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While I have met several Indian citizens abroad during foreign travels before, my interactions with them were restricted to a few weeks of travelling together only and thus not substantial enough to form any lasting perspectives on cultural differences.But after moving to Canada, I’ve had the opportunity to interact with them on a more day by day basis where our cultural and linguistic similarities push us closer together under the “South Asian” umbrella.For the most part, the people of both countries seem pretty much the same on a surface level and there’s not much cultural difference to talk about. The people from Lahore and Karachi in Pakistan tend to bond faster with Indians due to big city life acclimating them to Indian mindsets thanks to media boom that happened in Pakistan during the Musharraf era that flooded the country with Indian channels and content.But Pakistan is not only Lahore and Karachi, and I think the core difference between both nations in terms of culture stems from their political culture for the most part, as the politics of both countries shape their respective citizens and the different state of the governments of both countries impacted their citizens differently.India, for the most part, has had a more successful run in the nation-state project historically which has allowed nation wide parties to develop, strong institutions to emerge and a national citizen identity to evolve over the long decades of electoral politics that somewhat faded away the borders of ethnic, tribal and clan based identities over a period of time (not entirely though, with caste and religion sticking on).Pakistan on the other hand, has had a somewhat troubled and murky political history with out state often being at violent odds with certain segments of it’s citizenry, ethnic lines hardening rather than softening and a troubled nation state project that has not yet produced the all-inclusive and all encompassing, effective public institutions needed to dissolve older, historical ethnic and linguistic identities.In a nutshell, due to the absence of an effective nation state project, clan and tribal identity still holds sway in Pakistan to a much stronger level than India and this influences the behavior of Pakistani citizens to a significant degree. Perhaps not so much in the upper middle class, urban citizens but certainly outside of it. Our civil military clashes have also ensured that no nation wide political party has emerged and lasted long enough to forge a national identity thanks to our military’s constant cutting down to size of strong civilian led setups.Personally, I am something of a mixed mutt with half of my family from Pashtun tribal clans who had become educated urban dwellers over time and the other half from Punjabi settled, farming class that contributed members to the military.Pakhtun-Baloch and North Pakistani cultural identities are for the most part foreign to India and its hard to explain the social and behavioral differences that Pakhtuns have with Indians for the most part. But I’ll give it a shot anyway because looking back, it’s surprising how much the culture and politics of the families at the micro level and the state at the macro level influenced my upbringing and behavior.Due to the nation state in Pakistan being an ineffective public service provider, wracked with corruption and patronage politics, public institutions dominated by particular ethnicity, power sharing being unequal within the broader context of the state and regional political autonomy being constantly challenged by a hegemonic center: The state is something to be viewed with suspicion as a Pakistani. All you can trust are your blood, your clan, your tribe and your brethren.This is to an intensity that sometimes perturbs and disturbs foreigners but we carry it on our back wherever we go: A suspicion of the state and a strong pack loyalty.India, due to its more developed economy, politics and stable society has grown into a metropolitan, internationalist feel that has reduced the emphasis of citizens on clan and tribal politics (with some exceptions). The “Indian citizen” is actually a thing with citizens of the state associates themselves with the Indian nation state project and allowing it to define their primary identity. So their behavior and cultural dynamics with each other are far more relaxed and at ease than Pakistanis.Nowhere is this more apparent than when I moved to Canada. It’s the locals themselves here who will tell you the more striking aspect of the differences between Indians and Pakistanis.Educated upper-middle income urban dwellers from Pakistan are fairly the same as educated upper-middle income urban dwellers from India and local Canadians are hard pressed to tell them apart for the most part.But since I’m not from that category, my differences in culture from those of Indian immigrants are easily spotted.For one, Pakistanis in general are somewhat harder to befriend than Indians at first. We are fairly reserved and cautious with strangers and have a thicker shell to crack. This stems from our broken politics back home where we don’t view each other as fellow citizens but with who is “us” and who is “them”. Are you in my pack or not? Can I count on you or not?It’s like we are always preparing for a fight that never seems to break out.But Pakistanis flex HARD for their friends. If you manage to get through our thick, hard outer shell, you have a blood bond with us for life.When I arrived in Canada, a Pakistani friend of mine drove all the way to the airport to pick me up, had me stay at his place for 3 days, got me a place to stay of my own on Kajiji, set up my bank account and cell phone, gave me 2 months worth of rent money, got me a job, set up my SIN number, showed me how to get to school, showed me how to use public transport, got my credit card set up, helped me when i got into trouble once, showed me how to pay taxes….actually the list is pretty long so I’ll stop here. But I had an incredibly soft landing in Canada because of the Pakistani pack mentality. We go out of our way for each other if we have to.Hell, I was the same.In my class, I was cautious and reserved around everyone from the start. That was just the Pakistani nature I bought with me back from home. I didn’t care whether you were local, Indian, Pakistani, East Asian or what ever. I was slow to make friends and slower still to network and connect with people.But what friends I did make, I considered part of my pack.There was an Indian girl in my class who was having a hard time finding a part time job to meet her living expenses. Her attempts to ask other Indian students about job was met with them advising her where to apply, how to apply as well as other useful tips.But when she asked me, and because I considered her a friend, my dynamic went straight to the Pakistani tribal-clan pack mentality.I printed a dozen copies of her CV and went around my near by market handing them out. Then I went to my old boss and badgered him till he hired her. When she didn’t like the job after 2 days of working there, I went to another friend and badgered him till I got her a work from home, online job.It would have been a serious red flag in a Pakistani context if I had done anything less.Being Pakistan, you’re only as safe or as strong as the rest of your pack. It’s something that influences the way we arrange our children’s or our own marriages. The way we talk and behave with each other. Who we ignore and who we bleed for. In an era of a weak state, a tyrannous military, ethnic violence and other heady maelstroms of chaos, the only thing a Pakistani can rely on is their pack to protect them against the violent tides of our country.You don’t JUST ask Pakistanis for a favor. You ask them to fight for you. Pakistan is not an easy country to live in, given our near anarchic state of affairs at