do it because we feel a sense of responsibility. And we have a ton of fun doing it so we keep at it.I know this is a small sample size and I cannot speak for the entire generation of Indian students but I’ll try to give you some more quantifiable examples.If you try to take a look at the numbers, the Indian Startup Ecosystem is growing rapidly and it’s not like there’s a huge influx of foreign workforce. More and more Indian students (I daresay engineers) are finding ways to make the most of available opportunities in India. They know this is the best place for them and of course the idea is (also) to build a successful company. But maybe, just maybe, they also care about the problem they are solving in India?Take for instance the Niti Aayog Internship[2], and various other programs for young professionals such as YLAC[3], Young India Fellowship[4], Teach For India[5] that are taking off in recent years. I think it is reasonable to assume that the youth contributes to a major chunk of the candidates for these programs. They’re all quite clearly working for the betterment of the nation in some capacity. And isn’t it likely that at least some of them are doing this because they want to try and make India a better place?I hope I’ve highlighted some decent points that can at least make you rethink what you define as ‘sense of ownership’, because if this isn’t it then honestly even I don’t know what is.Now let’s get to the part about settling abroad.Since I’m one of the people that took up a job abroad I’ll let you know what it’s like at least at my workplace:Surprise: I don’t get paid a crazy sum of money (research usually doesn’t pay as well as a corporate job), but I am able to maintain an above average standard of living.Now that I come to think of it, I’d probably lead a more ‘comfortable’ life living with my family and working in Mumbai: food is taken care of as is housing and the social life is probably a whole lot more active. But I’m still living in France, and I’ll explain why I feel happy about my job:People make time for you no matter how important they are: I was a lowly intern, and needed some guidance with my project. Ten minutes and one email later, I was sipping coffee with a postdoc at Caltech who was explaining variational autoencoders to me. I don’t know if any of you have tried to email professors but if you have then you know the difference.They take job satisfaction pretty seriously: For instance, we recently had a survey that focused solely on how safe, happy, and satisfied we were with our work. The results of this survey will be declared publicly and analyzed to detect any serious issues with the work environment.They support you, with no strings attached: My team is sending me for Summer School at Oxford. My supervisor made me list it as ‘academic training’ so that I do not have to use my personal days of leave.Active non-work culture: CERN has over fifty different clubs for activities ranging from board games to finance. They encourage employees to socialize and get to know each other outside of the workplace.The Honor System: Our hours are never logged by anyone; supervisors are on leave for days (attending conferences), with nobody to monitor what subordinates are doing or even if they are around. But the ethics run pretty strong and everyone works hard without the need for supervision, for the most part.Work cultures vary and I concede all countries have their own sets of drawbacks. I have probably only seen the good side of CERN. However, almost all of my friends and family have worked in India at some point and have arrived at a similar conclusion - office politics is inevitable in most corporate jobs in India. It is sad, but that’s just how it is. This is not to say office politics doesn’t exist globally, it’s just that there are extremely powerful mechanisms in place to address grievances at some places in comparison to the way it works in other places (I speak from personal experience).It’s not an easy life for me, personally. I have to work for about 8 hours each day, cook and clean, and study on my own time. I barely manage, but I do have fun with my friends. I study - not out of any obligation, but because I really want to understand what CERN does. I came from a Computer Science background and I’ve started studying Particle Physics, out of nowhere. That’s the kind of impact a good work environment should have, in my opinion. Sure, my life is kinda hard because of my choices, but I wouldn’t have it any other way.A lot of people like to talk about settling abroad but a good portion of them either return by choice, or due to a lack of Visa extensions.My point is only this - life abroad is not a bed of roses. It’s not like all of us have people who rain money on us and serve us Samosas on a plate everyday. Most of us work bloody hard to set up a home, a decent friend circle, and a work-life balance. Some of us even battle loneliness and depression because we’re so used to sunny skies and a social life that it’s difficult to manage when you don’t have either.Yes, some people get lucky and have everything on a platter. But that is far from what the majority faces. I know not only from my experience but also from friends who have been in such situations.They come home for the holidays - at least the ones who can afford it. Wouldn’t they rather roam the world? Apparently, it’s not the same as coming home.I understand, again, that I can’t possibly speak for all of us. But suffice it to say that at least some of us get your point about ownership. We owe a debt of gratitude to our country, and we intend to pay it back in full. Settled abroad or not, we feel pretty much the same way about our country.Coming to the part about myself settling abroad - I honestly can’t tell whether I will settle abroad or not. But what I do know - and this is a constant - is that I love India. It is home. It always will be home.You can’t ever feel the same way you do when you walk along Marine Drive with the light sea breeze on your face, the salty waves crashing along the shore and spraying into your hair as you munch on some steamed peanuts.Overall we’re a fucking fantastic blend of populace and culture. When I leave India, I’m not leaving it with relief or happiness. I leave with a sense of longing, hopefully to return stronger, and be in a better position to change things that don’t seem to be working too well.Footnotes[1] Rohan Kamath's answer to Why do many Indians want to leave India to settle abroad? Why is ownership of the country almost non-existent among today's youth?[2] NITI Aayog, (National Institution for Transforming India), Government of India[3] About YLAC[4] Young India Fellowship[5] Home | TeachforIndia

Q. What are the good things about going into a neurological medical field?I get immensely depressed thinking about the intense, demanding, and rigorous study (and time studying) to even get into the field (neuropathology, personally), the immense financial debt, and the chance I might not even make the good life that I want.I still find science - especially neuroscience - incredibly fascinating, and there is still a little voice in the back of my head saying I shouldn't give up yet. So, what are the good sides to going into neuroscience?Bonus: are there fields in neuroscience that don't require med school?A. Below are multiple articles that discuss training to become a neuroscientist (PhD) and neurologist (MD) or both.PhD Training:Steps to Becoming a NeuroscientistOverview Of Training Program - Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute (Berkeley)Neuroscientist: Job Description, Duties and RequirementsNeuroscience Degree: What To Expect? | Inside JobsHow to become a neuroscientist (House of mind)When will neuroscience blow our minds?MD Training:Become a Neurologist: Step-by-Step Career GuideHow to Apply for a Residency Step-by-Step Guide to Applying to a Neurology Residency ProgramNeurology Residency Road Map Washington UniversitySteps to Becoming a Neuroscientistby Vicki A. BengeRelated Articles[Neuroscience Ph.D.] Salary of a Neuroscience Ph.D. & M.D.[Neuroscience Pay] Neuroscience Pay Scale[Requirements] What Are the Requirements for a Neuroscientist?[Master] What Can I Do With a Master's Degree in Neuroscience?[Conflict] How to Stop Conflict in the Workplace Before It HappensA medical scientist who studies the brain and nervous system is called a neuroscientist. Skilled in research and equipped with advanced degrees, some neuroscientists focus on a more narrow disciplines such as neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, neurophysiology or neuropsychology. To pursue a career in neuroscience, begin taking steps toward that goal in high school.College-Prep CoursesA high school student interested in a career as a neuroscientist can begin by building a strong foundation in science and mathematics. Basic introductory science courses to study are physics, chemistry, and especially biological science courses such as general biology, physiology and human anatomy. In mathematics, study introductory algebra, calculus and geometry.Undergraduate StepsEntering college students pursuing a bachelor's degree in neuroscience can expect a specific curriculum. For example, course requirements for a neuroscience major contain basic science courses, core neuroscience courses and multiple electives. The core courses include introductions to general neuroscience as well as cellular, molecular, and cognitive or behavioral neuroscience. Advanced science courses are in chemistry, biology, physics and physiology. Study of statistics as they relate to the biological sciences may also be a required course. Students participate in laboratory rotations, also.Postgraduate StudyThe next step to becoming a neuroscientist after obtaining a bachelor's degree is to begin postgraduate study. Graduate students concentrate on advanced neuroscience courses and related instruction, such as the study of statistics as they relate to the biological sciences. Grad students participate in laboratory rotations, special seminars and lectures pertaining to the discipline. It is also in postgraduate study that Ph.D. candidates set their thesis topic and research plans to obtain a doctorate degree.Postdoc TrainingA small percentage of neuroscientists obtain a medical degree before pursuing postdoctoral training. However, whether the individual holds a Ph.D. or M.D., a postdoctoral fellowship to gain further training in neuroscience is a common last step before seeking a job. Postdoctoral trainees gain valuable experience conducting research. Some may choose to do laboratory work in a related yet new area of study. This is valuable training as the majority of medical scientists, which includes neuroscientists, spend their careers working in research and development, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.Overview Of Training Program - Helen Wills Neuroscience InstituteSteps to a PhDNeuroscience is a broad field that requires multidisciplinary training as well as intensive study of specific concepts and techniques related to each student’s primary research focus. The Neuroscience PhD Program is designed to provide highly individualized, flexible training that fulfills both these needs. Our PhD training program has a standard completion time of 5 to 5.5 years. The program is PhD-granting only, there is no Master’s Degree Program. The following is a general overview of the steps to a PhD. For detailed policies, see Resources For Current Students.Neuroscience Boot CampFirst-year students begin the program with an intensive, 10-day “Boot Camp” course held just prior to the official start of fall semester classes. The course features lectures on key neuroscience concepts and on classical and emerging experimental techniques and evening research seminars by Berkeley Neuroscience faculty. In addition, hands-on research projects in faculty laboratories cover techniques ranging from molecular neuroscience to neurophysiology and optogenetics to fMRI. The goal is to provide an immersive introduction to multiple disciplines and experimental approaches within neuroscience. Boot Camp unites Neuroscience-oriented students from multiple PhD programs.Laboratory RotationsDuring Year 1, each student spends three 10-week periods performing research projects in different faculty laboratories. The choice of laboratories is based on student preference. The goal is to expose students to different techniques and approaches in neuroscience and to provide training in experimental design, critical analysis of data, and presentation of research findings. Performance in rotations is evaluated and graded. Rotations also allow students to identify the laboratory in which their thesis research will be performed. Students formally present results from the laboratory rotations in a dedicated course designed to instruct students in clear, effective presentation of scientific findings.CourseworkThe program has highly flexible course requirements. These are designed to provide students with sufficiently broad training to be conversant in all areas of neuroscience, while allowing focus in the area of primary research interest.During the first two years of the program, each student is required to take 3 courses chosen from three broad areas: (A) Cellular, Molecular & Developmental Neuroscience; (B) Systems and Computational Neuroscience; and (C) Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience. Each student consults with faculty advisers to determine the most appropriate individual courses within these areas.Students must also complete a 1-semester course in Applied Statistics in Neuroscience, or an equivalent approved course in statistics or quantitative analysis methods.For additional details, see the Neuroscience-Related Course List.Training in TeachingEffective teaching is a critical skill required in most academic and research careers. Students are required to serve as Graduate Student Instructors (GSIs; equivalent to Teaching Assistants) for two semesters. GSI teaching occurs during Years 2 and 3, and provides supervised teaching experience in laboratory and discussion