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All right. I’ve seen enough answers here that start off with ‘Lulu is not a scam’. And frankly, I’m tired of reading those answers. First, let’s define what is and what is NOT a scam. Does Lulu cheat you out of your money? No. Are they a sensible place to go when self-publishing a book?Absolutely not. Only a fool goes through Lulu to publish a book, unless you plan on ordering some copies for personal or family use, because you will never have any real success there. Now if your only interest in publishing is to create a book or two that you plan to push off on family, friends, or a few suckers at really inflated prices…then sure…go ahead and use them. Otherwise, avoid them like the plague.How do I know this? What gives me the right to tell you these things? Because AB of Seattle started out going through Lulu, but after the first year or two we realized how wrong we were to even register an account with them. Do NOT listen to the people here at Quora who try to tell you they have had success with Lulu, and if YOU do what THEY do…you will have success, too.Baloney, pure and simple. Here are some good reasons you should not go through Lulu to publish any book, especially if you plan to publish THREE or more books in your lifetime:Because of Lulu’s pricing model, you will never be able to release a book at anywhere near the trade rate. The ‘trade rate’ is defined as 50–55% off the cover price of a book, especially in paperback. And the cover price must be in line with other books of a similar nature, size, and type. You cannot do this with Lulu because their setup costs are far too high. Why is it traditional to release a book at the trade rate? Because when you do, your book gets picked up and listed by wholesale vendors worldwide. If not, it doesn’t get picked up and listed. One example of ‘wholesale vendors’ are the folks at Amazon where you see this entry for a book: ‘Also available from THESE sellers’. Those are vendors who listed your book at Amazon because there is a profit margin on that book. They can make money on it, so they list it for sale. Releasing at the ‘trade rate’ has been traditional between publishers, wholesalers, and booksellers since maybe the 1920s, but Lulu will never tell you that.Lulu has no real distribution. This goes back to Item 1 above. Because their pricing for each printed copy is SO high, if you publish a book through them, you have to set the cover price much higher than would normally appear on a book of the same size and type. So, again…no vendor anywhere in the world will list YOUR book unless they try to set that cover price even HIGHER than Lulu does. You will get few, if any, sales. The one thing people forget about the book selling business is that it is like any other business. If there is no profit margin available, you cannot make any money. You can settle for the occasional sale at a high price, maybe at Amazon or Barnes. Or you can try to hawk your wares at your own website. But no vendors will help you, because there is no money in it for them. Even Ingram, the biggest distributor of books on Planet Earth won’t help you because again…there is no profit margin. Sure, you can PAY Lulu to have your book cataloged and listed in the Ingram database, but no one will actually list the book outside of there because…again…there is no profit margin.Lulu’s support for authors and publishers (compared to going through another outlet which I will name below) is crap. They aren’t in the book publishing and distribution business. They are in the book printing and selling business. And that selling is mostly directed at YOU, not the general reading public. There is a difference.So now that I have bad-mouthed Lulu enough for you, who SHOULD you go through for printing and distribution? Who can offer up your print versions worldwide at Amazon, Ingram, all wholesale vendors, etc. at the trade rate?Lightning Source, that’s who. Skip Lulu and go where the pros go. Lightning Source is the PRINTER for Ingram. And Ingram is the single biggest distributor of print books on Earth. They do the big ‘Books in Print’ tome each year. They have printing and distribution centers in North America, (La Vergne, Tennessee) the U.K., Asia, South America, Australia, and a few other locations. They assign you a personal representative for your books, another for your money, and another for anything else. Let me do a quick list on why Lightning Source is the place where small-to-medium publishers go, as well as university presses:Their pricing model enables you to release your book at the trade rate and still make a profit on each sale. That’s right. You can do a 200-page paperback in six-by-nine format with them and set the retail cover price at say…$9.99 a copy. YOU can obtain copies at around $3.50 a copy from Lightning Source directly, and release your book at a mere five bucks, which would be 50% off the cover…and vendors will immediately list your book the moment it is released. THEY will compete with each other by setting THEIR price somewhere between the trade rate and the cover price. You will get sales because these vendors will be your middlemen. You will make about $1.50 on each sale and you don’t even have to lift a finger.It doesn’t matter what vendors sell your book for, because YOU get the same amount per copy sold, no matter what that book sells for elsewhere. You are second in the food chain. Orders come in to Lightning Source. The buyer pays shipping. For every sale, Lightning Source pays you the difference between their print cost, and where you set the wholesale trade rate on the book. If you get an occasional return back to Lightning Source, this does not cost you money. Lightning Source simply destroys the book and it is counted as a non-sale.If you are a small press and want to approach independent book stores with your wares, you can DO that. Why? Because you can guarantee them a profit. All you have to do is tell them your books are available to them at the trade rate through Ingram. Any bookstore worth its salt is hooked into the Ingram database. That’s where they obtain the majority of their books that they bring into the store and stick on the shelves. They don’t do it through Lulu, who they consider an overpriced joke.To give you some background on how I know all these things, well…when we first started in 2003 or so, we went through Lulu. By 2006, I personally deleted every text and cover file we had going through Lulu, and then closed our account there. We then signed up with Lightning Source instead.Have no illusions. Going through Lightning Source does NOT guarantee you will do best-seller on your books. But it WILL enable you to compete on a level playing field with the Big Boys. You…like THEM…will be able to release your books at the trade rate…which is the same thing THEY do. The only difference between THEM and YOU is that THEY have better marketing and advertising, and have a budget for that. Book selling is also about advertising, and you should budget at least a little bit for that.What is required to use Lightning Source? First, you have to be a company even if it is just one person with a business license named ‘Joe Smith Books’. You will need at least THREE unassigned ISBN numbers from Bowkers. (If you are serious, you should purchase a group of ten ISBN’s at a time, because it’s WAY cheaper than one or three at a time.) You will need a bank account where Lightning Source has the ability to deposit your money. (Recently, they have started allowing publishers to have their deposits sent to PayPal as well.) You will need a responsible Social Security Number (meh) or a Federal Tax ID number (much better) so they can send you your Form 1099 (‘Misc Income’) each year for your tax return.Okay, so you’ve read all this and tell me: “All right, Robert. I’m convinced. Lulu is a loser. So how do I proceed from here? How should I actually publish and release my books, if I go through Lightning Source for the paper versions?”No problem, Mr Author or Small Press:First, plan on releasing every book NOT at Lightning Source first, but for the Amazon Kindle instead. It’s FREE to sign up for a publishing account at Amazon for the Kindle. And Kindle sales are rapidly catching up, and sometimes exceeding paper versions