times in the government. Which is why citizens flock to the clan and tribal mentality everywhere to defend themselves. The lucky ones go abroad. The unlucky ones form packs. And this is in no way restricted to Pashtun or even ethnic lines in general. Sects like the Ahmedis and Ismailis and Shias form their own packs. The Mohajirs of Karachi form their own. The Pashtun refugees living as IDPs form their own. And so on.In this maelstrom of violence, uncertainty and chaos, we have only God and Blood. And since our God shares no blood with mortals, we share each others. Our relationships with each other have an intensity and expectation of reliance built into them that are hard to explain to outsiders and definitely set us apart as cultures from India.Some might mistake it as “the family oriented nature” of south Asia. This is a simplification. Quite often, the most bitter divisions exist among families. Our relationships with each other are based on who can act as a substitute for public services that the government has failed to provide. Or who can allow access to public resources. I mentioned that urban, upper-middle income Pakistanis tend to bond more easily with Indians and Canadians and integrate easily into life abroad and part of the reason is that they have shed their tribal/clan mentality for a long time thanks to better access to state services and resources in the upper-middle income urban areas of the Pakistani state.I would not say that this pack-mentality is proving to be a advantage in Canada. In fact, its something that I’m having to unlearn slowly.Recently a friend of mine, asked me to see if i could find someone in the airline industry to provide him some advice how to tailor his career towards the airlines business. Not only did I take him to meet someone I knew in the airlines business but I also pressed the other guy till he agreed to let my friend use him as a reference and get some good insider leads on current job openings as well.Similarly, when another friend of mine asked me for a link up with someone in the healthcare industry, I tracked down a director in the healthcare sector and set up a meeting between the two.You might think that my friends would have been pleased with the end result but they weren’t. One was uncomfortable in how much I was doing for him because his cultural context had a stigma in asking help from others in a friendly social circle. The other was unhappy because I seemed to have done more than she asked for.It was a good education in how the Pakistani tribal/clan mentality does not work when transported to the 1st world.Canada’s relationship and social matrix is far more relaxed, self reliant and dependent on the state than Pakistan has ever managed to achieve. Family relationships, friend circles and business networks all exist under the guarantee of public services from the state so citizens are less dependent on each other.When you know the state’s police forces will provide you protection, the healthcare system will give you free care, the government will educate your children in as affordable a manner as possible, you have democratic representation of your interests in the government, the military stays in the barracks and so on: You become less reliant on your family and friends for help. The state takes on that responsibility. The state becomes a replacement for the clan and the tribal institutions of old.So Canadian relationships between people lack that kind of intensity and expectation that Pakistani relationships do.India, due to its longer period of stability, stronger public institutions and increasing reliance on the government has shed the vestiges of old clan/tribal identities more than Pakistan has. So Indians tend to associate fine with the Canadian relationship matrix once they immigrate here. Pakistanis from urban, well off environments as well.But Pakistanis in a more general sense tend to hold on to the clan/tribe mentality. Once we arrive here as immigrants, we are harder to befriend because we consider the price each relationship imposes on us. A friend is not just someone you add on Facebook or say hi to in the office everyday.A friend is one for whom you must be ready to spill blood: either your own or their enemy’s. A friend is one who can call you at 2:00 am crying for help and you’ll walk through a blizzard to their house. A friend is one you’ll give your bed to when they can’t meet rent while you sleep on the floor.They are your clan, your tribe, your blood. And at the same time, you expect them to do the same for you. Your own prosperity and safety is intimately tied to theirs and if they were to fall, you are next in line.We must weigh the price and cost each friendship imposes on us because we must be ready to meet the needs of our friends no matter what the cost. But once you have the title of friend, you can expect anything from us. Trust me, we go our entire lives sometimes not even giving the title of friend to our first cousins we share blood with, if we don’t consider them part of our pack.It’s a symptom of growing up in Pakistan. The state has not yet developed, modernized or stabilized enough to act as an institutional substitute for the older, more ancient institutions of the tribe and the clan. The failure of the state at the macro level influences our relationships with each other at the micro level. We cannot call the police to defend our homes when ethnic riots take place. We cannot treat our children in hospitals whose fees we cannot afford or whom the government strips of funds to pay their cronies.Our relationships, our clans, our tribes are the institutions we turn to fulfill the gap between the states resources/public services and our needs.And herein lies the most noticeable difference in Indian and Pakistani cultures, a difference that has it’s roots in the political history and developmental differences of the Indian and Pakistani states.Pakistanis are more clan/tribal oriented than Indians on average. Our state has not met our needs to a sufficient enough extent for us to be able to rely on it, so we rely on our clans and tribes instead.In Canada and other foreign countries, this means that we carry over our Pakistani clan and tribal mentality more often. We are harder to befriend not because we are unfriendly, but because to us, friendship is both a burden and a deeper gift than can be understood in the 1st world mentality.Our relationship is something that can be relied on to a much much more deeper extent than traditional relationships in the developed nation context where the state meets its citizen’s needs. Calling someone a friend in a Pakistani sense is a price for us, for we must now be willing to do a lot for that friend if they ever fall in trouble. We start preparing for your wars the moment we call you a friend. But we also expect you to do the same for us.We measure you and your worth before calling you a friend. And let you measure ours as well. Our friendships are not relaxed affairs where we catch up on weekends to chat at a bar or a restaurant.We ask ourselves questions like “can I care for his children if something happens to him?”. Or “can I fight for him when he gets into trouble with someone dangerous?”These are questions shaped in the anarchic nature of the Pakistani state. Where citizens have learned to rely on their kin, their blood and their clan more than the state.It translates badly into Canada, where the state is an effective arbitrator and citizens rely on it to fulfill their needs, thereby reducing their reliance on each other. Every Pakistani who moves here has to go through the process of slowly unwinding, relaxing and becoming more at ease as they learn to understand that the state here is not like the state back home. While not perfect, it is far more capable of meeting our needs and acting as a substitute for the clan/tribe/pack that we are used to relying on. That we need to expect less from friends and reduce the barriers for entry into our friend circle as well. A polite no thanks or a polite refusal to a request should not be death knells to our relationships with each other.And slowly and steadily, we learn that the entire country we immigrated to and now call home, is to be slowly and steadily trusted as part of our pack, our tribe and our clan.A typical Pakistani tribal meeting in the Northwest, where the coordination and pooled resources of the tribe serve as a force multiplier for citizens who are deprived of public services and state resource:If we cannot meet again in this life,Let it be so that we care and help each otherBy all means in all our future livesLike a mother loves her only little child.-Last Quatrain, Chinggisid Prince Tsoktu’s rock inscriptions (1624) in west-central Mongolia