settings. Teaching is evaluated, and outstanding teaching is rewarded with annual Outstanding Graduate Student Instructor Awards. One to three of our students typically win this award each year.Qualifying ExaminationStudents complete an Oral Qualifying Exam during the Spring semester of Year 2. This exam is structured around two written proposals – one in the student’s proposed area of thesis research, and the other in an area of neuroscience outside the thesis topic. During the exam, a faculty committee tests the student’s knowledge of these areas and general neuroscience. Students must demonstrate the ability to recognize important research problems, propose relevant experimental approaches, and display comprehensive knowledge of relevant subjects. Students must pass the qualifying examination before advancing to doctoral candidacy.Thesis ResearchThesis research begins after the completion of rotations in Spring or Summer of Year 1. During Year 2, students conduct thesis research while completing required coursework and GSI teaching. Years 3 to 5 are spent primarily on thesis research. Progress on thesis research is evaluated by the student, the thesis adviser, and a Thesis Committee of three additional faculty members. Thesis research is expected to lead to publication in top-ranked, refereed scientific journals. Students are strongly encouraged to present posters and speak at scientific meetings and conferences. During Year 4, they make a formal presentation of their research progress to their peers. Completion of thesis research is determined by the Thesis Committee. While there is no formal thesis defense, students present a formal thesis seminar to the neuroscience community in their last semester of candidacy.Other Program ActivitiesDuring training, students are expected to participate in a range of activities to increase their exposure to neuroscience research within and outside their specialty areas. These include the annual Neuroscience Retreat, the Neuroscience Seminar Series, as well as other affiliated seminar series and lectures. Students also participate in journal clubs, lab meetings, and multi-laboratory special interest group meetings focused on specific scientific topics. See Program Activities for a comprehensive list.Financial SupportAll admitted students receive full financial support, including payment of tuition and fees, and direct financial support (set at $34,500 for the 2016-2017 year) during the period of enrollment in the program, providing that good academic standing is maintained.Resources For Current StudentsGraduate Program PoliciesProgress Through DegreeQualifying Examination GuidelinesThesis Committee Guidelines 2016Single Parent Financial Support PolicyNeuroscience Program Graduate Student Appeal ProceduresGraduate Division PoliciesGuide to Graduate PolicyGraduate Division AppealsProcedureFormAcademic AppointmentsImportant DatesAcademic CalendarNeuroscience Graduate Student CalendarCourses and Interest GroupsNeuroscience Course Curriculum and Course ListNeuroscience Courses of Interest Offered-Fall 2016Neuroscience 290 Seminar List-Fall 2016Brain Lunch Web PageCourse CatalogSchedule of ClassesNeuroscience Data Mining GroupNeuroscience Student ResourcesNeuro Grad Advisers 2016-2017Fellowship Information 2016Professional Development LinksGraduate Student Professional Development GuideForms & Important LinksNeuroscience Program FormsAddress InformationAdviser ChecklistThesis Committee Instructions and Report Form 2016Thesis Placement FormGraduate Division FormsAdd Drop ClassApplication Candidacy FormApplication Filing Fee FormApplication Readmission FormChange in Committee Request FormChange of Major Request FormPetition Retroactive WithdrawalQual Exam Application FormQual Exam Report FormResidence Request for Readmission FormWithdrawal Petition FormGraduate Division & Other Important LinksGraduate DivisionGraduate Student Instructor Teaching and Resource CenterImproving English Language Proficiency for International StudentsGSI and GSR GuideUAW Contract for GSIsUniversity-wide Financial SupportUniversity Health ServicesRegistrar’s OfficeLibrariesBerkeley International OfficeCampus Disability AccessDisabled Students ProgramGraduate AssemblyCal HousingNeuroscientist: Job Description, Duties and RequirementsLearn about the education and preparation needed to become a neuroscientist. Get a quick view of the requirements as well as details about degree programs, job duties and licensure to find out if this is the career for you.View 10 Popular Schools »Neuroscientists conduct research to develop pharmaceuticals to treat neurological disorders. A Ph.D. or M.D. is required for clinical work. Depending on their focus, neuroscientists can work in offices, laboratories, clinics, and hospitals.Essential InformationNeuroscientists research how the nervous system behaves. They can also develop pharmaceuticals for neurological disorders and treat patients. Neuroscientists are expected to complete advanced degree programs and must be licensed before performing clinical work.Job Description for a NeuroscientistNeuroscientists study the development and function of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerve cells throughout the body. They could specialize in one part of the nervous system, such as neurotransmitters, or focus their research on specific behaviors, such as psychiatric disorders. Illnesses based in the nervous system include Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease.Neuroscientists can take part in publicly funded research projects at universities, research institutes, or government facilities. Others perform applied research for private industry, where they develop new pharmaceutical treatments or other biotechnology products. Some treat patients as licensed neurosurgeons and neurologists.Duties of a NeuroscientistNeuroscientists typically perform research in offices or laboratories. Some work in clinics and hospitals to evaluate, diagnose, and treat patients.Neuroscientists begin experiments by preparing tissue and cell samples. They make use of antibodies, dyes, and gene probes to identify different components of the nervous system. Tools and equipment used to monitor brain and nerve activity include magnetic resonance imagers and microelectrodes. Some use computers to create nervous system models, while others study the simplified nervous system of insects to better isolate certain behaviors.Requirements to Become a NeuroscientistNeuroscientists are expected to complete a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree program, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). The BLS further stated that those pursing clinical work must earn a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree. Some schools offer a combined Ph.D./M.D. program, which increases a neuroscientist's career opportunities. In order to treat patients, neuroscientists with an M.D. must also participate in a medical residency and pass the United States Medical Licensing Examination.Students intent on pursuing a Ph.D. can choose to enroll in a bachelor's degree program in neuroscience or a biological science to prepare for graduate studies and research. Relevant coursework includes computer science, cognitive science, mathematics, and physics. In addition to neuroscience, graduates may choose advanced degree fields specifically in neurobiology or pharmacology. Before securing more permanent research positions, neuroscientists commonly participate in postdoctoral fellowships to gain laboratory experience.Salary Info and Job OutlookAccording to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics), the median annual salary earned by medical scientists, the category under which neuroscientists fall, was $82,240 in May 2015; those working in scientific research and development services earned an average of $104,310 a year in 2015. The employment of medical scientists is expected to grow by 8% between 2014 and 2024, per the BLS.Neuroscientists improve lives by developing medications to treat patients with neurological disorders. They must possess a Ph.D. or M.D. to engage in clinical work. As of 2015, neuroscientists fall under a category with a median salary of $82,240; those classified under the scientific research and development services industry have an average annual salary of $104,310.Neuroscience Guide1. Online DegreesOnline Neuropsychology Degree Program InformationOnline Oncology Degrees: Summary of OptionsOnline Chemotherapy Certificate & Degree Program Info2. Salaries and OutlookDiabetologist: Job Description, Salary and Career OutlookNeurobiologist: Salary, Job Description and Career Outlook3. Career InformationHow to Choose an Endocrinology SchoolNeuroscientist: Job Description, Duties and Requirements4. Program InfoOnline Neuroscience Course and Class InformationBest Neuroscience Undergraduate Programs: List of Top SchoolsNeuroscience Degree Program InformationNeuroscience Nurse Certification and Training Program Information5. JobsCareers in Neuroscience Research: Job Options and Salary InfoVascular Scientist: Job & Career InfoCardiology Administrator Jobs: Career Options and Requirements6. Top SchoolsTop Colleges with Oncology Programs: List of SchoolsBest Colleges for Forensic Pathology: List of Top SchoolsNeuroscience Degree: What To Expect? | Inside JobsFiguring out what’s going on in another person’s mind is no easy task. Like Psychiatrists, Neuroscientists are professionals who dedicate their days to deciphering what’s going on upstairs. However, unlike Therapists who try to help with feelings or diseases created by our synapses and frontal lobes, Neuroscientists focus on the science and biology of the brain. They work to answer questions about specific diseases affecting the anatomy of the brain, and, in general, attempt to figure out how the different parts of the mind work.If all this sounds interesting, read on so you’ll know what to expect from a degree in neuroscience.TrainingGetting into neuroscience requires you to have more than a few years of schooling. The first degree to get is a bachelor’s degree from an accredited university. Though you can be a neuroscience major, you might also spend your time studying biology, chemistry, or physiology. No matter what you major in though, you want to make sure you get used to doing research, as this is a skill that most job opportunities for Neuroscientists call for.What you study in your undergrad years can influence what area of neuroscience you focus on later, but ultimately, that’s not as important as what you study while getting your master’s degree or Ph.D. in neuroscience.Next StepOnce done with your undergraduate degree, you need more advanced training before you can consider yourself a Neuroscientist. There are a number of neuroscience careers, and what you hope to do dictates what type of degree you need.If you want to work with brain injury patients, head to medical school. If you want to find new medicines or figure out why Alzheimer’s affects certain people, get your Ph.D. and become a researcher. You can become anything from a Professor at a university to a researcher for the National Institute of Health.How to become a neuroscientistHouse of Mind"BIOLOGY GIVES YOU A BRAIN. LIFE TURNS IT INTO A MIND."- JEFFREY EUGENIDESAbout Dr. MNYU Neuroscience PhD turned Postdoctoral Fellow at Pitt. I started this neuroscience/psych blog as a grad student (2010) to help me remember cool concepts learned during class. Now, I mostly review articles and concepts, summarize new findings, answer questions you may have about neuroscience/psych/the grad school experience.May 6, 2011How to Become a NeuroscientistI have gotten so many questions about people who are interested in neuroscience as a career that I have created this post so I can reference back to it in the future.Note: This is a guide directed towards people that want RESEARCH careers. My graduate program’s approach towards neuroscience integrated knowledge from many areas like electrophysiology, cellular and molecular biology, and computational neurobiology relying on mathematics/physics. Also, a number of you seem to be under the impression that I am studying neuropsych, which I am not. Neuropsych is traditionally a more clinically-oriented branch within neuroscience.First of all, if you want to become a neuroscientist, you will most likely have to complete formal graduate training in a related branch or field. You have to be ready for this, because it is something that will take a long time. Not to worry though, time flies and if you like what you’re doing you won’t mind…In college, the most common options are majoring in either biology or psychology. Some schools have a neuroscience or biopsychology major that may be in the biological sciences department or the psych department or even a combination of both. For example, you could major in biology and minor in psych or vice versa… Because neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field, I would recommend taking courses outside your major (especially if you’re in a psych dept). Helpful and attractive courses include: physics, calculus, organic chemistry, biochem, genetics, cell and molecular biology, bioethics, and neuropsych or psych courses. Importantly, some people come from other backgrounds like electrical/computer engineering that are also helpful in areas like electrophysiology, computational neurobiology and neuronal modeling. Thus, a major in biology or psychology is not a MUST but it definitely gives you an advantage.While in college, it is also important to gain research experience (try volunteering in labs just to learn or for course credit) while maintaining a decent GPA. And by decent I mean higher than 3.5 on a 4.0 scale. Of course, not all is lost if your GPA is below a 3.5. It will just be harder and you might not be regarded as competitive as other students. Mind you, if you have a 4.0 but all your classes are in the soft sciences and you didn’t take challenging courses, you’re in trouble as well… Third year of college (assuming you will graduate in 4 years) is crucial. This is the time to beef up your CV/resume, take