these days. Do NOT assign an ISBN initially to your Kindle releases. Use Amazon’s in-house number and SAVE your ISBN’s for the paper versions.When you upload your first book for the Kindle, check the box that makes Amazon your exclusive distributor for eBooks. The reason is: Amazon will grant you certain perks, VALUABLE perks, if you enable them exclusivity. Don’t list your eBook with Barnes or anybody else directly. These perks include an ability (four times a year) to offer Free Book Giveaways and Kindle Countdown Deals that buyers at Amazon will jump on gladly. And do NOT try checking the Kindle exclusivity box at Amazon…and then uploading to Barnes or anyone else later. Amazon will find out, and you will lose your perks.If your Kindle version seems to be doing okay, then consider uploading that book in a paperback version through Lightning Source. This will cost you a total of $75.00 per book, plus twelve dollars a year to keep that book available for printing and distribution worldwide. ($37.50 for the cover file, same for the text file.) If you upload and your files don’t work, instead of letting that book become reality, your Lightning Source rep will email you and tell you where you need to fix something, and what exactly is wrong. They won’t just take your money and put out crap on you. Seventy-five dollars might sound like a lot, but it isn’t. You are also paying to have that book listed at the wholesale trade rate worldwide, and every vendor will list it for sale, often for LESS than the cover price printed on the book. You make the same amount per sale no matter what they ask on the book. Your book will be available locally worldwide, through Lightning Source’s print and distribution centers, so most buyers won’t even have to pay excessive shipping. For example, if someone in Australia likes your book, or over in the UK, that book will cost them the same as they could buy it in the USA. Because it will be printed and shipped out from the closest Lightning Source print and distribution center.If you want to do a little initial marketing, you can pay the $30.00 or so to have your new release listed in the Ingram New Release Catalog that goes out to virtually all bookstores and wholesalers who are hooked into the Ingram database. I won’t recommend whether it is worth it or not. But you will reach at least ten thousand wholesalers and bookstores who read the Catalog. It will list your book, the wholesale rate on it, a short description, and I think a picture of the cover. (I haven’t used the Catalog in a while, so you should check on this yourself if you reach that point with Lightning Source.)By doing all these things, then you are on the same level plane as every other publisher in America. You are releasing at the trade rate. You now have worldwide distribution, and will be picked up by the vendors. The marketing is up to you, just like the Big Boys. On a happy side note, if you need personal copies, they will be far cheaper than going through Lulu.Don’t forget that if you live in the United States, the ONLY legitimate source for ISBN’s is Bowkers. There is no one else. Anyone else is a scam.Lulu IS a vanity press. They just don’t seem like it at first glance. Stay away from them, unless your plan is to release only one or two books at a ridiculously high price without any outside wholesale support, or distribution. If you are satisfied with just that…then USE them.There is a reason why many small/medium presses and university presses use Lightning Source. Those reasons are listed above. If you are using Lulu right now…boy…are YOU going to be pissed when you see what Lightning Source charges per copy for the same size book. My Lightning Source rep told me once that some orders for print done through Lulu actually end up at Lightning Source, and are shipped back to Lulu…to be sent on to the Lulu customer. That’s how bad Lulu’s pricing model is, and we had a laugh about that.BELOW: LSI’s (Lightning Source) print floor in La Vergne, Tennessee. One of many worldwide.

Not a simple question. Why? Because it depends on *WHAT* type of tax return I’m preparing. So let’s start with an individual return.Filing Status This determines right from the start how complex or simple the return is going to be.Dependents. This increases the complexity of the return and time to prepare the return.EITC (Earned Income Tax Credit) CTC/ACTC (Child Tax Credit/Additional Child Tax Credit), Educational Credits (Lifetime Learning or HOPE Credit), Childcare Credit. All of these add on MULTIPLE additional forms with an ever increasingly long list of questions that must be, and I quote the IRS, ‘Fully and completely answered and documented’ I’ve seen upwards of 8 to 10 questions for the EITC PER DEPENDENT. And if each child has a different parents? Oh lordy…Number of W-2’s1099-Misc? Oh boy, now we’re adding on even more forms, lots more questions and documentation required beyond the standard documentation1099-G? Is it unemployment, lottery winnings, etcYou have Social Security? You have a pension or retirement plan? Yep, let’s keep adding additional forms on to the mix.You have any interest on a Checking or Savings Account? Yep, that’s a 1099 INT and that’s additional forms.You have stocks, bonds and/or dividends? Yep more 1099’s and more forms to add to the pile.Health Insurance? Did you have it? If yes, did you have it all year? Was it through Welfare? Employer? Marketplace? If the marketplace do you have that form they sent you?I hope you are starting to get the point here. The *simplicity* or *complexity* of what is involved in a return is what determines how quickly or long it takes to do that return.Let’s say your status is single, no dependents, insurance from your employer, two w-2’s, I can *generally* if your writing is legible *cackles* 10 to 15 minutes. Why? I have to enter *ALL* your information into the program, from full name, DOB, SS#, address, w-2’s, entered twice for verification check purposes. State or Federal ID, Routing and Account # if you are getting a refund or the card # if your getting a prepaid card. Then I have to review the breakdown, compare it to last years if your a return client. I have to sign all the forms electronically, you have to sign all the forms electronically, and then I have to print out the paper copy of the return for your records and our copy of the key pages. Then it’s sent off electronically after a co-worker does a double check on all the information that I plugged into the system.That’s if I’m on the top of my game, you have everything ready, and there are zero issues.Now I’ve had folks it took an hour plus, self employed, Schedule C, EITC, CTC, and a pile of paperwork for receipts. Plus creating a spreadsheet and so on. Oh yeah, they’re case it’s a Federal, State and Local as they have a local business license and the city charges them as well. Depending on *IF* the city has updated their tax system, I *may* or *may not* be able to do the city taxes then or check every few days until they’re open for that part. Not a *simple* return.One person *growls* DAYS of work. Why days? Two *SHOE BOXES* of receipts during peak. So I’m pulling them out, paperclipping them as I’m done and doing it as a speadsheet *when it’s slow* as they came in during peak. They also got hit with an extra fee for that ten tons of extra work.Now do you understand *WHY* the time it takes varies?