Thanks for the A2A.First, that sucks. I’ve been there myself a few times over the last 10 years, all because of health issues that prevented me from working. I know the feeling of not being able to survive homeless again, but the fact is, we can. We’ve been there before and survived, and we can do it again and do it better.While you have a home, get a PO Box. You’ll need it for a variety of things. It might not seem urgent right now, but do it. An alternative is to sign up with http://Escappees.com and use their mailing service if you’re going to be moving or traveling.Do you have a vehicle? Can you buy one that you can work on if need be? A van is ideal and you CAN find good ones for $500 to $1,500. Do whatever you have to do to save that money to buy a vehicle, and insurance. Work any job, sell all your stuff, borrow it, beg it, but get it. It’s MUCH easier to survive homelessness if you have a vehicle.The NUMBER ONE THING you should be doing now is PREPPING for the ultimate. Contact any and all agencies for help. I know most are overwhelmed and there are years long waiting lists, but do it anyway.Check into programs like workamper dot com: The Original Resource Of Jobs For RVers, Since 1987! and honestly look at moving to someplace out of state, or in another city where homelessness isn’t such a bitch. In Charlottesville, VA you can get free meals, eat well, free clothing, housing assistance, and The Haven.Sell everything you have. Don’t make the mistake of trying to put it in storage. You need the money and there’s very little you can’t replace later when you’re back on your feet. Unless you have insanely expensive furniture (and if you do you should sell it to buy a vehicle), you will lose money by paying storage fees. It’s hard, but do it. Have a yardsale, declutter, get rid of everything but the bare essentials - meaning anything like clothing, stuff that will fit in the van and allow you to cook, dress appropriately, etc.If a vehicle is out of the question, then buy a tent, and move to the woods outside a city. It’s safer, cheaper and easier than being homeless in a metropolitan area. You can also sign up to be a house/pet sitter. House Sitting Jobs: House Sitter Opportunities | HouseSitter.com . Google house sitters and pet sitters. Sign up while you have a house/address.Look at making money online. You won’t get rich quick, but there are ways to generate an income as part of the gig economy. Some of the top gig apps are:Wonolo @WonoloWonolo is a staffing platform that helps freelancers work on their own schedule and terms. Freelancers can access immediate hourly gigs from some of the biggest businesses and organizations in the world, working where, when and for whomever they choose.Key Features:Work a flexible scheduleGet gigs without completing a resumeNo need to go through an interview.When you find a gig that suits your schedule, tap to accept and go to workWhen you accomplish a gig, you get a rating and get paid the same day; the higher your rating, the more jobs you will receiveAmazonFlex @AmazonAmazon Flex gives people ages 21 and older the opportunity to create their own schedule while making $18 – $25 an hour. Workers enjoy having flexible hours while being able to choose opportunities any day of the week to work.Key Features:Easily track earnings using the Amazon Flex appSchedule ahead or pick up blocks of available timeIf Amazon Flex is not available yet in your area, join the waitlist to be informed of opportunities in your area as they become availableLet Amazon know when you want to make deliveriesBellhops @BellhopsMovingPersons that are at least 18 years old and are physically able, could start earning money through provision of friendly local moving services. Bellhops are professional and they provide exceptional service while making moving day less stressful for customers.Key Features:Connect DIY movers with handpicked Bellhops who are always happy to do the heavy lifting involvedCustomers could sign up in few minutes and request as much help as needed without any stressBellhops claim jobs and view details using smartphonesFind, claim, and track down moving appointments easilyEasy Selection and submission of preferred service areas from the map to get your desired jobsControl your maximum preferred lead time to get information concerning jobs and get assigned jobs in advanceFind Child Care, Senior Care, Pet Care and Housekeeping @caredotcomFind Child Care, Senior Care, Pet Care and Housekeeping provides you with the opportunity to render child, adult and senior care including pet care and home care to customers who are in search of caregivers in your localized area. Caregivers simply create a free profile and search for jobs with the use of either a mobile device, a laptop, or a desktop quickly and easilyKey Features:Easily create an account and a profile where your skills and talents could be listedAdd photos and more things that would make your profile stand out to land more jobs easilySearch for jobs wherever, wheneverApply for jobs and get paid easily by simply signing up for direct depositCaviar @TryCaviarFood can be delivered in your city by Gig economy workers while earning extra cash with the Caviar app. Work anytime you want by becoming a courier, earning up to $25/hour. Gig workers deliver food from local restaurants to homes and offices provided they have a car, a truck, a bike, a scooter, or a motorcycle, and are 18 years of age or older, and have a smartphone to enable you use the mobile Caviar app.Key Features:Really flexible scheduleDirect money deposit to your bank account weeklyWork on weekdays or weekends or both as a driverGet compensated with a task-based fee for each successful deliveryCloset collective @closetcityCloset Collective helps fashion lovers get in on the gig economy. Those that have designer pieces could make extra cash renting them out by making use of one of these three easy listing options: the DIY listing forum, the free concierge service or the white glove service.Key Features:Receive an email when someone requests for a rental from your closetYou could print the prepaid label from your email, attach it to the shipping bag provided, then mail your package from any USPS mailboxPayments and dry-cleaning are properly taken care of100% insured for full retail value during rental periodReceive a rental price for each item before it gets listedList designer wears, shoes, bags, and accessories which have minimum retail value of approximately $200Cost:Rent a single piece or you sign up for membershipMembership, 3 rentals/month: $99Membership, 5 rentals/month: $150Rent out your items with no costCrowdFlower @CrowdFlowerCrowdFlower is a unique app for data scientists and machine learning team members that want to become contributors and complete simple tasks from the comfort of their homes. With a computer and an internet connection, you get to work at your own pace and choose the tasks you want to complete while making extra money.Key Features:Provides tasks for people, ranging from mathematicians and statisticians, to psychologists, entrepreneurs, and