the GRE, talk to people who will be your references, and complete your application to graduate schools. Graduate schools have a wide variety of programs (i.e. neurobiology, neuroscience, neuropsych) with different kinds of focus. Look at the curriculum for each program and find one that is well-suited for your interests and career aspirations. Remember to apply early and to ask for fee waivers, if available (I applied to 8 schools and got fee waivers for all but one of them!). Your personal statement is essential. And by that I mean it absolutely has to be good if not great. Different schools have different criteria for this essay and you should remember to pay attention to these criteria and follow instructions. You should also have several people proofread it before you send it. After you submit your application, send an e-mail to make sure everything is complete. If you get an interview, ask who your interviewers will be and familiarize yourself with their research and areas of expertise. Be nice, enthusiastic and ask smart questions. Also, during your interview, highlight why you want to be part of the training environment at that particular university or location and why you’d be a good match for the program and the department. Remember to send thank you e-mail to the faculty that met with you and anybody else you deem appropriate to thank.Graduate school: Do your best to learn and understand the material presented in your intro classes, as it will be the foundation that most of the other classes will be built upon. You don’t need stellar grades in graduate school, but you do need to pass, which for most universities is a solid B. While you are during your first year, you will most probably rotate through different labs in which you will be able to get to know the lab, learn the techniques and figure out if it’s a good fit for you. After you finish classes, you will be working on your thesis. Most likely, you will need to propose your thesis, select a review committee (composed of experts in fields relating to your research), work in lab and collect data to support your thesis, and defend it. After you defend your thesis, your committee decides your fate. This is the meat of grad school. Work, work, work. Get that thesis out and publishing well. Bonus if you learn how to write grants.Post-graduate school: Postdoctoral fellowships are a common way of learning additional techniques or addressing a different but related question. Or you could also go into something you don’t know much about. I keep hearing that a postdoc is supposed to add versatility, diversity and publications to your CV. This is also the time period in which you learn how to run a lab, work on your own independent projects, write grants, and decide where you want your career to go (i.e. industry, academia, clinical). Think about it as an extension of your training in which you get more freedom and flexibility.Alternatively, some people enroll in medical school to pursue an MD degree in addition to the Ph.D. one while others go back to school for other degrees (ex. PsyD, law, etc…). Others find industry jobs or go into public policy.Hope this helps. If you want to know about something more specific not listed here, contact me.When will neuroscience blow our minds?The discipline has promised big advances in many areas, but is it failing to live up to the hype? Three neuroscientists consider the state of their fieldAugust 4, 2016Source: AlamyThere has been no great theoretical revolution in neuroscience. But that does not mean that no revolution will ever come. Neuroscience is still youngIt’s a curious time to be a neuroscientist. The science of brain and behaviour is everywhere: endless books, documentaries, newspaper articles and conferences report new findings aplenty.The recognition by the general public that the brain deserves serious attention is gratifying. Much of this interest derives from worries about maintaining brain health. Disorders of brain and behaviour (from anxiety and depression to brain tumours and Alzheimer’s disease) come with enormous costs to both individuals and health systems. Consequently, many private and public agencies support wonderful research in neuroscience. The Wellcome Trust, for example, funds a vast and far-reaching programme extending from studying individual molecules all the way to imaging the working brain. In the US, both the National Institute of Mental Health and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (Darpa) support a large neuro-research programme – partly driven in the latter’s case by the desperate need for viable treatments for brain trauma deriving from blast injuries in active service personnel.Philanthropy is also active: my own institution, Trinity College Dublin, recently received a joint endowment with the University of California, San Francisco of €175 million (£134 million) for work on brain health – the single largest endowment in our history.And yet there are misgivings. The deep answers to the problems that impact on public health and well-being are not coming quickly enough. The hundred or so failed drug trials for Alzheimer’s disease have come at a cost reckoned in the billions; these are huge sums for any pharmaceutical company to absorb, and many have now written off research in brain diseases as too complex and too costly to sustain – blocking off one potential career destination for neuroscience graduates in the process.Answers to big basic questions also seem a long way off. Even if this trend is now in decline, there have historically been too many papers reporting results along the lines of “brain area x does trivial function y”. The brain is, by definition, more complex than our current models of it, and it is only by embracing that complexity that we will be able to address questions such as: How can a brain be conscious? How can a brain experience diffidence or embarrassment, or reason in a moral fashion – and be simultaneously aware that it is so doing? How can a brain play rugby? Should a brain play rugby?A few simple principles aside, there has been no great theoretical revolution in neuroscience comparable to those precipitated in other disciplines by Darwin, Newton or Crick and Watson. But that does not mean that no revolution will ever come. Neuroscience is still a young discipline, reflected by the fact that many undergraduate programmes still rely on matrix arrangements between multiple home departments (chiefly psychology, physiology and biochemistry).Number of neuroscience degrees conferred in the USSource: US National Center for Education StatisticsMeanwhile, recent controversies over the replicability and reliability of research studies have been healthy, as they expose limits to knowledge. Understanding has been boosted of the dangers of basing conclusions on experiments that lack sufficient statistical power because of, for instance, low numbers of research participants or the retrofitting of hypotheses in light of results.Other anxieties revolve around definitional issues: where does neuroscience stop and psychology or molecular biology start? But really, nobody should care too deeply about such questions: there are no knowledge silos in nature, and man-made silos aren’t useful. Knowledge blending is the game: it’s good to know something about the engine, the engineering principles and the nuts and bolts of the car you drive: not just the dynamic relationships between the steering wheel, accelerator, brake and petrol gauge. To take one example, there has been great mutual enrichment between socio-psychological theories concerned with stereotyping and those concerned with the brain’s mentalising network (activated when we attempt to understand agency in others). It turns out that brain regions involved in disgust are activated when we make judgements about members of despised out-groups. This is an important finding, integrating psychological processes involved in stereotyping into more general biological processes concerned with cleanliness and self-other differentiation.Yet further anxiety is generated by neuroscience’s encroachment into public policy. We see the almost obligatory “neuro” prefix attached to concepts from ethics to politics, leadership, marketing and beyond. No wonder the great “neurobollocks” rejoinder, blog and meme have arisen. There are regular calls to apply neuroscience in classrooms, for example, despite there being no meaningful knowledge base to apply. Similar pleas arise for the use of brain imaging in the courtroom, as if the underlying science to detect the presence (or absence) of lying were settled. It is not. And the public will have been done no favours if one form of voodoo science (lie detection polygraphy) is substituted by another. The background thinking, of course, has not been done: a science that revealed actual thoughts (as opposed to coloured blobs representing neural activity) would be a remarkable violation of our assumed rights to cognitive privacy. There are lots of sticky questions here for the willing (neuro-) ethicist to ponder.But one useful effect of the popular focus on the brain is destigmatisation. Seeing conditions such as addiction as a brain and behaviour disorder rather than a moral failing facilitates understanding and treatment – although, ironically, the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs for treating depression is being obstructed by unhelpful rules based on inappropriate worries about addiction.Adding to the ferment are new neurotechnologies. Some are potentially dangerous, such as the use of commercially bought or even home-made electrical devices known as transcranial direct current stimulators to “enhance” brain function, or the off-label experimentation with supposed cognitively enhancing drugs that some students indulge in during revision and exams. But other technologies are astounding: brain imaging, optogenetics (which uses light to control genetically modified neurons in living tissues) and deep-brain stimulation (which uses a surgically implanted device to treat neurological disorders with targeted electrical impulses) are just three examples.But, with all new therapeutic treatments and devices, there is always a question of how scalable it is. A successful pharmacotherapy-based treatment for Alzheimer’s disease would scale easily, but deep-brain stimulation for drug-resistant Parkinson’s disease involves serious and very expensive neurosurgery. Of course, restoring individual productive potential should be important to the bean counters; restoring quality of life to sufferers is beyond value. But only about 100,000 patients have had this operation; scaling it to all sufferers worldwide is a pipe dream.There are early interventions that could have great effect by addressing prevention rather than cure. Early childhood poverty, for instance, has enduring effects on brain structure and function: relieving it through income support, school meal provision and intensifying education has an upfront expense but a great downstream benefit in terms of productive lives supported. Similarly, aerobic exercise interventions promote brain and cognitive function, in addition to heart health. But only public intervention is going to promote such things because there is no money to be made in it for a pharmaceutical company.And while we are (again) on the subject of money, it is worth reflecting that, notwithstanding the billion-euro and billion-dollar brain projects currently being carried out in Europe and the US (see Steven Rose’s piece), research into diseases such as dementia still receives much less funding than research into cancer.Perhaps that balance could be redressed if there were one catch-all term for diseases and disorders of the brain, just as “cancer” designates a wide array of fundamental and applied research in cell biology, applied to a difficult patient condition.It is not easy to think of something suitable. “Neurodegenerative disorders” doesn’t work, for example: it has too many syllables, and misses the many other brain disorders that are not neurodegenerative (such as attention deficit disorders or addictions). But here’s a thought: just as “malware” is used to indicate functional or structural problems with a given information technology device, perhaps we could use “malbrain” to mean something like “any disorder, dysfunction, structural problem or pathophysiological problem afflicting the brain, impairing normal neurological, psychological and psychiatric functioning of an individual”.