Publication 535 (2018), Business ExpensesFor use in preparing 2018 ReturnsPublication 535 - Introductory MaterialIntroductionThis publication discusses common business expenses and explains what is and is not deductible. The general rules for deducting business expenses are discussed in the opening chapter. The chapters that follow cover specific expenses and list other publications and forms you may need.Note. Section references within this publication are to the Internal Revenue Code and regulation references are to the Income Tax Regulations under the Code.Comments and suggestions.We welcome your comments about this publication and your suggestions for future editions.You can send us comments from IRS.gov/FormComments. Or you can write to:Internal Revenue ServiceTax Forms and Publications1111 Constitution Ave. NW, IR-6526Washington, DC 20224Although we cannot respond individually to each comment received, we do appreciate your feedback and will consider your comments as we revise our tax forms, instructions, and publications.Ordering forms and publications.Visit IRS.gov/FormsPubs to download forms and publications. Otherwise, you can go to IRS.gov/OrderForms to order current and prior-year forms and instructions. Your order should arrive within 10 business days.Tax questions.If you have a tax question not answered by this publication, check An official website of the United States government and How To Get Tax Help at the end of this publication.Future DevelopmentsFor the latest information about developments related to Pub. 535, such as legislation enacted after it was published, go toIRS.gov/Pub535.What's New for 2018The following items highlight some changes in the tax law for 2018.Form 1040 redesigned. Form 1040 has been redesigned for 2018. See Form 1040 and its instructions for more information.Forms 1040A and 1040EZ no longer available. Forms 1040A and 1040EZ aren't available to file your 2018 taxes. If you used one of these forms in the past, you will now file Form 1040.Credit expiration. At the time this publication was printed, certain credits expired at the end of 2017. To find out if legislation was enacted to extend these credits and make them available for 2018, go to IRS.gov/FormsUpdates.Small business taxpayers. For tax years beginning after 2017, more small business taxpayers may qualify to use the cash method of accounting and be exempt from capitalizing certain expenses under section 263A. In addition, small business taxpayers may not be required to account for inventories under section 471 and are not subject to the business interest expenses limitation. See the discussion in chapter 1.Compensation in excess of $1 million. P.L. 115-97, Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, made significant changes to section 162(m) which disallows the deduction of excessive employee compensation by any publicly held corporation. For more information, see chapter 2.Employee achievement awards. P.L. 115-97 defines items that aren't tangible personal property for purposes of employee achievement awards. Tangible personal property doesn't include cash, gift cards, and other nontangible personal property. For more information, see chapter 2.Certain expense deductions are now limited. Certain expense deductions are now limited. P.L. 115-97 limits the deduction by employers of expenses for certain fringe benefits and entertainment expenses. For more information, see chapter 2.Uniform capitalization rules. P.L. 115-97, Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, made changes to uniform capitalization rules for small business taxpayers. For more information, see chapter 3.Alternative minimum tax (AMT). For tax years beginning after 2017, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, section 12001, repealed the corporate AMT. For more information, see chapter 7.Standard mileage rate. Beginning in 2018, the standard mileage rate for the cost of operating your car, van, pickup, or panel truck for each mile of business use is 54.5 cents per mile. For more information, see chapter 11.No miscellaneous itemized deductions allowed. You can no longer claim any miscellaneous itemized deductions, including the deduction for repayments (claim of right). Miscellaneous itemized deductions are those deductions that would have been subject to the 2%-of-adjusted-gross-income limitation. For more information, see chapter 11.Certain payments made in sexual harassment or sexual abuse cases. For amounts paid or incurred after December 22, 2017, new section 162(q) provides that no deduction is allowed under section 162 for any settlement or payment related to sexual harassment or sexual abuse if it is subject to a nondisclosure agreement. In addition, attorney’s fees related to such a settlement or payment are not allowed as a deduction. For more information, see chapter 11.Qualified Business Income Deduction. We added a new chapter 12 discussing qualified business income deduction under section 199A. For tax years beginning after 2017, individual taxpayers and some trusts and estates may be entitled to a deduction of up to 20% of their Qualified Business Income (QBI) from a trade or business, including income from a pass-through entity, but not from a C corporation, plus 20% of qualified real estate investment trust (REIT) dividends and qualified publicly traded partnership (PTP) income. The deduction is subject to multiple limitations, such as the type of trade or business, the taxpayer’s taxable income, the amount of W-2 wages paid in the trade or business, and the unadjusted basis immediately after acquisition (UBIA) of qualified property held by the trade or business. The deduction can be taken in addition to the standard or itemized deductions. For more information, see chapter 12.What's New for 2019The following item highlights a change in the tax law for 2019.Standard mileage rate. Beginning in 2019, the standard mileage rate for the cost of operating your car, van, pickup, or panel truck for each mile of business use is 58 cents per mile.RemindersThe following reminders and other items may help you file your tax return.IRS e-file (Electronic Filing)You can file your tax returns electronically using an IRS e-file option. The benefits of IRS e-file include faster refunds, increased accuracy, and acknowledgment of IRS receipt of your return. You can use one of the following IRS e-file options.Use an authorized IRS e-file provider.Use a personal computer.Visit a Volunteer Income Tax Assistance (VITA) or Tax Counseling for the Elderly (TCE) site.For details on these fast filing methods, see your income tax package.Form 1099-MISC. File Form 1099-MISC, Miscellaneous Income, for each person to whom you have paid during the year in the course of your trade or business at least $600 in rents, services (including parts and materials), prizes and awards, other income payments, medical and health care payments, and crop insurance proceeds. See the Instructions for Form 1099-MISC for more information and additional reporting requirements.Photographs of missing children. The Internal Revenue Service is a proud partner with the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children® (NCMEC). Photographs of missing children selected by the Center may appear in this publication on pages that would otherwise be blank. You can help bring these children home by looking at the photographs and calling 800-THE-LOST (800-843-5678) (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) if you recognize a child.Preventing slavery and human trafficking. Human trafficking is a form of modern-day slavery, and involves the use of force, fraud, or coercion to exploit human beings for some type of labor or commercial sex purpose. The United States is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children, both U.S. citizens and foreign nationals, who are subjected to the injustices of slavery and human trafficking, including forced labor, debt bondage, involuntary servitude, "mail-order" marriages, and sex trafficking. Trafficking in persons can occur in both lawful and illicit industries or markets, including in hotel services, hospitality, agriculture, manufacturing, janitorial services, construction, health and elder care, domestic service, brothels, massage parlors, and street prostitution, among others. The President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (PITF) brings together federal departments and agencies to ensure a whole-of-government approach that addresses all aspects of human trafficking. Online resources for recognizing and reporting trafficking activities, and assisting victims include the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Blue Campaign at DHS.gov/blue-campaign, the Department of State Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons at State.gov/j/tip, and the National Human Trafficking Resource Center (NHTRC) at humantraffickinghotline.org. DHS is responsible for investigating human trafficking, arresting traffickers, and protecting victims. DHS also provides immigration relief to non-U.S. citizen victims of human trafficking. DHS uses a victim-centered approach to combating human trafficking, which places equal value on identifying and stabilizing