information systems engineersEarn money easily by completing simple tasks at homeSign up for an account and begin to make contributionsWhen you become a more skilled contributor you would be able to access more advanced tasks, you could also earn more moneyCost: NO COST for contributorsDoorDash @DoorDashDoorDash is a food delivery platform that aids freelancers deliver food from top restaurants to customers in your area.Key Features:Dashers undergo background checks after being approved and onboardedGet tailored assistance with deliveries and track order statusChoose when to work by delivering breakfast, lunch, or dinnerAvailable in more than 450 cities throughout the US and CanadaEtsy @EtsyEtsy provides a marketplace for people to sell their handmade, vintage, or creative goods online. You can connect with nearly 30 million buyers who spent close to $3 billion last year when you choose to sell with this gig economy app.Key Features:Fees include $0.20 listing fee, 3.5% transaction fee, and 3% + $0.25 payment processing with secure Etsy PaymentsItems remain actively listed for four months or until they sellAutomatic depositsSeller protectionTake advantage of powerful tools and services to manage and grow your businessEtsy support specialists are available to help anytimeNo monthly feesFancy Hands @FancyHandsFancy Hands seeks to provide assistants for everyone. You can apply to be an assistant and accept tasks on your own timetable. When you begin, you’ll get paid per task with consideration for how long it takes you to complete it, what time of day it is, and how complicated the task is.Key Features:Requires only a fast internet connection and the ability to use common websites and softwareOpportunities for promotion to managerial-type positionsGet paid every other week on Tuesday via DwollaChoose your own hoursFeastly @eatfeastlyFeastly is a unique gig economy app designed to connect chefs with eaters looking for more intimate, home-cooked meals. With Feastly, you get to show off your cooking skills, host dinner parties, and get paid to share your love of food with customers who are happy to pay for a unique experience.Key Features:Chefs range from home cooks to Michelin-starred chefsChefs are verified and undergo an extensive vetting processChefs are protected up to $1,000,000Host your feast weekly or multiple times per weekCost: 10% service and processing fee added to the meal price set by the cook, and Feastly retains 12% of the chef’s set meal priceFiverr @fiverrFiverr provides freelance services for lean entrepreneurs. This gig economy app is renowned for its affordability and ease of use. Freelancers from copywriters to digital marketers easily fill their work schedules with clients from around the globe.Key Features:116 different service categoriesTrusted by more than 11 million businesses and entrepreneursBrowse millions of gigsGet paid on time every timeJoin for free – no subscription required or fees for listing servicesKeep 80% of each transactionFreelancer @freelancerhttp://Freelancer.com is the world’s largest freelancing and crowdsourcing marketplace with more than 25 million users. Connect to employers and find work from anywhere while doing what you love by serving as a freelancer.Key Features:Work from home or anywhere you chooseFlexible work scheduleGlobal base of employersSet up a free account and then browse available jobs and bid on projects that match your skillsBid on work anywhere, anytime using the mobile appCommunicate using instant messengerGigwalk @GigwalkGigwalk makes it easy for you to find jobs within your area whenever it’s convenient for you. To become a Gigwalker, download the app, register your account by answering a few questions and providing an email address, link your account to PayPal to get paid, and begin accepting work from organizations looking for eager workers.Key Features:Gigs available in the US and CanadaAll payments made through PayPalSubmit your work directly in the appChoose when and how much you want to workNo timesheet or email required; simple reporting is done through the appGrubhub @GrubhubGrubhub is a gig economy app that gives drivers the chance to deliver food in their area and on the schedule they want to have. If you have a driver’s license and car insurance or a bike and state ID and a bank account, you can apply and start making extra money as a Grubhub driver.Key Features:Earn competitive payKeep 100% of your tipsFlexible hours so you can create a schedule that works for youMore orders and opportunities to earn than any other order platformHelloTech @HelloTechYou can become a tech for HelloTech and begin earning money on your own time. Specifically for customers who need help with technology, this gig economy app gives you the opportunity to provide tech support on your own schedule after you complete a basic skills assessment to prove your abilities.Key Features:Jobs paid on a per-service basis, and payments range from approximately $30 to $90Get paid twice a week, on Monday and Thursday, via PayPalChoose your own hours and take jobs whenever and wherever you wantCost:Techs: FREE to apply and become a techCustomersOnline Tech Support Plan: $9.99/month or $99/yearBasic Tech Support Plan: $11.99/month plus $79 set-up fee or $199/yearPremium Tech Support Plan: $19.98/month plus $79 set-up fee or $299/yearHopSkipDrive @HopSkipDriveCreated by moms, HopSkipDrive is a ridesharing solution for kids. You can become a CareDriver and get a chance to spend some time with some awesome kids while making money at the same time.Key Features:All CareDrivers must pass a 15-point certification process with a minimum of five years of childcare experience and become members of the TrustLine registryMake up to $30/hourSet your own schedule and accept rides that work for you based on your locationKnow how much you will be paid before accepting a driving jobGet paid weeklyComprehensive insurance coverage provided with no deductibleEarn incremental bonuses for each new family you get to try HopSkipDriveHubstaff Talent @HubstaffHubstaff makes time tracking for remote team management easier. Hubstaff Talent is the solution for connecting the best remote talent to companies looking for freelancers and independent contractors. Workers can start a profile free of charge and fees while providing details about your skills and availability to land a job with someone who needs your services.Key Features:No bidding, so you can spend time working rather than wasting time bidding for jobsFind consistent, reliable, remote work from thousands of top companiesUpload your resume and link to your other profiles to get even greater exposureFind full or part-time workCost: FREEInstacart @InstacartInstacart gives you the opportunity to deliver groceries to people in your area. You can become an Instacart shopper and earn money shopping for and delivering groceries to customers while setting your own schedule.Key Features:Apply in less than five minutesBe independent and work your shopping time into your lifeGet paid weeklyWork Sundays to maximize your hours and payChoose to work as a part-time employee/shopper with no vehicle required and work up to 29 hours per week or choose to work as an independent contractor/driver with a vehicle and work unlimited hoursJuno @junoJuno is a gig economy app for ridesharing. Drivers working with Juno benefit from a low commission and a long pickup bonus for certain rides.Key Features:24/7 support10% commission for New York City drivers; 10.5% commission for drivers outside of NYC for a limited time with advanced registrationReferral bonusesLive phone, email, and text supportLyft @lyftLyft is an app that matches drivers with passengers and enables payment automatically. Drivers enjoy being your own boss and keeping 100% of your tips.Key Features:Earn and keep the whole amount of your tipsIncreased Prime Time pricing during peak hours to earn even more moneyProvides