“Malbrain” has advantages as a word. It hasn’t been widely used before, it has few syllables and it doesn’t come with any stigma. Adopting it would not instantly erase neuroscience’s problems, but if it drew in more medical funding it could help the discipline further mature, opening up career options, enhancing the sense of common purpose among researchers and, hopefully, edging one or more of them closer to their Einstein moment.Shane O’Mara is professor of experimental brain research at Trinity College Dublin and was director of the Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience from 2009 to 2016. His latest book, Why Torture Doesn’t Work: The Neuroscience of Interrogation, was published by Harvard University Press in 2015.The technologies are there, the problems to be addressed are tempting and the theoretical issues are profound, touching some of the deepest questions about what it means to be humanNeuroscience has become one of the hottest fields in biology in the half-century since the term was coined by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. With the mega-projects under way in the European Union and the US, the discipline can now qualify as a full-fledged Big Science.As neuroscience has expanded, the “neuro” prefix has reached out far beyond its original terrain. For our new book, Hilary Rose and I counted no fewer than 50 instances, from neuroaesthetics to neurowar, by way of neurogastronomy and neuroepistemology. “Neuro” is intervening in the social and political, too. We have neuroeducation, neuromarketing and neurolaw. In public consciousness, the glowing, false-coloured magnetic resonance images of the brain, ostensibly locating the “seats” of memory, mathematical skill or even romantic love, have replaced DNA’s double helix as a guarantor of scientific certainty.Meanwhile, the torrent of neuro-papers pouring out of labs overspills the proliferating specialist journals and threatens to take over much of Nature and Science. A wealth of new technologies has made it possible to address questions that were almost inconceivable to my generation of neuroscientists. When, as a postdoctoral researcher, I wanted to research the molecular processes that enable learning and underlie memory storage in the brain, my Nobelist superiors told me firmly that this was no fit or feasible subject for a biochemist to study. Today, memory is a mainstream field for molecular neurobiologists; it has yielded its own good-sized clutch of Nobel prizes, and ambitious neuroscientists are reaching out to claim the ultimate prize of reducing human consciousness to brain processes.What has proved most productive has been the combination of new genetic and imaging techniques. The well-established methods of deleting or inserting specific genes into the developing mouse and exploring their effect on brain structure or behaviour have been superseded. It is now possible to place the modified genes into specific brain regions and to switch them on or off using electronically directed light, allowing researchers to activate or erase specific memories, for instance. The new imaging techniques are so powerful that they even make it possible to track the molecular events occurring in individual synapses – the junctions between nerve cells – as chemical signals pass across them.But such technical and scientific triumphs may pale into insignificance when faced with the complexity of the brain. To see how far there is to go, consider the ostensible goal of the EU’s Human Brain Project: to model the human brain and all its connections in a computer and thereby develop new forms of “neuromorphic” computing. The scale of the task and the grandiosity of the ambition is indicated by the fact that in 2015, after six years of painstaking anatomic study, a team of US researchers published a complete map of a minuscule 1,500 cubic micrometres of the mouse brain – smaller than a grain of rice. And the mouse brain’s weight is about 1/3,000th of that of the human brain – although this didn’t inhibit the journal’s press release from suggesting that the map might reveal the origins of human mental diseases.What might a complete model of the human brain reveal if one could be built? Potentially very little. For we still lack any overarching theory of how the brain works – not in the sense of its minute molecular mechanisms or physiological processes, but how brain processes relate to the actual experience of learning or remembering something, solving a maths problem or being in love. What is certain is that these experiences are not statically located in one brain site, but engage many regions, linked not just through anatomical connections but by the rhythmic firing of many neurons across many brain regions. It may be that, despite its imperialising claims, neuroscience lacks the appropriate tools to solve what neuroscientists and philosophers alike refer to as “the hard problem” of consciousness.Perhaps of more general concern is the question of what neuroscience can contribute to the pressing problems of neurological disease and mental illness. Where biology is still unable to provide methods to regenerate severed spinal nerves to overcome paralysis, advances in ICT have come to the rescue, with the development of brain-computer interfaces and prostheses, offering hope of bypassing the severed nerves and restoring function. But despite detailed knowledge of the biochemistry and pathology underlying Alzheimer’s and other dementias, there are still only palliative treatments available.Furthermore, despite the funds poured into the brain sciences by the pharmaceutical industry, there have been few advances in treating those with mental disorders, from depression to schizophrenia. The newer generations of antidepressant drugs, for example, work no better than those discovered or synthesised at the dawn of the psychopharmacological era in the 1960s. All are based on the proposition that the origins of these disorders lie in some malfunction of the processes by which neurons communicate with one another, primarily through chemical transmission across synapses. Plausible though this sounds, the continued failure to come up with better treatments has even led many biologically oriented psychiatrists to question the entire paradigm. In the US, the National Institutes of Health will no longer accept grant applications related to psychiatric disorders unless they can specify a clear hypothesis and a biological target. And I have lost count of the number of times in the past few decades that the discovery of a “gene for” schizophrenia has been loudly trumpeted, only to be quietly buried a few months later. A consequence has been that many pharmaceutical companies have rowed back from such research in favour of more tractable areas.So how to sum up the state of neuroscience? If one sets aside general issues about the state of academia, such as job insecurity, the ferocious competition for grants and the increasingly authoritarian structure of universities, there has never been a more exciting time to be working in the field. The technologies are there, the problems waiting to be addressed are tempting and the theoretical issues are profound, touching both the minutiae of day-to-day life and some of the deepest questions about what it means to be human.But, in approaching them, neuroscientists must learn some humility. Ours is not the only game in town. Philosophers, social scientists, writers and artists all have things of importance to say about the human condition. And neuroscientists who offer to use their science to educate the young or adjudicate morality in courts of law should proceed with utmost caution.Steven Rose is emeritus professor of neuroscience at the Open University. Co‑written with Hilary Rose, his latest book, Can Neuroscience Change Our Minds?, was published by Polity Press in June.The ‘black box’ that has squatted resolutely between genes and specific behaviours for such a long time is now being filled with real mechanistic insightI was at a meeting recently where a speaker declared that “in the neurosciences, we have experienced the excitement of technical innovation, followed by inflated expectation, and now we have entered the trough of disappointment”. This depiction surprised me. Not just because it is a cliché, trotted out and used to describe the current status of topics as diverse as graphene and the Great British Bake Off, but also because it is palpably wrong.Wanting to get to the root of the speaker’s confusion, I enquired over dinner if he was getting enough sleep. He said “tiredness stalks me like a harpy”. Interesting. The rationale for my question was a recent study showing that sleep-deprived individuals retain negative or neutral information, while readily forgetting information with a positive content. I concluded that sleep deprivation must be at the root of his distorted and overly negative views. As I articulated my counterarguments, his eyes glazed over and his head dipped. I rest my case.I sleep well, and so remain immensely positive about the current state of neuroscience. But why? What positive knowledge and experiences have I retained and consolidated in my cortex? The first would be the immense culture change that many of us have experienced over the past 20 years. Traditionally, questions in neuroscience were addressed by a single laboratory using a limited repertoire of techniques. The work usually focused on a specific neuron, or neuronal circuit, located in a favoured animal model. Some individuals spent their entire working life hunched over “their” electrophysiological rig collecting data from “their” neuron. Just moving the electrode a few millimetres and “poaching” the neuron of another was considered to be the height of predatory aggression.Most neuroscientists were more than aware of the limitations of this narrow approach. Ready for change and helped by surprisingly innovative funding initiatives, they found a new way of working – not just with other neuroscientists but across the spectrum of biomedical science. There are now countless examples of major questions being addressed by a critical mass of researchers sharing expertise and employing integrated approaches and communal facilities.The result is that detailed information is emerging about the molecular and cellular basis of core functions of the brain, providing a real understanding of how the brain is involved in autonomic, endocrine, sensory, motor, emotional, cognitive and disease processes. All these developments, along with advances in bioinformatics and computational modelling, now place the neuroscience community in an unparalleled position to address the bigger picture of how the brain functions through its synchronised networks to produce both normal and abnormal behaviour. Furthermore, the expansion of experimental medicine is providing new and exciting research opportunities. The human genotype-to-phenotype link, studied through close cooperative contacts between clinical and non-clinical researchers, is an increasingly important driver in elucidating fundamental mechanisms.True – neuroscientists have yet to answer the question of “what is consciousness?”, or to cure dementia or schizophrenia. We may not be able to do this for some time. But should these great and laudable goals be the only metrics against which progress is measured? If so, then spectacular successes will be overlooked. Across the neurosciences, important fundamental questions are being answered: not least, how genes give rise to specific behaviours. In my own field, the collective efforts of many individuals have begun to explain in considerable detail how circadian rhythms arise from an interaction between key “clock genes” and their protein products. We are also beginning to understand how multiple individual clock cells are able to coordinate their efforts to drive circadian rhythms in every aspect of physiology and behaviour, including the sleep/wake cycle. Attempts to understand how the eye detects the dawn/dusk cycle to align the molecular clockwork to the solar day led to the discovery of an entirely new class of light-sensing system within the retina. Efforts to explain why some people are morning types (larks) while others are evening types (owls) have been linked directly to subtle changes in specific clock genes.I could go on and on, and I know colleagues in other areas of neuroscience could cite analogous triumphs. For some balance, I am keen to highlight psychiatry. It has long been known that conditions such as schizophrenia have a major genetic component, but identifying the specific genes involved has been a significant problem, and at one stage was thought to be an intractable one. However, very recent genome-wide association studies have provided real insight. More than 100 gene loci have now been linked with schizophrenia risk, identifying for the first time “genes for schizophrenia”. Furthermore, many of these genes have clear therapeutic potential, both as drug targets and in identifying environmental factors that influence the development of the condition. The point I am trying to make is that the “black box” that has squatted resolutely between genes and specific behaviours for such a long time is now being filled with real mechanistic insight.I will not pretend that everything is perfect. We do face significant problems, not least how we fund and recognise the efforts of early career neuroscientists, who are often obliged to work in very large teams, making individual achievements hard to highlight. However, I absolutely refuse to support the notion that neuroscience now resides within a “trough of disappointment”. The immense progress and successes that have been and are being achieved across the broad spectrum of the discipline should be recognised and celebrated. The state of neuroscience is robust, and we are genuinely shuffling forward in our understanding of the most complicated structure in the known universe: the human brain.Russell G. Foster is professor of circadian neuroscience at the University of Oxford.Read more about:Knowledge transferResearchScienceRelated universitiesUniversity of OxfordExploreMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyExploreTrinity College DublinExploreBecome a Neurologist: Step-by-Step Career GuideShould I Become a Neurologist?Neurologists are physicians and surgeons who treat patients with nervous system disorders, including problems with the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. Many neurologists work in hospitals, and though health and safety precautions are taken, there is some risk of exposure to infectious diseases while working in any medical setting. Doctors who work in hospitals commonly work more than 40 hours a week and often during irregular hours of the day. The potential for high income is present in this career. It can be emotionally and physically challenging, but there is great reward in improving peoples' health and saving peoples' lives.Neurologists will need strong communication and leadership skills, attention to detail, organizational skills, problem-solving skills, patience, empathy, and knowledge of human anatomy and the nervous system. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the average salary for all other physicians and surgeons, including neurologists, was $197,700 as of May 2015.Undergraduate DegreeEarning a bachelor's degree is the first step toward becoming a neurologist. There is no specific major required for undergraduate study. However, aspiring neurologists may benefit from concentrating their studies in biological sciences, chemistry, physics or pre-med to meet admission requirements for medical school. Pre-med requisite courses typically include microbiology, biochemistry and human anatomy.During the junior year of an undergraduate program, aspiring neurologists must take and pass the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). This exam allows medical schools to evaluate an applicant's training and knowledge through a skills assessment and a set of multiple-choice questions. They then must submit their applications through an online service administered by the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) and the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (AACOM).Students can improve their undergraduate preparation by volunteering. According to the BLS, medical school admissions boards may give preference to students who have completed volunteer hours throughout their undergraduate studies. Volunteering at a hospital or in a similar medical environment can help an aspiring neurologist stand out on his or her medical school application, while also gaining hands-on experience working with patients.Students can also participate in extracurricular activities. The BLS reports that extracurricular activities can help students demonstrate their leadership qualities. Joining honors societies, clubs, student-run publications, or other similar extracurricular activities can help an aspiring neurologist build essential skills and stand out when applying to medical schools.It might also be helpful to learn a foreign language. Neurologists may frequently work with patients who do not speak English, so learning a foreign language, such as Spanish, can help a candidate succeed in this field and may help him or her stand out over other medical school applicants.Graduate Education & ResidencyAspiring neurologists are required to earn a Doctor of Medicine degree by attending medical school. Most medical school programs last four years, with the first two years typically covering the basics of human anatomy and physiology. Courses may also delve into nutrition, immunology and ethics. During their third and fourth years, med students usually receive clinical training and participate in a clerkship that covers medical specializations, like family medicine, neurology or radiology.The National Board of Medical Examiners and the Federation of State Medical Boards administer the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). The National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners administers the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination (COMLEX). All aspiring physicians, including neurologists, must pass one of these exams prior to practicing medicine in the United States. Both tests come in multiple stages, beginning during medical school. The final stage can be taken right after medical school or within the first part of a residency program. Taking the test immediately after graduating from medical school may be beneficial, as internship and residency programs may rely on these scores for admissions.Aspiring neurologists begin their postgraduate training by entering a 1-year internship program in either internal medicine or surgery. Interns generally gain advanced experience with patients and specific healthcare practices through rotations. For example, while interns working in oncology may interact and provide treatment for cancer patients, those in the intensive care unit may receive instruction on protocols when caring for critically ill patients.After completing their internships, postgraduates will begin a 3-year neurology residency program accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. Neurology residents typically attend lectures, participate in patient rounds, and complete case studies of clinical scenarios. Through these activities, they gain experience with an assortment of neurological disorders and issues, such as multiple sclerosis, epilepsy and neuroradiology.Students may also consider a fellowship program. Neurologists seeking advanced training in a particular field of neurology might consider participating in a fellowship offered by a university medical facility or hospital. These programs generally last 1-2 years after a residency and offer extensive work and research opportunities with faculty and medical teams. Fellowships may be available in epilepsy, neurophysiology and other specialized areas of practice.Journey with Parkinson's (interesting site on developments)Beyond SchoolThe American Board of Psychology and Neurology (ABPN) offers voluntary certifications for qualified neurologists. Prospective candidates may become certified as neurologists or child neurologists after completing a certification examination. In order to take the exam, candidates must have completed an accredited medical school program, earned a medical license, and satisfied the ABPN training requirements. Once certified, neurologists participate in the ABPN 10-year certification maintenance program, which includes completing self-assessment activities and other ABPN components.Continuing education can help a neurologist stay up-to-date with trends, breakthroughs and advances in the field. In some cases, continuing education may even be required. For example, the ABPN 10-year certification maintenance program requires completion of continuing education opportunities to ensure certified neurologists are constantly learning and improving in their careers. Continuing education can be completed through classes hosted by professional organizations or university medical centers; opportunities may include classes, meetings, self-assessment and seminars.Neurologists are physicians that specialize in the nervous system. They require a residency and perhaps a fellowship beyond medical school.How to Apply for a Residency Step-by-Step Guide to Applying to a Neurology Residency ProgramNeurologyOverview of the SpecialtyThe specialty of neurology is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders involving the brain, spinal cord and other nerve and muscular conditions as well as the blood vessels that relate to them. Many neurological problems are characterized by pain and can be chronic, debilitating and difficult to treat. Headaches, strokes and seizure disorders are typical conditions neurologists treat. A large portion of the practice of neurology is consultative, but the neurologist may also be the primary physician.Training RequirementsTraining generally consists of a minimum of four years of postgraduate education. Entry into a neurology residency training program is preceded by 12 months of ACGME-accredited graduate training in the United States or Canada, usually in general internal medicine. ACGME-approved residency training programs in neurology must provide three years of graduate education in neurology. There were 133 neurological residency training programs accredited by the ACGME for 2014/15 that offered 717 categorical/advanced positions.Matching Program Information and Match StatisticsNeurology training programs participate in the NRMP. Match results and competitiveness information for neurology residency training positions are summarized in U.S. Match Statistics table below.US Match StatisticsSubspecialty/fellowship training upon completion of a neurology residency training program is available in child neurology and clinical neurophysiology.Detailed information about the scope of these subspecialty training programs, number of positions offered and length of training is available in the GMED online database FREIDA.FREIDA Career Information FREIDA physician workforce information for each specialty includes statistical information on the number of positions/programs for residency training, resident work hours, resident work environment and compensation, employment status upon completion of program and work environment for those entering practice in each specialty.Washington University Resources Washington University Graduate Medical Education: GME Washington University Department Website: Department of Neurology

NO. Unless you think a majority of scientists including 60 Nobel laureates lack substance? Let’s start with the climate lectures of two leading Nobel laureates -Dr. Ivar Giaever brilliantly destroys the global warming (aka climate change) scientific consensus in his Laureate speech below. He saves us from the fear mongering of Al Gore and his like.Skeptics of global warming are increasing with more than 60 other Nobel Prize winners denying human caused climate change.Nobel Laureate Dr. Kary Mullis is correct in his assessment of the current state of climate science, describing it as a "Joke".As he correctly points out, there is no scientific evidence whatever that our CO2 is, or can ever "drive" climate change.There is also no published empirical scientific evidence that any CO2, whether natural or man-made, causes warming in the troposphere.His Nobel Prize was awarded in 1993.When you step back an consider the alarmist views they do seem alot like a ‘joke’ as Professor Mullis thinks.Changing sun and oceans no longer playing a role?Today alarmist scientists would have us believe that that big bright tempestuous star up there in the sky stopped playing a role since the late 19th century, and that the oceans, which cover a puny 70% of our planet’s surface (sarc), also stopped playing a role.Instead the alarmist scientists insist that today’s climate is being 90+% driven by human-emitted CO2 and the rest of the factors have been somehow disabled. If that sound preposterous, then it might have something to do with how you perceive the your planet and how different parts are interrelated.“Human CO2 only 0.01% of atmosphereThrough the burning of fossil fuels, humans are also responsible for having boosted atmospheric CO2 emissions from some 300 ppm to 400 parts per million, which translates into a difference of 0.01% of the atmosphere. So what do the alarmists conclude from this:0.01% of the world’s biomass and 0.o1% of the atmosphere are today almost solely responsible for climate changes.The sun, oceans, volcanoes and other poorly understood major varying factors are ignored. Does all that sound plausible?Yeah right, and the price of tea in China drives the global economy.”By P. Gosselin May 26, 2018http://notrickszone.com/2018/05/26/right-tiny-0-01-of-atmosphere-and-0-01-of-earths-biomass-drive-near-100-of-climate/NOBEL PRIZE MEDAL“Partial list of 150 + scientists who do NOT support the Catastrophic Anthropogenic Climate Change Scam:(includes ~60 Nobel Prize winners)Sceptical list provided by David Harrington of leading scientists. They all have many excellent published papers on the AGW subject.A.J. Tom van Loon, PhDAaron Klug, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Abdus Salam, Nobel Prize (Physics)Adolph Butenandt, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Al Pekarek, PhDAlan Moran, PhDAlbrecht Glatzle, PhDAlex Robson, PhDAlister McFarquhar, PhDAmo A. Penzias, Nobel Prize (Physics)Andrei Illarionov, PhDAnthony Jewish, Nobel Prize (Physics)Anthony R. Lupo, PhDAntonino Zichichi, President of the World Federation of Scientists.Arthur L. Schawlow, Nobel Prize (Physics)Arthur Rorsch, PhDAsmunn Moene, PhDBaruj Benacerraf, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Bert Sakmann, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Bjarne Andresen, PhDBoris Winterhalter, PhDBrian G Valentine, PhDBrian Pratt, PhDBryan Leyland, International Climate Science CoalitionCesar Milstein, Nobel Prize (Physiology)Charles H. Townes, Nobel Prize (Physics)Chris C. Borel, PhDChris Schoneveld, MSc (Structural Geology)Christian de Duve, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Christopher Essex, PhDCliff Ollier, PhDSusan Crockford PhDDaniel Nathans, Nobel Prize (Medicine)David Deming, PhD (Geophysics)David E. Wojick, PhDDavid Evans, PhD (EE)David Kear, PhDDavid R. Legates, PhDDick Thoenes, PhDDon Aitkin, PhDDon J. Easterbrook, PhDDonald A. Glaser, Nobel Prize (Physics)Donald Parkes, PhDDouglas Leahey, PhDDudley R. Herschbach, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Edwin G. Krebs, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Erwin Neher, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Frank Milne, PhDFred Goldberg, PhDFred Michel, PhDFreeman J. Dyson, PhDGarth W. Paltridge, PhDGary D. Sharp, PhDGeoff L. Austin, PhDGeorge E. Palade, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Gerald Debreu, Nobel Prize (Economy)Gerhard Herzberg, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Gerrit J. van der Lingen, PhDHans Albrecht Bethe, Nobel Prize (Physics)Hans H.J. Labohm, PhDHarold E. Varmus, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Harry M. Markowitz, Nobel Prize (Economics)Harry N.A. Priem, PhDHeinrich Rohrer, Nobel Prize (Physics)Hendrik Tennekes, PhDHenrik Svensmark, physicistHerbert A. Hauptman, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Horst Malberg, PhDHoward Hayden, PhDI. Prigogine, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Ian D. Clark, PhDIan Plimer, PhDIvar Giaever, Nobel Prize (Physics)James J. O’Brien, PhDJean Dausset, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Jean-Marie Lehn, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Jennifer Marohasy, PhDJerome Karle, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Joel M. Kauffman, PhDJohan Deisenhofer, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)John Charles Polanyi, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)John Maunder, PhDJohn Nicol, PhDJon Jenkins, PhDJoseph Murray, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Judith Curry, PhDJulius Axelrod, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Kai Siegbahn, Nobel Prize (Physics)Khabibullo Abdusamatov, astrophysicist at Pulkovo Observatory of the Russian Academy of SciencesKlaus Von Klitzing, Nobel Prize (Physics)Gerhard Kramm: PhD (meteorology)L. Graham Smith, PhDLee C. Gerhard, PhDLen Walker, PhDLeon Lederman, Nobel Prize (Physics)Linus Pauling, Nobel Prize (ChemistryLord Alexander Todd, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Lord George Porter, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Louis Neel, Nobel Prize (Physics)Lubos Motl, PhDMadhav Khandekar, PhDManfred Eigen, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Marcel