victims and on investigating and prosecuting traffickers. Victims are crucial to investigations and prosecutions; each case and every conviction changes lives. DHS understands how difficult it can be for victims to come forward and work with law enforcement due to their trauma. DHS is committed to helping victims feel stable, safe, and secure. To report suspected human trafficking, call the DHS domestic 24-hour toll-free number at 866-DHS-2-ICE (866-347-2423) or 802-872-6199 (non-toll-free international). For help from the NHTRC, call the National Human Trafficking Hotline toll free at 888-373-7888 or text HELP or INFO to BeFree (233733).The Department of Treasury’s Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) has issued a public advisory to financial institutions that contains red flag indicators for potential suspicious financial activity associated with human trafficking. If warranted, financial institutions should file a Suspicious Activity Report (FinCEN 112) with FinCEN to report these activities. For more information, go to Fincen.gov/Sites/default/files/advisory/FIN-2014-A008.pdf1. Deducting Business ExpensesWhat’s NewForm 1040 redesigned. Form 1040 has been redesigned for 2018. See Form 1040 and its instructions for more information.Forms 1040A and 1040EZ no longer available. Forms 1040A and 1040EZ aren't available to file your 2018 taxes. If you used one of these forms in the past, you will now file Form 1040.Deduction for qualified business income. For tax years beginning after 2017, you may be entitled to take a deduction of up to 20% of your qualified business income from your qualified trade or business, plus 20% of the aggregate amount of qualified real estate investment trust (REIT), and qualified publicly traded partnership income.Small business taxpayers. For tax years beginning after 2017, more small business taxpayers may qualify to use the cash method of accounting and be exempt from capitalizing certain expenses under section 263A. In addition, small business taxpayers may not be required to account for inventories under section 471 and are not subject to the business interest expenses limitation.IntroductionThis chapter covers the general rules for deducting business expenses. Business expenses are the costs of carrying on a trade or business, and they are usually deductible if the business is operated to make a profit.Topics - This chapter discusses:What you can deductHow much you can deductWhen you can deductNot-for-profit activitiesUseful Items - You may want to see:Publication334 Tax Guide for Small Business463 Travel, Gift, and Car Expenses525 Taxable and Nontaxable Income529 Miscellaneous Deductions536 Net Operating Losses (NOLs) for Individuals, Estates, and Trusts538 Accounting Periods and Methods542 Corporations547 Casualties, Disasters, and Thefts583 Starting a Business and Keeping Records587 Business Use of Your Home925 Passive Activity and At-Risk Rules936 Home Mortgage InterestDeduction946 How To Depreciate PropertyForm (and Instructions)Schedule A (Form 1040) Itemized Deductions5213 Election To PostponeDetermination as To Whether the Presumption Applies That anActivity Is Engaged in for ProfitSee chapter 13 for information about getting publications and forms.What Can I Deduct?To be deductible, a business expense must be both ordinary and necessary. An ordinary expense is one that is common and accepted in your industry. A necessary expense is one that is helpful and appropriate for your trade or business. An expense does not have to be indispensable to be considered necessary.Even though an expense may be ordinary and necessary, you may not be allowed to deduct the expense in the year you paid or incurred it. In some cases, you may not be allowed to deduct the expense at all. Therefore, it is important to distinguish usual business expenses from expenses that include the following.The expenses used to figure cost of goods sold.Capital expenses.Personal expenses.Cost of Goods SoldIf your business manufactures products or purchases them for resale, you generally must value inventory at the beginning and end of each tax year to determine your cost of goods sold. Some of your business expenses may be included in figuring cost of goods sold. Cost of goods sold is deducted from your gross receipts to figure your gross profit for the year. If you include an expense in the cost of goods sold, you cannot deduct it again as a business expense.The following are types of expenses that go into figuring cost of goods sold.The cost of products or raw materials, including freight.Storage.Direct labor (including contributions to pension or annuity plans) for workers who produce the products.Factory overhead.Under the uniform capitalization rules, you must capitalize the direct costs and part of the indirect costs for certain production or resale activities. Indirect costs include rent, interest, taxes, storage, purchasing, processing, repackaging, handling, and administrative costs.This rule does not apply to small business taxpayers. You qualify as a small business taxpayer if you (a) have average annual gross receipts of $25 million or less for the 3 prior tax years, and (b) are not a tax shelter (as defined in section 448(d)(3)). If your business has not been in existence for all of the 3-tax-year period used in figuring average gross receipts, base your average on the period it has existed, and if your business has a predecessor entity, include the gross receipts of the predecessor entity from the 3-tax-year period when figuring average gross receipts. If your business (or predecessor entity) had short taxable years for any of the 3-tax-year period, annualize your business’ gross receipts for the short tax years that are part of the 3-tax-year period. See Pub. 538 for more information.For more information, see the following sources.Cost of goods sold—chapter 6 of Pub. 334.Inventories—Pub. 538.Uniform capitalization rules—Pub. 538 and section 263A and the related regulations.Capital ExpensesYou must capitalize, rather than deduct, some costs. These costs are a part of your investment in your business and are called "capital expenses." Capital expenses are considered assets in your business. In general, you capitalize three types of costs.Business start-up costs (see Tip below).Business assets.Improvements.You can elect to deduct or amortize certain business start-up costs. See chapters 7 and 8.Cost recovery.Although you generally cannot take a current deduction for a capital expense, you may be able to recover the amount you spend through depreciation, amortization, or depletion. These recovery methods allow you to deduct part of your cost each year. In this way, you are able to recover your capital expense. See Amortization (chapter 8) and Depletion (chapter 9) in this publication. A taxpayer can elect to deduct a portion of the costs of certain depreciable property as a section 179 deduction. A greater portion of these costs can be deducted if the property is qualified disaster assistance property. See Pub. 946 for details.Going Into BusinessThe costs of getting started in business, before you actually begin business operations, are capital expenses. These costs may include expenses for advertising, travel, or wages for training employees.If you go into business.When you go into business, treat all costs you had to get your business started as capital expenses.Usually, you recover costs for a particular asset through depreciation. Generally, you cannot recover other costs until you sell the business or otherwise go out of business. However, you can choose to amortize certain costs for setting up your business. See Starting a Business in chapter 8 for more information on business start-up costs.If your attempt to go into business is unsuccessful.If you are an individual and your attempt to go into business is not successful, the expenses you had in trying to establish yourself in business fall into two categories.The costs you had before making a decision to acquire or begin a specific business. These costs are personal and nondeductible. They include any costs incurred during a general search for, or preliminary investigation of, a business or investment possibility.The costs you had in your attempt to acquire or begin a specific business. These costs are capital