additional insurance policies at no cost to driversDrivers have the opportunity to rate passengersMoonlighting @MoonlightingAppMoonlighting is a gig economy app for freelance workers. You can browse local or remote jobs and services and get hired faster with Moonlighting. Not sure you want a job? Chat instantly before you accept it.Key Features:Ideal for getting your freelance work or small business discoveredNo need to purchase leads, and no commission feeReceive real-time alerts about new jobsQuickly send proposals, work out pricing, and get hired through ChatGet paid on time by safely connecting to your bankPostmates @Postmates“Postmates” is a gig economy platform which gives freelancers the ability to earn money delivering for restaurants and stores in their community.Prefer @preferPrefer gives consultants, service contractors and clients a meeting point. Here they connect and build a network.Key Features:Designed for independent professionals of all typesInvite clients to book and recommend you on Prefer for even more referralsAnonymous reviews are not allowed; rather, build your career on strong relationshipsOffer online bookings and payments to save your clients (and yourself) timeRoadie @RoadieRoadie is a gig economy platform that provides a fast, inexpensive, and simple way for people to get their things delivered to any location. Roadie drivers choose the jobs they want to create the schedule they want while earning cash.Key Features:Choose which deliveries to make and set your own schedule – the beauty is in the freedomNo minimum vehicle standards; earn cash and rewards regardless of what you driveGet discounts and special savings including roadside assistance and free Waffle HouseGet gig alerts on your smartphoneRover @RoverDotComRover is a gig economy app wherein people take care of pets and get paid for it. You can take care of the pets in your own residence, be a dog walker, or a house sitter, or you can provide drop-in visits while the pet owner is away.Snagajob @snagajobIf you want to be an hourly worker and do have the freedom to do the jobs you want when you want, Snagajob is the gig economy app just for you. Search out full-time or part-time restaurant, retail, customer service, security, administrative, and seasonal jobs in your area and choose those that match based on personality and compatibility.Key Features:Targeted search with locations, keywords, and moreSearch entry-level and part-time jobs, including those geared toward students and teensYou get to save job searches and get email updates on new jobs matching your search postSpare5 @spare5Spare5, a gig economy app which helps you earn extra money in your spare time. Choose small, fun tasks you wish to complete, such as adding keywords to images, outlining faces in photos, categorizing videos, and much more.Key Features:Help companies get better data and also train machine learning and AI technologiesPayment via PayPalLink your social profiles to ensure a match in the tasks and your experience and interestsComplete sample tasks to help you learn more, growing your reputation. Also complete advanced task levels to earn experience points; level up to gain early task access and increased paySpareHire @SpareHireSpareHire is a good app for on-demand finance and consulting work. SpareHire is just right for you if you have at least two years of professional work experience in investment banking, management consulting, private equity, venture capital, corporate development, or related fields.Key Features:Short-term projects that fit into your schedule could be completedGrowth in your professional networksImprovement in work-life balance75% of your payment for keepsCost: Contact for a quoteSpotHero @SpotHeroSpotHero could help you earn some additional income easily if you have an extra spot, and rent it. Simply do this by filling out a form to rent your parking space to drivers looking for a place to park in your area.Key FeaturesPricing of your spot gets to be set by youThousands of drivers could be reachedMonthly check or deposit for your parking spot would be receivedEffortlessly earn extra incomeTaskEasy @TaskEasyTaskEasy aids you complete lawn care tasks for homeowners and property managers in your area. 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https://www.metmuseum.org/HEILBRUNN TIMELINE OF ART HISTORY ESSAYSArms and Armor—Common Misconceptions and Frequently Asked QuestionsSwordca. 1400. Western European On view at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 373The silver-embellished pommel and the crossguard made of copper alloy (rather than steel) wrapped with silver wire suggest that this sword was intended for presentation or for ceremonial use rather than as a fighting weapon. The Latin quotation inscribed on the pommel reads in translation, "here, too, virture has its due reward" (Virgil, Aeneid, book 1, line 461). The inscription (now illegible) on the blade is an early example of the use of etching for the decoration of a weapon. Approximately a century later, acid etching became a popular way to embellish arms and armor and an important technique in printmaking.Mail Shirt15th century. Bechler GermanAlthough mailmaking was a highly specialized craft, very few mail garments were signed by their makers. This one has two brass links inscribed with the name BECHLER, indicating a German origin.Armorca. 1400–1450 and laterItalianOn view at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 373This armor was assembled and restored in the 1920s using individual elements that had been discovered in the ruins of the Venetian fortress at Chalcis, on the Greek island of Euboea, which had fallen to the Turks in 1470. The purpose was to present a full armor of the style worn about 1400, a period from which no complete armors survive. Distinctive features are the early form of brigandine (a torso defense constructed of numerous overlapping plates riveted inside a doublet) with two large breast halves and brass borders at the edges of the exposed plates. Portions of the brass at the top edge of the left cuisse (thigh defense), the lower edges of the right greave (lower leg defense), and the visor are genuine; the remainder is restored. The helmet, a visored bascinet, is associated with the armor. The velvet covering of the brigandine dates from the early 20th century.#4428. Armor Supported by Bloomberg PhilanthropiesPublic Domain Armorca. 1400–1450 and laterItalianOn view at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 373This armor was assembled and restored in the 1920s using individual elements that had been discovered in the ruins of the Venetian fortress at Chalcis, on the Greek island of Euboea, which had fallen to the Turks in 1470. The purpose was to present a full armor of the style worn about 1400, a period from which no complete armors survive. Distinctive features are the early form of brigandine (a torso defense constructed of numerous overlapping plates riveted inside a doublet) with two large breast halves and brass borders at the edges of the exposed plates. Portions of the brass at the top edge of the left cuisse (thigh defense), the lower edges of the right greave (lower leg defense), and the visor are genuine; the remainder is restored. The helmet, a visored bascinet, is associated with the armor. The velvet covering of the brigandine dates from the early 20th century.By Dirk H. BreidingDepartment of Arms and Armor, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2004The field of arms and armor is beset with romantic legends, gory myths, and widely held misconceptions. Their origins usually are to be found in a lack of knowledge of, and experience with, genuine objects and their historical background. Most of them are utter nonsense, devoid of any historical base.Perhaps the most infamous example is the notion that “knights had to be hoisted into their saddles with a crane,” which is as absurd as it is persistent even among many historians. In other instances, certain technical details that escape an obvious explanation have become the focus of lurid and fantastically imaginative attempts to explain their original function. Among these, the lance rest, an object protruding from the proper right side of many breastplates, probably holds first place.The following text will attempt to correct some of the most popular misconceptions, and to answer some of the questions most frequently asked by the public during guided tours of the Museum’s arms and armor galleries.Misconceptions and Questions Relating to Armor1. Armor was worn only by knights.