Leroux, PhDMarshall W. Nirenberg, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Max Ferdinand Perutz, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Ned Nikolov PhDNils-Axel Morner, PhDOlavi Kärner, Ph.D.Owen Chamberlain, Nobel Prize (Physics)Pierre Lelong, ProfessorPierre-Gilles de Gennes, Nobel Prize (Physics)R. Timothy Patterson, PhDR. W. Gauldie, PhDR.G. Roper, PhDRaphael Wust, PhDReid A. Bryson, Ph.D. Page on Shave and Grooming Made Simple. D.Engr.Richard Laurence Millington Synge, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Richard Mackey, PhDRichard R. Ernst, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Richard S. Courtney, PhDRichard S. Lindzen, PhDRita Levi-Montalcini, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Roald Hoffman, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Robert H. Essenhigh, PhDRobert Huber, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Robert M. Carter, PhDRobert W. Wilson, Nobel Prize (Physics)Roger Guillemin, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Ross McKitrick, PhDRoy W. Spencer, PhDS. Fred Singer, PhDSallie Baliunas, astrophysicist HarvardSalomon Kroonenberg, PhDSherwood B. Idso, PhDSimon van der Meer, Nobel Prize (Physics)Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Sir James W. Black, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Sir John Kendrew, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Sir John R. Vane , Nobel Prize (Medicine)Sir John Warcup Cornforth, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Sir. Nevil F. Mott, Nobel Prize Winner (Physics)Sonja A. Boehmer-Christiansen, PhDStanley Cohen, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Stephan Wilksch, PhDStewart Franks, PhDSyun-Ichi Akasofu, PhDTadeus Reichstein, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Thomas Huckle Weller, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Thomas R. Cech, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Timothy F. Ball, PhDTom V. Segalstad, PhDTorsten N. Wiesel, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Vincent Gray, PhDWalter Starck, PhD (marine science; specialization in coral reefs and fisheries)Wibjorn Karlen, PhDWillem de Lange, PhDWilliam Evans, PhDWilliam Happer, physicist PrincetonWilliam J.R. Alexander, PhDWilliam Kininmonth Page on http://m.sc., Head of Australia’s National Climate Centre and a consultant to the World Meteorological organization’s Commission for ClimatologyWilliam Lindqvist, PhDWilliam N. Lipscomb, Nobel Prize Winner (Chemistry)Willie Soon, astrophysicist HarvardYuan T. Lee, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Zbigniew Jaworowski, PhDKarl ZellerZichichi, PhD“Here is a partial list of science and other economic organizations who are on record with their doubts.“Skeptical Scientific Organizations:American Association of Petroleum Geologists (31,000+ Members)“The Climate Scientists' Register“We, the undersigned, having assessed the relevant scientific evidence, do not find convincing support for the hypothesis that human emissions of carbon dioxide are causing, or will in the foreseeable future cause, dangerous global warming."Click on country name in the following list to see endorsers from that nation: Algéria (1 endorser), Australia (8), Bulgaria (1), Canada (17), Denmark (1), Estonia (1), Finland(1), France (1), Germany (4), Greece (1), India (3), Italy (3), Luxembourg (1), Mexico (1), New Zealand (6), Norway (5), Poland (3), Russia (5), South Africa (1), Sweden(8), United Kingdom (6), United States of America (64).Complete Endorser List:Habibullo I. Abdussamatov, Dr. Sci., mathematician and astrophysicist, Head of the Russian-Ukrainian Astrometria project on the board of the Russian segment of the ISS, Head of Space Research Laboratory at the Pulkovo Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, RussiaSyun-Ichi Akasofu, PhD, Professor of Physics, Emeritus and Founding Director, International Arctic Research Center of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A.J.R. Alexander, Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Member, UN Scientific and Technical Committee on Natural Disasters, 1994-2000, Pretoria, South AfricaBjarne Andresen, Dr. Scient., physicist, published and presents on the impossibility of a "global temperature", Professor, Niels Bohr Institute (areas of specialization: fundamental physics and chemistry, in particular thermodynamics), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkTimothy F. Ball, PhD, environmental consultant and former climatology professor, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba, CanadaRomuald Bartnik, PhD (Organic Chemistry), Professor Emeritus, Former chairman of the Department of Organic and Applied Chemistry, climate work in cooperation with Department of Hydrology and Geological Museum, University of Lodz, Lodz, PolandColin Barton, http://B.Sc., PhD (Earth Science), Principal research scientist (retd), Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Melbourne, Victoria, AustraliaFranco Battaglia, PhD (Chemical Physics), Professor of Environmental Chemistry (climate specialties: environmental chemistry), University of Modena, ItalyDavid Bellamy, OBE, PhD, English botanist, author, broadcaster, environmental campaigner, Hon. Professor of Botany (Geography), University of Nottingham, Hon. Prof. Faculty of Engineering and Physical Systems, Central Queensland University, Hon. Prof. of Adult and Continuing Education, University of Durham, United Nations Environment Program Global 500 Award Winner, Dutch Order of The Golden Ark, Bishop Auckland County, Durham, United KingdomRichard Becherer, BS (Physics, Boston College), MS (Physics, University of Illinois), PhD (Optics, University of Rochester), former Member of the Technical Staff - MIT Lincoln Laboratory, former Adjunct Professor - University of Connecticut, Areas of Specialization: optical radiation physics, coauthor - standard reference book Optical Radiation Measurements: Radiometry, Millis, MA, U.S.A.Ernst-Georg Beck, Dipl. Biology (University of Freiburg), biologist (area of specialization: CO2 record in the last 150 years – see paper “Accurate estimation of CO2 background level from near ground measurements at non-mixed environments”), see http://www.biomind.de/realCO2/ for more from Mr. Beck, Biesheim, FranceEdwin Berry, PhD (Atmospheric Physics, Nevada), MA (Physics, Dartmouth), BS (Engineering, Caltech), President, Climate Physics LLC, Bigfork, MT, U.S.A.Sonja A. Boehmer-Christiansen, PhD, Reader Emeritus, Dept. of Geography, Hull University, Editor - Energy&Environment, Multi-Science (www.multi-science.co.uk), Hull, United KingdomM. I. Bhat, PhD, formerly Scientist at the Wadia institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra, currently Professor & Head, Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of Kashmir (areas of specialization: Geochemistry, Himalayan and global tectonics & tectonics and climate (Prof Bhat: “Arguing for deepening the climate frontiers by considering interaction between solar flares and core-mantle boundary processes. Clue possibly lies in exploring the tectonics of regions that underlies high and low pressure cells of the three global oscillations (SO, NAO, NPO)”), Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, IndiaAhmed Boucenna, PhD, Professor of Physics, Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Ferhat Abbas University, Setif, Algéria. Author of The Great Season Climatic Oscillation, I. RE. PHY. 1(2007) 53, The Great Season Climatic Oscillation and the Global Warming, Global Conference On Global Warming, July 6-10, 2008, Istanbul, Turkey and Pseudo Radiation Energy Amplifier (PREA) and the Mean Earth's Ground Temperature, arXiv:0811.0357 (November 2008)Antonio Brambati, PhD, Emeritus Professor (sedimentology), Department of Geological, Environmental and Marine Sciences (DiSGAM), University of Trieste (specialization: climate change as determined by Antarctic marine sediments), Trieste, ItalyStephen C. Brown, PhD (Environmental Science, State University of New York), District Agriculture Agent, Assistant Professor, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Ground Penetrating Radar Glacier research, Palmer, Alaska, U.S.A.Mark Lawrence Campbell, PhD (chemical physics; gas-phase kinetic research involving greenhouse gases (nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide)), Professor, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.Robert M. Carter, PhD, Professor, Marine Geophysical Laboratory, James Cook University, Townsville, AustraliaArthur Chadwick, PhD (Molecular Biology), Research Professor, Department of Biology and Geology, Southwestern Adventist University, Climate Specialties: dendrochronology (determination of past climate states by tree ring analysis), palynology (same but using pollen as a climate proxy), paleobotany and botany; Keene, Texas, U.S.A.George V. Chilingar, PhD, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.Antonis Christofides, Dipl. Civil Engineering, MSc Computing Science, Climate Specialties: co-author of relevant papers: here and here, author of http://hk-climate.org/, Athens, GreecePetr Chylek, PhD, Laboratory Fellow, Remote Sensing Team Leader, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, U.S.A.Ian D. Clark, PhD, Professor (isotope hydrogeology and paleoclimatology), Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaPaul Copper, BSc, MSc, PhD, DIC, FRSC, Professor Emeritus, Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian University Sudbury, Ontario, CanadaCornelia Codreanova, Diploma in Geography, Researcher (Areas of Specialization: formation of glacial lakes) at Liberec University, Czech Republic, Zwenkau, GermanyMichael Coffman, PhD (Ecosystems Analysis and Climate Influences), CEO of Sovereignty International, President of Environmental Perspectives, Inc., Bangor, Maine, U.S.A.Piers Corbyn, MSc (Physics (Imperial College London)), ARCS, FRAS, FRMetS, astrophysicist (Queen Mary College, London), consultant, founder WeatherAction long range forecasters, London, United KingdomRichard S. Courtney, PhD, energy and environmental consultant, IPCC expert reviewer, Falmouth, Cornwall, United KingdomJoseph D’Aleo, BS, MS (Meteorology, University of Wisconsin), Doctoral Studies (NYU), Executive Director - ICECAP (International Climate and Environmental Change Assessment Project), Fellow of the AMS, College Professor Climatology/Meteorology, First Director of Meteorology The Weather Channel, Hudson, New Hampshire, U.S.A.David Deming, PhD (Geophysics), Associate Professor, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, U.S.A.James E Dent; http://B.Sc., FCIWEM, C.Met, FRMetS, C.Env., Independent Consultant, Member of WMO OPACHE Group on Flood Warning, Hadleigh, Suffolk, England, United KingdomChris R. de Freitas, PhD, climate Scientist, School of Environment, The University of Auckland, New ZealandWillem de Lange, MSc (Hons), DPhil (Computer and Earth Sciences), Senior Lecturer in Earth and Ocean Sciences, The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New ZealandGeoff Duffy, DEng (Dr of Engineering), PhD (Chemical Engineering), BSc, ASTCDip., FRSNZ (first chemical engineer to be a Fellow of the Royal Society in NZ), FIChemE, wide experience in radiant heat transfer and drying, chemical equilibria, etc. Has reviewed, analysed, and written brief reports and papers on climate change, Auckland, New ZealandRobert W. Durrenberger, PhD, former Arizona State Climatologist and President of the American Association of State Climatologists, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Arizona State University; Sun City, Arizona, U.S.A.Don J. Easterbrook, PhD, Emeritus Professor of Geology, Western Washington, University, Bellingham, Washington, U.S.A.Willis Eschenbach, Independent Climate Researcher, Climate Specialties: Tropical tropospheric amplification, constructal theories of climate, See sample of scientific writings in Nature here, Occidental, CA, U.S.A.Christopher Essex, PhD, professor of applied mathematics, and Associate Chair, Department of Applied Mathematics, Former Director, Program in Theoretical Physics, University of Western Ontario, Former NSERC postdoc at the Canadian Climate Centre's Numerical Modelling Division (GCM), London, Ontario, CanadaPer Engene, MSc, Biologist, Bø i Telemark, Norway, Co-author - The Climate, Science and Politics (2009)Terrence F. Flower, PhD, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, St. Catherine University, studied and taught physics of climate (focus on Arctic and Antarctic), took students to study physics of climate change in the Antarctic and Costa Rica, St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A.Stewart Franks, BSci. (Hons, Environmental Science), PhD (Landsurface-atmosphere interactions), Associate Professor and Dean of Students, University of Newcastle, Climate Specialties: hydro-climatology, flood/drought risk, Newcastle, AustraliaLars Franzén, PhD (Physical Geography), Professor, Physical Geography at Earth Sciences Centre, University of Gothenburg, Areas of Specialization: Palaeoclimate from global peatland and Chinese loess studies - see related scientific paper by Franzén et al, Gothenburg, Vastra Gotaland, SwedenGordon Fulks, PhD (Physics, University of Chicago), cosmic radiation, solar wind, electromagnetic and geophysical phenomena, Corbett, Oregon, U.S.A.Robert. W. Gauldie, PhD, Research Professor (retired), Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, School of Ocean Earth Sciences and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Hawaii, U.S.A.Katya Georgieva, MSc (Physics of the Earth, Atmosphere, and Space, specialty Meteorology), PhD (Solar-Terrestrial Physics - PhD thesis on solar influences on global climate changes), Associate Professor, Head of group "Solar dynamics and global climate change" in the Solar-Terrestrial Influences Laboratory at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, head of project "Solar activity influences of weather and climate" of the scientific plan of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, member of the "Climate