expenses and you can deduct them as a capital loss.If you are a corporation and your attempt to go into a new trade or business is not successful, you may be able to deduct all investigatory costs as a loss.The costs of any assets acquired during your unsuccessful attempt to go into business are a part of your basis in the assets. You cannot take a deduction for these costs. You will recover the costs of these assets when you dispose of them.Business AssetsThere are many different kinds of business assets, for example, land, buildings, machinery, furniture, trucks, patents, and franchise rights. You must fully capitalize the cost of these assets, including freight and installation charges.Certain property you produce for use in your trade or business must be capitalized under the uniform capitalization rules. See Regulations section 1.263A-2 for information on these rules.De Minimis Safe Harbor for Tangible PropertyAlthough you must generally capitalize costs to acquire or produce real or tangible personal property used in your trade or business, such as buildings, equipment, or furniture, you can elect to use a de minimis safe harbor to deduct the costs of some tangible property. Under the de minimis safe harbor for tangible property, you can deduct de minimis amounts paid to acquire or produce certain tangible business property if these amounts are deducted by you for financial accounting purposes or in keeping your books and records. See the following for the requirements for the de minimis safe harbor.You have an applicable financial statement.If you elect the de minimis safe harbor for the tax year, you can deduct amounts paid to acquire or produce certain tangible business property if:You have a trade or business or are a corporation, partnership, or S corporation that has an applicable financial statement;You have, at the beginning of the tax year, written accounting procedures treating as an expense for nontax purposes:– Amounts paid for property costing less than a certain dollar amount, or– Amounts paid for property with an economic useful life of 12 months or less;You treat the amount paid during the tax year for which you make the election as an expense on your applicable financial statements in accordance with your written accounting procedures;The amount paid for the property does not exceed $5,000 per invoice (or per item substantiated by invoice); andThe uniform capitalization rules do not apply to the amount.You do not have an applicable financial statement.If you elect the de minimis safe harbor for the tax year, you can deduct amounts paid to acquire or produce certain tangible business property if:You have a trade or business, partnership, or S corporation that does not have an applicable financial statement;You have, at the beginning of the tax year, accounting procedures treating as an expense for nontax purposes:– Amounts paid for property costing less than a certain dollar amount, or– Amounts paid for property with an economic useful life of 12 months or less;You treat the amounts paid for the property as an expense on your books and records in accordance with your accounting procedures;The amount paid for the property does not exceed $2,500 per invoice (or per item substantiated by invoice); andThe uniform capitalization rules do not apply to the amounts.How to make the de minimis safe harbor election.To elect the de minimis safe harbor for the tax year, attach a statement to the taxpayer’s timely filed original tax return (including extensions) for the tax year when qualifying amounts were paid. The statement must be titled "Section 1.263(a)-1(f) de minimis safe harbor election" and must include your name, address, taxpayer identification number (TIN), and a statement that you are making the de minimis safe harbor election under section 1.263(a)-1(f). In the case of a consolidated group filing a consolidated income tax return, the election is made for each member of the consolidated group.In the case of a consolidated group filing a consolidated income tax return, the election is made for each member of the consolidated group. In the case of an S corporation or a partnership, the election is made by the S corporation or the partnership and not by the shareholders or partners. The election applies only for the tax year for which it is made.Example.In 2018, you do not have an applicable financial statement and you purchase five laptop computers for use in your trade or business. You paid $2,000 each for a total cost of $10,000 and these amounts are substantiated in an invoice. You had an accounting procedure in place at the beginning of 2018 to expense the cost of tangible property if the property costs $2,000 or less. You treat each computer as an expense on your books and records for 2018 in accordance with this policy. If you elect the de minimis safe harbor in your tax returns for your 2018 tax year, you can deduct the cost of each $2,000 computer.ImprovementsGenerally, you must capitalize the costs of making improvements to a business asset if the improvements result in a betterment to the unit of property, restore the unit of property, or adapt the unit of property to a new or different use.Some examples of improvements include rewiring or replumbing of a building, replacing an entire roof, increasing the production output of your equipment, putting an addition on your building, strengthening the foundation of a building so you can use it for a new purpose, or replacing a major component or substantial structural part of a machine.However, you may currently deduct the costs of repairs or maintenance that do not improve a unit of property. This generally includes the costs of routine repairs and maintenance to your property that result from your use of the property and that keep your properly in an ordinary efficient operating condition. For example, deductible repairs include costs such as painting exteriors or interiors of business buildings, repairing broken window panes, replacing worn-out minor parts, sealing cracks and leaks, and changing oil or other fluids to maintain business equipment.Routine maintenance safe harbor.If you determine that your cost was for an improvement to a building or equipment, you can deduct your cost under the routine maintenance safe harbor. Under the routine maintenance safe harbor, you can deduct the costs of an improvement that meets all of the following criteria.It is paid for recurring activities performed on tangible property.It arises from the use of the property in your trade or business.It keeps your property in an ordinarily efficient operating condition.You reasonably expect, at the time the property is placed in service, to perform this activity:For buildings and building systems, more than once during the 10-year period after you place the building in service; orFor other property, more than once during the class life of the particular type of property. For class lives, see Revenue Procedure 88-57, 1987-2 C.B. 674.Costs incurred during an improvement.You must capitalize both the direct and indirect costs of an improvement. Indirect costs include repairs and other expenses that directly benefit or are incurred by reason of your improvement. For example, if you improve the electrical system in your building, you must also capitalize the costs of repairing the holes that you made in walls to install the new wiring. This rule applies even if this work, performed by itself, would otherwise be treated as currently deductible repair costs.Election to capitalize repair and maintenance costs.You can elect to capitalize and depreciate certain amounts paid for repair and maintenance of tangible property, even if they do not improve your property. To qualify for this election, you must treat these amounts as capital expenditures on your books and records used in figuring your income. If you make this election, you must apply it to all repair and maintenance costs of tangible property that you treat as capital expenditures on your books and records for this tax year. To make the election to treat repairs and maintenance as capital expenditures, attach a statement titled "Section 1.263(a)-3(n) Election" to your timely filed original tax return (including extensions) and include your name and address, TIN, and a statement that you elect to