—Wrong.This erroneous but common belief is probably a result of the romantic notion of the “knight in shining armor,” an image that itself harbors a host of further misconceptions. First, knights rarely fought alone, nor did medieval and Renaissance armies consist entirely of mounted knights. Although knights were the dominant force of most of these armies, they were invariably—and with time increasingly so—supported (and opposed) by foot soldiers, such as archers, pikemen, crossbowmen, and handgunners. During a campaign, a knight depended on a small host of retainers, squires, and attendants who lent armed support and looked after his horses, armor, and other equipment—not to mention peasants and craftsmen, who made the organization of a feudal society with its warrior class possible in the first place.Second, it is wrong to assume that every nobleman was a knight. Knights were not born but created, by other knights, feudal lords, or sometimes priests. And, under certain conditions, people of non-noble birth could be knighted (although the knighting was often regarded as their admission into lower nobility). On some occasions, mercenaries or civilians fighting as ordinary soldiers could be knighted for exceptional displays of courage and valor, while in later times a knighthood could be bought.In other words, it was by no means an exclusive right of the knight to wear and fight in armor. Foot soldiers such as mercenaries, or groups of retainers comprising peasants, as well as burghers, also participated in armed conflict and accordingly protected themselves with armor of varying quality and extent. Indeed, the burghers (of a certain age, and above a stipulated wealth or income) of most medieval and Renaissance cities were expected—an expectation often enforced by laws and decrees—to acquire and keep their own arms and armor. Usually this would not be a complete suit of armor, but comprised at least a helmet, a body defense in the form of a mail shirt (2008.245), fabric armor, or breastplate, as well as a weapon such as a spear, pike, bow, or crossbow. In times of war, these militia forces were required to defend the city or do military service for feudal lords or allied cities. During the fifteenth century, as some wealthy and powerful cities became more independent and confident, even burghers organized their own tournaments for which, of course, they would have worn armor.Accordingly, not every piece of armor was once worn by a knight, nor can every person depicted in an artwork wearing armor be identified as a knight. A person in armor should more correctly be referred to as a man-at-arms or man in armour.2. Women of earlier times never fought in battle or wore armor.—Wrong.There are several references to women participating in armed conflict from most periods of history. While some evidence is available for noble ladies-turned-military commanders, such as Countess Jeanne de Penthièvre (1319–1384), there are only scattered references to women from lower levels of society taking up arms. Nevertheless, some are recorded as having fought in armor, although no contemporary illustrations showing any of them actually wearing armor appear to have survived. Joan of Arc (ca. 1412–1431), probably the most famous example of a female warrior, is reputed to have had a suit of armor commissioned for her by the French king Charles VII. Yet only one small illustration of her, undoubtedly drawn during her lifetime, has come down to us, showing her with a sword and banner but not dressed in armor. The fact that contemporaries apparently perceived women leading an army, or even wearing armor, as something worth recording at least in writing indicates that such a sight must have been an exception rather than the rule.3. Armor was so expensive that only princes and rich nobility could afford it.—Wrong.This idea may stem from the fact that much of the armor on exhibition in institutions like the Metropolitan Museum represents equipment of especially high quality, while much of the plainer arms and armor of the common man and lower nobility has been either relegated to storerooms or lost over the centuries.It is true that, unless looted from a battlefield or won in a tournament, the acquisition of armor would have been a costly affair. However, as there are certainly differences in the quality of armor, there also would have been differences in price. Armor of low to medium quality, affordable to burghers, mercenaries, and lower nobility, could be bought, ready-made, at markets, trading fairs, and in urban shops. On the other hand, there were also the high-end, made-to-measure products of the imperial or royal court workshops, and of famous German and Italian armorers. Armor made by some of these celebrated masters represented the highest art of the armorer’s craft and could cost as much as a king’s ransom.Although examples of the price of armor, weapons, and equipment are known from several periods in history, it is difficult to translate historical monetary value into modern terms. It is clear, however, that the value of armor ranged from low-quality or outdated second-hand items quite affordable to citizens and mercenaries, to the cost of an entire armory of an English knight, the contents of which were valued in 1374 at over £16. This was equivalent to about five to eight years of rent for a London merchant’s house, or over three years’ worth of wages for a skilled laborer, a single helmet (a bascinet, probably with aventail) being worth the purchase price of a cow.At the upper end of the scale, we find examples such as a large garniture (a basic suit of armor that, through the addition of further pieces and plates, could be adapted for various purposes both on the battlefield and in different types of tournament) commissioned in 1546 by a German king (later emperor) for his son. For this commission, the court armorer Jörg Seusenhofer of Innsbruck received on completion a year later the enormous sum of more than 1,200 gold coins, equivalent to twelve times the annual salary of a senior court official.4. Armor is extremely heavy and renders its wearer immobile.