changes" council of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Regional coordinator of the Balkan, Black sea and Caspian sea countries and member of the European Steering Committee for the International Heliophysical Year 2007-2008, deputy editor-in-chief of the international scientific journal "Sun and Geosphere", BulgariaLee C. Gerhard, PhD, Senior Scientist Emeritus, University of Kansas, past director and state geologist, Kansas Geological Survey, U.S.A.Gerhard Gerlich, Dr.rer.nat. (Mathematical Physics: Magnetohydrodynamics) habil. (Real Measure Manifolds), Professor, Institut für Mathematische Physik, Technische Universität Carolo-Wilhelmina zu Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, Co-author of “Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of Physics”, Int.J.Mod.Phys.,2009Fred Goldberg, PhD, Adj Professor, Royal Institute of Technology (Mech, Eng.), Secretary General KTH International Climate Seminar 2006 and Climate analyst (NIPCC), Lidingö, SwedenStanley B. Goldenberg, Research Meteorologist, NOAA, AOML/Hurricane Research Division, Miami, Florida, U.S.A.Wayne Goodfellow, PhD (Earth Science), Ocean Evolution, Paleoenvironments, Adjunct Professor, Senior Research Scientist, University of Ottawa, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaThomas B. Gray, MS (Meteorology, California Institute of Technology and Florida State University), 23 years as Meteorologist with the U.S. Army and Air Force (retired) and 15 years experience with NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories. Assignments include Chief, Analysis and Forecast Division, Global Weather Center, Omaha, Nebraska and Chief, Solar Forecast Center, Boulder Colorado, maintains active interest in paleoclimate and atmospheric physics, Yachats, Oregon, U.S.A.Vincent Gray, PhD, New Zealand Climate Coalition, expert reviewer for the IPCC, author of The Greenhouse Delusion: A Critique of Climate Change 2001, Wellington, New ZealandWilliam M. Gray, PhD, Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Head of the Tropical Meteorology Project, Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A.Kenneth P. Green, Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering (UCLA, 1994), Resident Scholar, Interim Director, Center for Regulatory Studies, American Enterprise Institute, Washington D.C., U.S.A.Charles B. Hammons, PhD (Applied Mathematics), climate-related specialties: applied mathematics, modeling & simulation, software & systems engineering, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Management, University of Dallas; Assistant Professor, North Texas State University (Dr. Hammons found many serious flaws during a detailed study of the software, associated control files plus related email traffic of the Climate Research Unit temperature and other records and “adjustments” carried out in support of IPCC conclusions), Coyle, OK, U.S.A.William Happer, PhD, Professor, Department of Physics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, U.S.A.Howard Hayden, PhD, Emeritus Professor (Physics), University of Connecticut, The Energy Advocate, Pueblo West, Colorado, U.S.A.Warren T. Hinds, B.S. (Engineering), M.S. (Atmospheric Sciences), PhD (Physical Ecology, U. Washington, Seattle), Sr. Scientist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory; consultant for USA EPA research on Global Climate Change Program, Specialist for Defense Programs, Department of Energy, Climate Specialties: atmospheric physics and quantitative empirical analyses regarding climatological, meteorological, and ecological responses to environmental stresses, Gainesville, Georgia, U.S.A.Art Horn, Meteorologist (honors, Lyndon State College, Lyndonville, Vermont), operator, The Art of Weather, U.S.A.Douglas Hoyt, B.S. (Physics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), M.S. (Astro-Geophysics, University of Colorado), co-author of the book The Role of the Sun in climate Change, previously senior scientist at Raytheon (MODIS instrument development), with earlier employment at NOAA, NCAR, World Radiation Center and the Sacramento Peak Observatory, Berkeley Springs, West Virginia, U.S.A.Warwick Hughes, MSc Hons (Geology), Founder of the "Errors in IPCC Climate Science" Blog - http://www.warwickhughes.com/blog/, Areas of Specialization: Jones et al temperature data, Canberra, AustraliaOle Humlum, PhD, Professor of Physical Geography, Department of Physical Geography, Institute of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, NorwayCraig D. Idso, PhD, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.Sherwood B. Idso, PhD, President, Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.Larry Irons, BS (Geology), MS (Geology), Sr. Geophysicist at FairfieldNodal (Areas of Specialization: Paleoclimate), Lakewood, Colorado, U.S.A.Terri Jackson, MSc (plasma physics), MPhil (energy economics), Director, Independent Climate Research Group, Northern Ireland and London (Founder of the energy/climate group at the Institute of Physics, London), United KingdomAlbert F. Jacobs, Geol.Drs., P. Geol., Calgary, Alberta, CanadaZbigniew Jaworowski, PhD, DSc, professor of natural sciences, Senior Science Adviser of Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection, researcher on ice core CO2 records, Warsaw, PolandBill Kappel, BS (Physical Science-Geology), BS (Meteorology), Storm Analysis, Climatology, Operation Forecasting, Vice President/Senior Meteorologist, Applied Weather Associates, LLC, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, U.S.A.Olavi Kärner, Ph.D., Extraordinary Research Associate; Dept. of Atmospheric Physics, Tartu Observatory, Toravere, EstoniaMadhav L. Khandekar, PhD, consultant meteorolgist, (former) Research Scientist, Environment Canada, Editor "Climate Research” (03-05), Editorial Board Member "Natural Hazards, IPCC Expert Reviewer 2007, Unionville, Ontario, CanadaLeonid F. Khilyuk, PhD, Science Secretary, Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Professor of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.William Kininmonth MSc, MAdmin, former head of Australia’s National Climate Centre and a consultant to the World Meteorological organization’s Commission for Climatology, Kew, Victoria, AustraliaGerhard Kramm, Dr. rer. nat. (Theoretical Meteorology), Research Associate Professor, Geophysical Institute, Associate Faculty, College of Natural Science and Mathematics, University of Alaska Fairbanks, (climate specialties: Atmospheric energetics, physics of the atmospheric boundary layer, physical climatology - seeinteresting paper by Kramm et al), Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A.Leif Kullman, PhD (Physical geography, plant ecology, landscape ecology), Professor, Physical geography, Department of Ecology and Environmental science, Umeå University, Areas of Specialization: Paleoclimate (Holocene to the present), glaciology, vegetation history, impact of modern climate on the living landscape, Umeå, SwedenDouglas Leahey, PhD, meteorologist and air-quality consultant, President - Friends of Science, Calgary, Alberta, CanadaJay Lehr, BEng (Princeton), PhD (environmental science and ground water hydrology), Science Director, The Heartland Institute, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.Edward Liebsch, B.A. (Earth Science, St. Cloud State University); M.S. (Meteorology, The Pennsylvania State University), former Associate Scientist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; former Adjunct Professor of Meteorology, St. Cloud State University, Environmental Consultant/Air Quality Scientist (Areas of Specialization: micrometeorology, greenhouse gas emissions), Maple Grove, Minnesota, U.S.A.Richard S. Lindzen, PhD, Alfred P. Sloan professor of meteorology, Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.William Lindqvist, PhD (Applied Geology), Independent Geologic Consultant, Areas of Specialization: Climate Variation in the recent geologic past, Tiburon, California, U.S.A.Peter Link, BS, MS, PhD (Geology, Climatology), Geol/Paleoclimatology, retired, Active in Geol-paleoclimatology, Tulsa University and Industry, Evergreen, Colorado, U.S.A.Anthony R. Lupo, Ph.D., Professor of Atmospheric Science, Department of Soil, Environmental, and Atmospheric Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.Qing-Bin Lu, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Physics and Astronomy, cross-appointed to Departments of Biology and Chemistry, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) New Investigator, University of Waterloo, Ontario, CanadaHorst Malberg, PhD, Professor (emeritus) for Meteorology and Climatology and former director of the Institute for Meteorology at the Free University of Berlin, GermanyBjörn Malmgren, PhD, Professor Emeritus in Marine Geology, Paleoclimate Science, Goteborg University, retired, Norrtälje, SwedenOliver Manuel, BS (Chem), MS (Geo-Chem), PhD (Nuclear Chem), Post-Doc (Space Physics), Fulbright Scholar (Astrophysics), NSF Post-Doc Fellow (UC-Berkeley), Associate - Climate & Solar Science Institute, Professor (now Emeritus)/Dept Chair, College of Arts & Sciences University of Missouri-Rolla, Fulbright Scholar (Tata Institute- Mumbai), previously Research Scientist (US Geological Survey-Denver) and NASA Principal Investigator for Apollo, Climate Specialties: Earth's heat source, sample of relevant papers: "Earth's heat source - the Sun", Energy and Environment 20 131-144 (2009); “The sun: a magnetic plasma diffuser that controls earth's climate”, paper presented at the V. International Conference on Non-accelerator New Physics, Dubna, Russia, 20 June 2005; "Super-fluidity in the solar interior: Implications for solar eruptions and climate", Journal of Fusion Energy 21, 193-198 (2002), Cape Girardeau, Missouri, U.S.A.David Manuta, Ph.D. (Inorganic/Physical Chemistry, SUNY Binghamton), FAIC, Climate Specialties: Gas Phase Infrared Studies, Thermodynamics of Small Molecule Formation (e.g., CO2, HF, and H2O), President, Manuta Chemical Consulting, Inc., Chairman of the Board, The American Institute of Chemists, Past Positions include Adjunct Professor of Physics, Ohio University-Chillicothe, Ohio, Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Physical Science at Shawnee State University, Ohio, Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Physical Science at Upper Iowa University and US Enrichment Corp. (nuclear), Waverly, Ohio, USAFrancis Massen, PhD, Physics Lab and meteoLCD, Lycée Classique de Diekirch, 32 av. de la gare L-9233, (see interesting scientific paper by Massen et al), Diekirch, LuxembourgIrina Melnikova, PhD (Physics & Mathematics), Head of the Laboratory for Physics of the Atmosphere INENCO RAN, specialization: radiative regime of the cloudy atmosphere - see interesting paper on this topic by Dr. Melnikova, St. Petersburg, RussiaPatrick J. Michaels, A.B., S.M., Ph.D. (ecological climatology, Senior Fellow in Environmental Studies, CATO Institute, Distinguished Senior Fellow in the School of Public Policy, George Mason University, a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists, past program chair for the Committee on Applied Climatology of the American Meteorological Society, past research professor of Environmental Sciences at University of Virginia, contributing author and reviewer of the UN IPCC, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.Fred Michel, PhD, Director, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Associate Professor of Earth Sciences, Carleton University (article by Dr. Michel: “Climatic hubris: The Ellesmere Island ice shelves have been disappearing since they were first mapped in 1906”, January 16, 2007, National Post), Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaFerenc Mark Miskolczi, PhD, atmospheric physicist, formerly of NASA's Langley Research Center, (in his 2010 paper, Dr. Miskolczi writes, "The data negate increase in CO2 in the atmosphere as a hypothetical cause for the apparently observed global warming. A hypothesis of significant positive feedback by water vapor effect on atmospheric infrared absorption is also negated by the observed measurements. Apparently major revision of the physics underlying the greenhouse effect is needed."), Hampton, Virginia, U.S.A.Asmunn Moene, PhD, MSc (Meteorology), former head of the Forecasting Centre, Meteorological Institute, Oslo, NorwayNils-Axel Mörner, PhD (Sea Level Changes and Climate), Emeritus Professor of Paleogeophysics & Geodynamics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, SwedenNasif Nahle, BSc (Biology), C-1L on Scientific Research, climatology and meteorology, physics, and paleobiology, Director of Scientific Research at Biology Cabinet (Areas of Specialization: Climatology and Meteorology (certification), San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon, MexicoDavid Nowell, http://M.Sc., Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society, former chairman of the NATO Meteorological Group, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaJames J. O'Brien, PhD., Emeritus Professor, Meteorology and Oceanography, Florida State University, Florida, U.S.A.Peter Oliver, BSc (Geology), BSc (Hons, Geochemistry & Geophysics), MSc (Geochemistry), PhD (Geology), specialized in NZ quaternary glaciations, Geochemistry and Paleomagnetism, previously research scientist for the NZ Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Upper Hutt, New ZealandCliff Ollier, http://D.Sc., Professor Emeritus (School of Earth and Environment - see his Copenhagen Climate Challenge sea level article here), Research Fellow, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A., AustraliaR. Timothy Patterson, PhD, Professor, Dept. of Earth Sciences (paleoclimatology), Carleton University, Chair - International Climate Science Coalition, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaAlfred H. Pekarek, PhD, Associate Professor of Geology, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Deptartment, St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota, U.S.A.Stanley Penkala, BS (Chemical Engineering, Univ. of PA), PhD (Chemical Engineering, Univ. of PA.), Asst. Prof. Air