capitalize repair and maintenance costs under section 1.263(a)-3(n). You must treat these amounts as improvements to your tangible property and begin to depreciate these amounts when the improvement is placed in service.Capital Versus Deductible ExpensesTo help you distinguish between capital and deductible expenses, different examples are given below.Motor vehicles.You usually capitalize the cost of a motor vehicle you use in your business. You can recover its cost through annual deductions for depreciation.There are dollar limits on the depreciation you can claim each year on passenger automobiles used in your business. See Pub. 463 for more information.Generally, repairs you make to your business vehicle are currently deductible. However, amounts you pay to improve your business vehicle are generally capital expenditures and are recovered through depreciation.Roads and driveways.The cost of building a private road on your business property and the cost of replacing a gravel driveway with a concrete one are capital expenses you may be able to depreciate. The cost of maintaining a private road on your business property is a deductible expense.Tools.Unless the uniform capitalization rules apply, amounts spent for tools used in your business are deductible expenses if the tools have a life expectancy of less than 1 year or they cost $200 or less per item or invoice.Machinery parts.Unless the uniform capitalization rules apply, the cost of replacing short-lived parts of a machine to keep it in good working condition, but not to improve the machine, is a deductible expense.Heating equipment.The cost of changing from one heating system to another is a capital expense.Deduction for qualified business income.For tax years beginning after 2017, you may be entitled to take a deduction of up to 20% of your qualified business income from your qualified trade or business, plus 20% of the aggregate amount of qualified real estate investment trust (REIT), and qualified publicly traded partnership income. The deduction is subject to various limitations, such as limitations based on the type of your trade or business, your taxable income, the amount of W-2 wages paid with respect to the qualified trade or business, and the unadjusted basis of qualified property held by your trade or business. You will claim this deduction on Form 1040, not on Schedule C or C-EZ. Unlike other deductions, this deduction can be taken in addition to the standard or itemized deductions. For more information, see the Instructions for Form 1040 and Pub. 535.Personal Versus Business ExpensesGenerally, you cannot deduct personal, living, or family expenses. However, if you have an expense for something that is used partly for business and partly for personal purposes, divide the total cost between the business and personal parts. You can deduct the business part.For example, if you borrow money and use 70% of it for business and the other 30% for a family vacation, you generally can deduct 70% of the interest as a business expense. The remaining 30% is personal interest and generally is not deductible. See chapter 4 for information on deducting interest and the allocation rules.Business use of your home.If you use part of your home for business, you may be able to deduct expenses for the business use of your home. These expenses may include mortgage interest, insurance, utilities, repairs, and depreciation.To qualify to claim expenses for the business use of your home, you must meet both of the following tests.The business part of your home must be used exclusively and regularly for your trade or business.The business part of your home must be:Your principal place of business; orA place where you meet or deal with patients, clients, or customers in the normal course of your trade or business; orA separate structure (not attached to your home) used in connection with your trade or business.You generally do not have to meet the exclusive use test for the part of your home that you regularly use either for the storage of inventory or product samples, or as a daycare facility.Your home office qualifies as your principal place of business if you meet the following requirements.You use the office exclusively and regularly for administrative or management activities of your trade or business.You have no other fixed location where you conduct substantial administrative or management activities of your trade or business.If you have more than one business location, determine your principal place of business based on the following factors.The relative importance of the activities performed at each location.If the relative importance factor does not determine your principal place of business, consider the time spent at each location.Optional safe harbor method.Individual taxpayers can use the optional safe harbor method to determine the amount of deductible expenses attributable to certain business use of a residence during the tax year. This method is an alternative to the calculation, allocation, and substantiation of actual expenses.The deduction under the optional method is limited to $1,500 per year based on $5 per square foot for up to 300 square feet. Under this method, you claim your allowable mortgage interest, real estate taxes, and casualty losses on the home as itemized deductions on Schedule A (Form 1040). You are not required to allocate these deductions between personal and business use, as is required under the regular method. If you use the optional method, you cannot depreciate the portion of your home used in a trade or business.Business expenses unrelated to the home, such as advertising, supplies, and wages paid to employees, are still fully deductible. All of the requirements discussed earlier under Business use of your home still apply.For more information on the deduction for business use of your home, including the optional safe harbor method, see Pub. 587.If you were entitled to deduct depreciation on the part of your home used for business, you cannot exclude the part of the gain from the sale of your home that equals any depreciation you deducted (or could have deducted) for periods after May 6, 1997.Business use of your car.If you use your car exclusively in your business, you can deduct car expenses. If you use your car for both business and personal purposes, you must divide your expenses based on actual mileage. Generally, commuting expenses between your home and your business location, within the area of your tax home, are not deductible.You can deduct actual car expenses, which include depreciation (or lease payments), gas and oil, tires, repairs, tune-ups, insurance, and registration fees. Or, instead of figuring the business part of these actual expenses, you may be able to use the standard mileage rate to figure your deduction. For 2018, the standard mileage rate is 54.5 cents per mile. Beginning in 2019, the standard mileage rate increases to 58 cents per mile.If you are self-employed, you can also deduct the business part of interest on your car loan, state and local personal property tax on the car, parking fees, and tolls, whether or not you claim the standard mileage rate.For more information on car expenses and the rules for using the standard mileage rate, see Pub. 463.How Much Can I Deduct?Generally, you can deduct the full amount of a business expense if it meets the criteria of ordinary and necessary and it is not a capital expense.Recovery of amount deducted (tax benefit rule).If you recover part of an expense in the same tax year in which you would have claimed a deduction, reduce your current year expense by the amount of the recovery. If you have a recovery in a later year, include the recovered amount in income in that year. However, if part of the deduction for the expense did not reduce your tax, you do not have to include that part of the recovered amount in income.For more information on recoveries and the tax benefit rule, see Pub. 525.Payments in kind.If you provide services to pay a business expense, the amount you can deduct is limited to your out-of-pocket costs. You cannot deduct the cost of your own labor.Similarly, if you pay a business expense in goods or other property, you can deduct only what the property costs you. If these costs are included in the cost of goods sold, do not deduct them