—Wrong.An entire suit of field armor (that is, armor for battle) usually weighs between 45 and 55 lbs. (20 to 25 kg), with the helmet weighing between 4 and 8 lbs. (2 to 4 kg)—less than the full equipment of a fireman with oxygen gear, or what most modern soldiers have carried into battle since the nineteenth century. Moreover, while most modern equipment is chiefly suspended from the shoulders or waist, the weight of a well-fitted armor is distributed all over the body. It was not until the seventeenth century that the weight of field armor was greatly increased in order to render it bulletproof against ever more accurate firearms. At the same time, however, full armor became increasingly rare, and only vital parts of the body, such as the head, torso, and hands, remained protected by metal plate.The notion that the development of plate armor (completed by about 1420–30) greatly impaired a wearer’s mobility is also untrue. A harness of plate armor was made up of individual elements for each limb. Each element in turn consisted of lames (strips of metal) and plates, linked by movable rivets and leather straps, and thus allowing practically all of the body’s movements without any impairment due to rigidity of material. The widely held view that a man in armor could hardly move, and, once he had fallen to the ground, was unable to rise again, is also without foundation. On the contrary, historical sources tell us of the famous French knight Jean de Maingre (ca. 1366–1421), known as Maréchal Boucicault, who, in full armor, was able to climb up the underside of a ladder using only his hands. Furthermore, there are several illustrations from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance depicting men-at-arms, squires, or knights, all in full armor, mounting horses without help or instruments such as ladders or cranes. Modern experiments with genuine fifteenth- and sixteenth-century armor as well as with accurate copies have shown that even an untrained man in a properly fitted armor can mount and dismount a horse, sit or lie on the ground, get up again, run, and generally move his limbs freely and without discomfort.There are a few exceptional instances when armor was extremely heavy or did indeed render its wearer almost “locked” in a certain position, such as armor for certain types of tournaments. Tournament armor was made for very specific occasions and would have been worn only for limited periods of time. The man-at-arms would have mounted his steed with the aid of his squire or a small step, and the last pieces of his armor could then be donned after securely sitting in the saddle.5. Knights had to be hoisted into their saddles with cranes.—Wrong.This notion appears to have originated during the late nineteenth century as a joke. It entered popular fiction during the following decades, and the image was finally immortalized in 1944 when Sir Laurence Olivier used it in his movie Henry V—despite the protestations of his historical advisors, who included the eminent authority Sir James Mann, Master of the Armouries at HM Tower of London.As outlined above, most armor is neither so heavy nor inflexible as to immobilize the wearer. Most men-at-arms would have been able to simply put one foot in a stirrup and mount their horse without assistance. A stool or perhaps the help of a squire would have made the process even speedier; a crane, however, was absolutely unnecessary.6. How did men in armor go to the toilet?This is one of the most popular questions, especially among the Museum’s younger visitors, to which, alas, there is no definitive answer. When the person wearing armor was not engaged in warfare, he would simply do what people do today. He would make his way to a toilet (in medieval and Renaissance times usually referred to as a latrine, or garderobe) or some other secluded location, remove relevant parts of his armor and clothes, and heed nature’s call. Being on the battlefield must have been a different matter. In this case, we do not know the answer. However, we should keep in mind that, in the midst of battle, going to the toilet probably ranks among the least of one’s worries.7. The military salute originates from the raising of a visor.—Uncertain.It is sometimes argued that the military salute originated during the Roman Republic, when assassinations were common and citizens were required to approach public officials with their right hand raised in order to show that they did not conceal a weapon. A more common account is that the modern military salute originated from men in armor raising the visors of their helmets before greeting their lord or comrades. This gesture would have made a person both recognizable as well as vulnerable, at the same time demonstrating that the right hand (i.e., the sword hand) did not carry a weapon, both being signs of trust and good intention.Although these theories are compelling (and romantic), there is actually little evidence to support either of them as the direct origin of the modern military salute. As for the Roman practice, it would be virtually impossible to prove that it continued through fifteen centuries (or was revived during the Renaissance), leading in a straight line to the modern military salute. There is also no direct evidence for the visor theory, although it is more recent. The majority of helmets for war after around 1600 were increasingly of types not fitted with visors, and helmets became rare on European battlefields after about 1700.Be that as it may, English seventeenth-century military records indicate that “the formal act of saluting was to be by removal of headdress.” By about 1745, an English regiment, the Coldstream Guards, appears to have amended this procedure, being instructed to “clap their hands to their hats and bow as they pass by.” This practice was quickly adopted by other English regiments and may have spread from England to America (via the War of Independence) and Continental Europe (through the Napoleonic Wars). Accordingly, the truth may lie somewhere in the middle, with the military salute originating as a gesture of respect and politeness parallel to the civilian custom of raising or tipping one’s hat, possibly in combination with the warrior’s custom of showing an unarmed right hand.8. “Chain mail” or “mail”?Defensive garments composed of interlinking rings should correctly be referred to as “mail” or “mail armor” (14.25.1540). The common term “chain mail” is in fact a modern pleonasm (a lingual mistake meaning “the use of more words than are necessary to express an idea”: in this instance, both “chain” and “mail” refer to an object made of interlinking rings). In short, the term “chain mail” is saying the same thing twice.As with so many misconceptions, the origins of this misnomer are to be found in the nineteenth century. When early scholars of armor looked at medieval artworks, they noticed what they thought to be depictions of many different forms of armor: rings, chains, bands of rings, scales, small plates, etc. With poetic license, all early armor was referred to as “mail,” distinguished only by its appearance, hence the terms “ring-mail,” “chain-mail,” “banded mail,” “scale-mail,” “plate-mail,” and so forth. It is today commonly accepted, however, that most of these different depictions are actually various attempts by artists to efficiently show the surface of a type of armor that is difficult to render both in paint or sculpture. Rather than showing each interlinking ring, the small links were stylized by dots, slashes, S-shapes, circles, and the like, which readily lent themselves to misinterpretation.9. How long did it take to make a suit of armor?To give a definitive answer to this question is impossible for several reasons. First, hardly any evidence survives that would provide a complete picture for any given period. Scarce evidence is available from the fifteenth century onward as to how armor was ordered, in what time the order was completed, and how much the parts or entire armor cost. Second, a complete armor could comprise elements made by several specialized armorers. Pieces might also be held in stock half-finished and then fitted for a specific commission. Finally, the matter is complicated by regional and national differences. Throughout the German-speaking lands, most armorer workshops were controlled by strict guild regulations, which limited the number of apprentices, and thus had a direct effect on the number of pieces that could be produced by one master and his small workshop. In Italy, on the other hand, no such regulations existed, and workshops could accordingly be much larger, which undoubtedly must have enhanced speed and quantity of production.In any case, one must bear in mind that the production of arms and armor was a thriving business throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Armorers, blade smiths, gun makers, crossbow and bow makers, and fletchers were found in every large town. Then as now, their market was regulated by supply and demand, and time-efficient work must have been an essential part of a successful