Engineering and Industrial Hygiene, University of Pittsburgh GSPH (1970-1973), Environmental Scientist, DeNardo & McFarland Weather Services (1973-1980), Air Science Consultants, Inc. (VP 1980-1995, President 1995-Present), Areas of Specialization: Air Dispersion Modeling, Anthropogenic Sources of Global CO2, Quality Assurance in Air Pollution Measurements, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A.Ian Plimer, PhD, Professor of Mining Geology, The University of Adelaide; Emeritus Professor of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, AustraliaOleg M. Pokrovsky, BS, MS, PhD (mathematics and atmospheric physics - St. Petersburg State University, 1970), Dr. in Phys. and Math Sciences (1985), Professor in Geophysics (1995), principal scientist, Main Geophysical Observatory (RosHydroMet), St. Petersburg, Russia. Note: Dr. Pokrovsky carried out comprehensive analysis of many available long climate time series and cam e to conclusion that anthropogenic CO2 impact is not main contributor in climate change as declared by IPCC.Daniel Joseph Pounder, BS (Meteorology, University of Oklahoma), MS (Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign); Meteorological/Oceanographic Data Analyst for the National Data Buoy Center, formerly Meteorologist, WILL AM/FM/TV, Urbana, U.S.A.Brian Pratt, PhD, Professor of Geology (Sedimentology), University of Saskatchewan (see Professor Pratt's article for a summary of his views), Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, CanadaTom Quirk, MSc (Melbourne), D Phil (physics), MA (Oxford), SMP (Harvard), Member of the Scientific Advisory Panel of the Australian climate Science Coalition, Member Board Institute of Public Affairs, Melbourne, Areas of Specialization: Methane, Decadal Oscillations, Isotopes, Victoria, AustraliaVijay Kumar Raina, Ex. Deputy Director General, Geological Survey of India, author of 2010 MoEF Discussion Paper, “Himalayan Glaciers - State-of-Art Review of Glacial Studies, Glacial Retreat and Climate Change”, the first comprehensive study on the region. Mr. Raina’s field activities covered extensive research on the geology and the glaciers of the Himalayas, Andaman Islands that included research on the volcanoes in the Bay of Bengal. He led two Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica that earned him the National Mineral Award and the Antarctica Award. He has authored over 100 scientific papers and three books: ‘Glacier Atlas of India’ dealing with various aspects of glacier studies under taken in the Himalayas; ‘Glaciers, the rivers of ice’ and ‘Images Antarctica, Reminiscences’, Chandigarh, IndiaDenis Rancourt, http://B.Sc., http://M.Sc., Ph.D. (Physics), Former physics professor, University of Ottawa (then funded by NSERC in both physics and environmental science), Climate Specialties: global carbon cycle and environmental nanoparticles science, statistical physics, as well as the politics, sociology and psychology of the climate debate, current research includes radiative effects and phenomena (albedo, greenhouse effect), Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaOleg Raspopov, Doctor of Science and Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Professor - Geophysics, Senior Scientist, St. Petersburg Filial (Branch) of N.V.Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radiowaves Propagetion of RAS (climate specialty: climate in the past, particularly the influence of solar variability), Editor-in-Chief of journal "Geomagnetism and Aeronomy" (published by Russian Academy of Sciences), St. Petersburg, RussiaS. Jeevananda Reddy, http://M.Sc. (Geophysics), Post Graduate Diploma (Applied Statistics, Andhra University), PhD (Agricultural Meteorology, Australian University, Canberra), Formerly Chief Technical Advisor -- United Nations World Meteorological Organization (WMO) & Expert-Food and Agriculture Organization (UN), Convenor - Forum for a Sustainable Environment, author of 500 scientific articles and several books - here is one: "Climate Change - Myths & Realities", Hyderabad, IndiaGeorge A. Reilly, PhD (Geology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor), areas of specialization: Geological aspects of paleoclimatology, Retired, Winnipeg, Manitoba, CanadaRobert G. Roper, PhD, DSc (University of Adelaide, South Australia), Emeritus Professor of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.Nicola Scafetta, PhD (Physics, 2001, University of North Texas), Laurea (Dottore in Physics, 1997, Universita’ di Pisa, Italy), Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Experiment (ACRIM), Climate Specialties: solar and astronomical causes of climate change, see intresting paper by Scafetta on this), Research Scientist - Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A.Rob Scagel, MSc (forest microclimate specialist), Principal Consultant - Pacific Phytometric Consultants, Surrey, British Columbia, CanadaTom V. Segalstad, PhD (Geology/Geochemistry), secondary Web page here, Head of the Geological Museum, Natural History Museum and Associate Professor of Resource and Environmental Geology, University of Oslo, NorwayGary Sharp, PhD, Center for Climate/Ocean Resources Study, Salinas, California, U.S.A.Thomas P. Sheahen, PhD (Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), specialist in renewable energy, research and publication (applied optics) in modeling and measurement of absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric CO2, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2005-2008); Argonne National Laboratory (1988-1992); Bell Telephone labs (1966-73), National Bureau of Standards (1975-83), Oakland, Maryland, U.S.A.S. Fred Singer, PhD, Professor Emeritus (Environmental Sciences), University of Virginia, former director, U.S. Weather Satellite Service, Science and Environmental Policy Project, Charlottesville, Virginia, U.S.A.Jan-Erik Solheim, MSc (Astrophysics), Professor, Institute of Physics, University of Tromso, Norway (1971-2002), Professor (emeritus), Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, Norway (1965-1970, 2002- present), climate specialties: sun and periodic climate variations, scientific paper by Professor Solheim "Solen varsler et kaldere tiår", Baerum, NorwayRoy W. Spencer, PhD, climatologist, Principal Research Scientist, Earth System Science Center, The University of Alabama, Huntsville, Alabama, U.S.A.H. Leighton Steward, Master of Science (Geology), Areas of Specialization: paleoclimates and empirical evidence that indicates CO2 is not a significant driver of climate change, Chairman, PlantsNeedCO2.org and CO2IsGreen.org, Chairman of the Institute for the Study of Earth and Man (geology, archeology & anthropology) at SMU in Dallas, Texas, Boerne, TX, U.S.A.Peter Stilbs, TeknD, Professor of Physical Chemistry, Research Leader, School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), member of American Chemical Society and life member of American Physical Society, Chair of "Global Warming - Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability", International seminar meeting at KTH, 2006, Stockholm, SwedenEdward (Ted) R. Swart, http://D.Sc. (physical chemistry, University of Pretoria), http://B.Sc. (chem eng.) and Ph.D. (math/computer science, University of Witwatersrand). Dean of the Faculty of Science, Professor and Head of the Department of Computer Science, University of Rhodesia and past President of the Rhodesia Scientific Association. Set up the first radiocarbon dating laboratory in Africa with funds from the Gulbenkian Foundation. Professor in the Department of Combinatorics and Optimization at the University of Waterloo and Chair of Computing and Information Science and Acting Dean at the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Now retired in Kelowna, British Columbia, CanadaRoger Tanner, PhD (Analytical Chemistry, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana), 40-yr career in atmospheric chemistry and air quality measurement science at Tennessee Valley Authority, Desert Research Institute, Reno, and Brookhaven National Lab, Climate Specialties: atmospheric chemistry and air quality measurement science, Florence, Alabama, U.S.A.George H. Taylor, B.A. (Mathematics, U.C. Santa Barbara), M.S. (Meteorology, University of Utah), Certified Consulting Meteorologist, Applied Climate Services, LLC, Former State Climatologist (Oregon), President, American Association of State Climatologists (1998-2000), Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.Frank Tipler, PhD, Professor of Mathematical Physics, astrophysics, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.Edward M. Tomlinson, MS (Meteorology), Ph.D. (Meteorology, University of Utah), President, Applied Weather Associates, LLC (leader in extreme rainfall storm analyses), 21 years US Air Force in meteorology (Air Weather Service), Monument, Colorado, U.S.A.Ralf D. Tscheuschner, Dr.rer.nat. (Theoretical physics: Quantum Theory), Freelance Lecturer and Researcher in Physics and Applied Informatics, Hamburg, Germany. Co-author of “Falsification of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of Physics, Int.J.Mod.Phys. 2009Göran Tullberg, Civilingenjör i Kemi (equivalent to Masters of Chemical Engineering), Co-author - The Climate, Science and Politics (2009) (see here for a review), formerly instructor of Organic Chemistry (specialization in “Climate chemistry”), Environmental Control and Environmental Protection Engineering at University in Växjö; Falsterbo, SwedenBrian Gregory Valentine, PhD, Adjunct professor of engineering (aero and fluid dynamics specialization) at the University of Maryland, Technical manager at US Department of Energy, for large-scale modeling of atmospheric pollution, Technical referee for the US Department of Energy's Office of Science programs in climate and atmospheric modeling conducted at American Universities and National Labs, Washington, DC, U.S.A.Gerrit J. van der Lingen, PhD (Utrecht University), geologist and paleoclimatologist, climate change consultant, Geoscience Research and Investigations, Christchurch, New ZealandA.J. (Tom) van Loon, PhD, Professor of Geology (Quaternary Geologyspecialism: Glacial Geology), Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland; former President of the European Association of Science EditorsMichael G. Vershovsky, Ph.D. in meteorology (macrometeorology, long-term forecasts, climatology), Senior Researcher, Russian State Hydrometeorological University, works with, as he writes, “Atmospheric Centers of Action (cyclons and anticyclones, such as Icelandic depression, the South Pacific subtropical anticyclone, etc.). Changes in key parameters of these centers strongly indicate that the global temperature is influenced by these natural factors (not exclusively but nevertheless)”, St. Petersburg, RussiaGösta Walin, Professor, i oceanografi, Earth Science Center, Göteborg University, Göteborg, SwedenHelen Warn, PhD (Meteorology, specialized in atmospheric fluid dynamics at McGill University), Vancouver, BC, CanadaAnthony Watts, ItWorks/IntelliWeather, Founder, surfacestations.org, Watts Up With That, Chico, California, U.S.A.Charles L. Wax, PhD (physical geography: climatology, LSU), State Climatologist – Mississippi, past President of the American Association of State Climatologists, Professor, Department of Geosciences, Mississippi State University, U.S.A.Forese-Carlo Wezel, PhD, Emeritus Professor of Stratigraphy (global and Mediterranean geology, mass biotic extinctions and paleoclimatology), University of Urbino, Urbino, ItalyBoris Winterhalter, PhD, senior marine researcher (retired), Geological Survey of Finland, former professor in marine geology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandDavid E. Wojick, PhD, PE, energy and environmental consultant, Technical Advisory Board member - Climate Science Coalition of America, Star Tannery, Virginia, U.S.A.Dr. Bob Zybach, PhD (Oregon State University (OSU), Environmental Sciences Program, EPA-sponsored peer-reviewed research on carbon sequestration in coniferous forests -- mostly in relation to climate history and quality of climate predictive models), MAIS (OSU, Forest Ecology, Cultural Anthropology, Historical Archaeology), BS (OSU College of Forestry), President, NW Maps Co., Program Manager, Oregon Websites and Watersheds Project, Inc., Cottage Grove, Oregon, U.S.A.American Association of State Climatologists” http://www.climatescienceinterna...American Geological InstituteAmerican Institute of Professional GeologistsGeological Sciences of the Polish Academy of SciencesJapan Society of Energy and Resources (1791 Members)Russian Academy of Scienceshttp://www.populartechnology.net...THE SCIENCE IS FAR FROM SETTLED -What historians will definitely wonder about in futurecenturies is how deeply flawed logic, obscured by shrewdand unrelenting propaganda, actually enabled a coalition ofpowerful special interests to convince nearly everyone inthe world that carbon dioxide from human industry was adangerous, planet-destroying toxin.It wlll be remembered as the greatest mass delusion in thehistory of the world - that carbon dioxide, the life of plants,was considered for a time to be a deadly poison.(Ed Ring,)No science consensus that global warming caused by humans .And according to a study of 1,868 scientists working in climate-related fields, conducted just this year by the PBL Netherlands Environment Assessment Agency, three in ten respondents said that less than half of global warming since 1951 could be attributed to human activity, or that they did not know. Given the politics of modern academia and the scientific community, it’s not unlikely that most scientists involved in climate-related studies believe in anthropogenic global warming, and likely believe, too, that it presents a problem. However, there is no consensus approaching 97 percent. A vigorous, vocal minority exists. The science is far from settled. –Ian Tuttle is a William F. Buckley Jr. Fellow in Political Journalism at the National Review Institute.Read more at: http://www.nationalreview.com/article/425232/climate-change-no-its-not-97-percent-consensus-ian-tuttle