again as a business expense.Limits on losses.If your deductions for an investment or business activity are more than the income it brings in, you have a loss. There may be limits on how much of the loss you can deduct.Not-for-profit limits.If you carry on your business activity without the intention of making a profit, you cannot use a loss from it to offset other income. For more information, see Not-for-Profit Activities , later.At-risk limits.Generally, a deductible loss from a trade or business or other income-producing activity is limited to the investment you have "at risk" in the activity. You are at risk in any activity for the following.The money and adjusted basis of property you contribute to the activity.Amounts you borrow for use in the activity if:You are personally liable for repayment, orYou pledge property (other than property used in the activity) as security for the loan.For more information, see Pub. 925.Passive activities.Generally, you are in a passive activity if you have a trade or business activity in which you do not materially participate, or a rental activity. In general, deductions for losses from passive activities only offset income from passive activities. You cannot use any excess deductions to offset other income. In addition, passive activity credits can only offset the tax on net passive income. Any excess loss or credits are carried over to later years. Suspended passive losses are fully deductible in the year you completely dispose of the activity. For more information, see Pub. 925.Net operating loss (NOL).If your deductions are more than your income for the year, you may have an NOL. You can use an NOL to lower your taxes in other years. See Pub. 536 for more information.See Pub. 542 for information about NOLs of corporations.When Can I Deduct an Expense?When you can deduct an expense depends on your accounting method. An accounting method is a set of rules used to determine when and how income and expenses are reported. The two basic methods are the cash method and the accrual method. Whichever method you choose must clearly reflect income.For more information on accounting methods, see Pub. 538.Cash method.Under the cash method of accounting, you generally deduct business expenses in the tax year you pay them.Accrual method.Under an accrual method of accounting, you generally deduct business expenses when both of the following apply.The all-events test has been met. The test is met when:All events have occurred that fix the fact of liability, andThe liability can be determined with reasonable accuracy.Economic performance has occurred.Economic performance.You generally cannot deduct or capitalize a business expense until economic performance occurs. If your expense is for property or services provided to you, or for your use of property, economic performance occurs as the property or services are provided, or the property is used. If your expense is for property or services you provide to others, economic performance occurs as you provide the property or services.Example.Your tax year is the calendar year. In December 2018, the Field Plumbing Company did some repair work at your place of business and sent you a bill for $600. You paid it by check in January 2019. If you use the accrual method of accounting, deduct the $600 on your tax return for 2018 because all events have occurred to "fix" the fact of liability (in this case, the work was completed), the liability can be determined, and economic performance occurred in that year.If you use the cash method of accounting, deduct the expense on your 2019 tax return.Prepayment.You generally cannot deduct expenses in advance, even if you pay them in advance. This applies to prepaid interest, prepaid insurance premiums, and any other prepaid expense that creates an intangible asset. If you pay an amount that creates an intangible asset, then you must capitalize the amounts paid and begin to amortize the payment over the appropriate period.However, you do not have to capitalize amounts for creating an intangible asset if the right or benefit created does not extend beyond the earlier of 12 months after the date that you first receive the right or benefit or the end of the tax year following the year in which you made the advance payment. If you are a cash method taxpayer and your advance payment qualifies for this exception, then you can generally deduct the amount when paid. If you are an accrual method taxpayer, you cannot deduct the amount until the all-events test has been met and economic performance has occurred.Example 1.In 2018, you sign a 10-year lease and immediately pay your rent for the first 3 years. Even though you paid the rent for 2018, 2019, and 2020, you can only deduct the rent for 2018 on your 2018 tax return. You can deduct the rent for 2019 and 2020 on your tax returns for those years.Example 2.You are a cash method calendar year taxpayer. On December 1, 2018, you sign a 12-month lease, effective beginning January 1, 2019, and immediately pay your rent for the entire 12-month period that begins on January 1, 2019. The right or benefit attributable to the payment neither extends more than 12 months beyond January 1, 2019 (the first day that you are entitled to use the property) nor beyond the tax year ending December 31, 2019 (the year following the year in which you made the advance payment). Therefore, your prepayment does not have to be capitalized, and you can deduct the entire payment in the year you pay it.Contested liability.Under the cash method, you can deduct a contested liability only in the year you pay the liability. Under the accrual method, you can deduct contested liabilities such as taxes (except foreign or U.S. possession income, war profits, and excess profits taxes) either in the tax year you pay the liability (or transfer money or other property to satisfy the obligation) or in the tax year you settle the contest. However, to take the deduction in the year of payment or transfer, you must meet certain conditions. See Regulations section 1.461-2.Related person.Under an accrual method of accounting, you generally deduct expenses when you incur them, even if you have not yet paid them. However, if you and the person you owe are related and that person uses the cash method of accounting, you must pay the expense before you can deduct it. Your deduction is allowed when the amount is includible in income by the related cash method payee. For more information, see Related Persons in Pub. 538.Not-for-Profit ActivitiesIf you do not carry on your business or investment activity to make a profit, you cannot use a loss from the activity to offset other income. Activities you do as a hobby, or mainly for sport or recreation, are often not entered into for profit.The limit on not-for-profit losses applies to individuals, partnerships, estates, trusts, and S corporations. It does not apply to corporations other than S corporations.In determining whether you are carrying on an activity for profit, several factors are taken into account. No one factor alone is decisive. Among the factors to consider are whether:You carry on the activity in a businesslike manner,The time and effort you put into the activity indicate you intend to make it profitable,You depend on the income for your livelihood,Your losses are due to circumstances beyond your control (or are normal in the start-up phase of your type of business),You change your methods of operation in an attempt to improve profitability,You (or your advisors) have the knowledge needed to carry on the activity as a successful business,You were successful in making a profit in similar activities in the past,The activity makes a profit in some years, andYou can expect to make a future profit from the appreciation of the assets used in the activity.Presumption of profit.An activity is presumed carried on for profit if it produced a profit in at least 3 of the last 5 tax years, including the current year. Activities that consist primarily of breeding, training, showing, or racing horses are presumed carried on for profit if they produced a profit in at least 2 of the last 7 tax years, including the current year. The activity must be substantially the same for each year within this period. You have a profit when the gross income from an activity exceeds the deductions.If a taxpayer dies before the end of the 5-year (or 7-year) period, the "test" period ends on the date of the taxpayer's death.If your business or investment activity passes this 3- (or 2-) years-of-profit test, the IRS will presume it is carried on for profit. This means the limits discussed here will not apply. You can take all your business deductions from the activity, even for the years that you have a loss. You can rely on this presumption unless the IRS later shows it to be invalid.Using the presumption later.If you are starting an activity and do not have 3 (or 2) years showing a profit, you can elect to have the presumption made after you have the 5 (or 7) years of experience allowed by the test.You can elect to do this by filing Form 5213. Filing this form postpones any determination that your activity is not carried on for profit until 5 (or 7) years have passed since you started the activity.The benefit gained by making this election is that the IRS will not immediately question whether your activity is engaged in for profit. Accordingly, it will not restrict your deductions. Rather, you will gain time to earn a profit in the required number of years. If you show 3 (or 2) years of profit at the end of this period, your deductions are not limited under these rules. If you do not have 3 (or 2) years of profit, the limit can be applied retroactively to any year with a loss in the 5-year (or 7-year) period.Filing Form 5213 automatically extends the period of limitations on any year in the 5-year (or 7-year) period to 2 years after the due date of the tax return for the last year of the period. The period is extended only for deductions of the activity and any related deductions that might be affected.You must file Form 5213 within 3 years after the due date of your tax return (determined without extensions) for the year in which you first carried on the activity, or, if earlier, within 60 days after receiving written notice from the IRS proposing to disallow deductions attributable to the activity.Gross IncomeGross income from a not-for-profit activity includes the total of all gains from the sale, exchange, or other disposition of property, and all other gross receipts derived from the activity. Gross income from the activity also includes capital gains and rents received for the use of property that is held in connection with the activity.You can determine gross income from any not-for-profit activity by subtracting the cost of goods sold from your gross receipts. However, if you determine gross income by subtracting cost of goods sold from gross receipts, you must do so consistently, and in a manner that follows generally accepted methods of accounting.Limit on DeductionsYou can no longer claim any miscellaneous itemized deductions. Miscellaneous itemized deductions are those deductions that would have been subject to the 2%-of-adjusted-gross-income limitation. You can still claim certain expenses as itemized deductions on Schedule A (Form 1040).Deductions you can take for personal as well as for business activities are allowed in full. For individuals, all nonbusiness deductions, such as those for home mortgage interest, taxes, and casualty losses, may also be deducted. Deduct them on the appropriate lines of Schedule A (Form 1040).For the limits that apply to home mortgage interest, see Pub. 936.Generally, you can deduct a casualty loss on property you own for personal use only to the extent each casualty loss is more than $100, and the total of all casualty losses exceeds 10% of your adjusted gross income (AGI). See Pub. 547 for more information on casualty losses.Disaster tax relief.For personal casualty losses resulting from federally declared disasters that occurred before 2018, you may be entitled to disaster tax relief. As a result, you may be required to figure your casualty loss differently. Beginning in 2018, casualty and theft loss are allowed only to the extent it is attributable to a federally declared disaster. For more information, see Pub. 976, Disaster Relief.Partnerships and S corporations.If a partnership or S corporation carries on a not-for-profit activity, these limits apply at the partnership or S corporation level. They are reflected in the individual shareholder's or partner's distributive shares.More than one activity.If you have several undertakings, each may be a separate activity or several undertakings may be combined. The following are the most significant facts and circumstances in making this determination.The degree of organizational and economic interrelationship of various undertakings.The business purpose that is (or might be) served by carrying on the various undertakings separately or together in a business or investment setting.The similarity of the undertakings.The IRS will generally accept your characterization if it is supported by facts and circumstances.If you are carrying on two or more different activities, keep the deductions and income from each one separate. Figure separately whether each is a not-for-profit activity. Then figure the limit on deductions and losses separately for each activity that is not for profit.2. Employees' PayWhat’s NewCompensation in excess of $1 million. P.L. 115-97, Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, made significant changes to section 162(m) which disallows the deduction of excessive employee compensation by any publicly held corporation. See Compensation in excess of $1 million , later.Employee achievement awards. P.L. 115-97 defines items that aren't tangible personal property for purposes of employee achievement awards. Tangible personal property doesn't include cash, gift cards, and other nontangible personal property. See Achievement awards , later.Certain expense deductions are now limited. P.L. 115-97 limits the deduction by employers of expenses for certain fringe benefits and entertainment expenses. For more information, see the Caution under Meals and lodging , later. Also see Food and beverage expense incurred together with entertainment expenses. and Transportation (commuting) benefits , later.At the time this publication was printed, the empowerment zone employment credit and the Indian employment credit expired at the end of 2017. To find out if legislation was enacted to extend these credits and make them available for 2018, go to IRS.gov/FormsUpdates.IntroductionYou can generally deduct the amount you pay your employees for the services they perform. The pay may be in cash, property, or services. It may include wages, salaries, bonuses, commissions, or other non-cash compensation such as vacation allowances and fringe benefits. For information about deducting employment taxes, see chapter 5.You may be able to claim employment credits, such as the credits listed below, if you meet certain requirements. You must reduce your deduction for employee wages by the amount of employment credits that you claim. For more information about these credits, see the form on which the credit is claimed; you can find a list of these forms in Form (and Instructions) under Useful Items, later.Work opportunity credit.Credit for employer differential wage payments.Employer credit for paid family and medical leave.Topics - This chapter discusses:Tests for deducting payKinds of payUseful Items - You may want to see:Publication15 Employer's Tax Guide15-A Employer's Supplemental Tax Guide15-B Employer's Tax Guide to Fringe BenefitsForm (and Instructions)1099-MISC Miscellaneous Income5884 Work Opportunity Credit8932 Credit for Employer Differential Wage Payments8994 Employer Credit for Paid Family and Medical LeaveW-2 Wage and Tax StatementSee chapter 13 for information about getting publications and forms.Tests for Deducting PayTo be deductible, your employees' pay must be an ordinary and necessary business expense and you must pay or incur it. These and other requirements that apply to all business expenses are explained in chapter 1.In addition, the pay must meet both of the following tests.Test 1. It must be reasonable.Test 2. It must be for services performed.The form or method of figuring the pay doesn't affect its deductibility. For example, bonuses and commissions based on sales or earnings, and paid under an agreement made before the services were performed, are both deductible.