business. The commonly encountered myth that “it took years to make a single mail shirt” accordingly is nonsense (which is not to deny, however, that mail making was an extremely labor-intensive occupation).The answer to this question is therefore perhaps as simple as it is elusive. The time it took to make armor depended on several factors, namely, who ordered the work, from whom the work was commissioned (i.e., how many people were involved in the production, and how busy the workshop was with other commissions), and finally, what quality of armor was asked for. Two famous examples may serve to illustrate this point. In 1473, Martin Rondelle, probably an Italian armorer working in Bruges, who called himself “armorer of My Lord the Bastard of Burgundy,” wrote to his English client, Sir John Paston. The armorer informs Sir John that he can make the requested suit of armor as soon as the English knight tells him what pieces he requires, in which fashion, and when the armor must be completed (unfortunately, no time frame is given). In court workshops, the production of garnitures for a princely client appears to have required more time. It apparently took the court armorer Jörg Seusenhofer (and a small number of assistants) about one year to complete a horse armor and a large garniture commissioned in November 1546 by King (later Emperor) Ferdinand I (1503–1564) for himself and his son, and delivered in November 1547. We do not know whether Seusenhofer and his workshop were also working on other commissions during that time.10. Details of armor: the lance rest and the codpiece explained.There are two details of plate armor that appear to spur public imagination more than any other feature: one is often referred to as “that thing sticking out from the right of the breast,” while the other is usually only mentioned under a hushed giggle as “that thing between the legs.” Arms and armor terminology knows both objects as the lance rest and the codpiece.The lance rest appeared soon after the emergence of the solid breastplate in the late fourteenth century and remained in use until the decline of armor. Contrary to what the English term “lance rest” seems to imply, however, its foremost purpose is not to take the weight of the lance. Its actual purpose is two-fold and somewhat better described by its French term “lance arrest” (arrêt de cuirasse). It allows the mounted warrior to hold the lance firmly couched under his right arm, thus “arresting” or stopping it from sliding backward. This serves to stabilize and balance the lance, permitting a better aim. Furthermore, the combined weight and speed of horse and rider are transferred onto the point of the lance, making it a most formidable weapon. If the target was hit, the lance rest also acted as a shock absorber, preventing the lance from “shooting” backward, and dispersing the impact via the breastplate all over the upper body, rather than leaving it concentrated on the right hand, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. It is noteworthy that on most field armors, the lance rest can usually be folded upward so that it would not impede the mobility of the sword arm, after the lance had been discarded.The history of the armored codpiece is closely related to its counterpart in civilian male costume. From the mid-fourteenth century onward, male garments for the upper body had occasionally become so short as to almost reveal the crotch. In these times prior to the development of trousers, men wore leggings tied to their undergarment or a belt, and the crotch was hidden with a flap secured to the upper inside edge of each legging. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, this flap began to be padded and thus visually emphasized. As such, the codpiece remained commonplace in European male costume until the end of the sixteenth century. On armor, the codpiece as a separate piece of plate defense for the genitals appeared during the second decade of the sixteenth century and remained in use and fashion until about 1570. Thickly padded on the inside, it is attached to the armor at the center of the lower edge of the skirt. While its early form was rather cuplike, it remained under direct influence of civilian costume, and later examples are somewhat more pointed upward. It was, however, not typically worn with armor for use on horseback; first, because it would get in the way, and second, because the armored front bow of the war saddle usually offered enough protection for the groin area. Thus the codpiece is usually found on armor used for fighting on foot, both in war and tournament, and, although of some protective value, it has always been as much an element of fashion as one of defense.11. Did Vikings wear horns on their helmets?—Very unlikely.One of the most enduring and popular images of a medieval warrior is that of a Viking, made immediately recognizable by his helmet adorned with a pair of horns. There is, however, little evidence to suggest that Vikings ever used horns as decoration for their helmets.The earliest use of a pair of (stylized) horns as a crest appears to be the small group of helmets surviving from the Celtic Bronze Age, particularly in Scandinavia and the area of modern-day France, Germany, and Austria. These crests were embossed out of bronze, and could take the shape of two horns or of a flattened triangular profile, sometimes both. These helmets probably date to the twelfth or eleventh century B.C. Two thousand years later, from about 1250 onward, pairs of horns again became popular throughout Europe and remained one of the most widely used heraldic crests on helmets for battle and tournament alike during the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It is easy to see that neither of these periods coincides with the period usually associated with the Scandinavian raids of the late eighth to the late eleventh century.Helmets used by Viking warriors were usually of conical or hemispherical shape, sometimes made from a single piece of metal, sometimes constructed of segments held together by connecting metal lames (Spangenhelme). A number of them appear to have been fitted with a face defense. The latter could be in the form of a simple metal bar extending over the nose (nasal), or a faceplate comprising a nasal with additional protection for the eyes and upper cheekbones made of plate, or finally, a full protection of the entire face and neck made of mail.12. Armor became obsolete because of firearms.—In its broadest sense, true.Generally speaking, the above statement is correct as long as it is stressed that it was the ever-increasing efficiency of firearms, not firearms as such, that led to an eventual decline of plate armor on the battlefield. Since the first firearms appear to have been in use in Europe as early as the third decade of the fourteenth century, and the gradual decline of armor is not noticed before the second half of the seventeenth century, firearms and plate armor coexisted for more than 300 years. During the sixteenth century, attempts had been made to render armor bulletproof, either by hardening the steel or, more commonly, by thickening the armor or adding separate reinforcing pieces on top of the normal field armor.Finally, it should be noted that armor as such has never become entirely obsolete. The ubiquity of helmets worn by today’s soldiers and police forces are proof that armor, although of different materials and having perhaps lost some of its earlier importance, is still an essential part of martial equipment around the world. Moreover, even body defenses have lived on in the shape of the experimental breastplates of the American Civil War, the breastplates of airplane gunners during World War II, and the bulletproof vests worn today.13. The size of armor indicates that people in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were smaller.—In general, true.Medical and anthropological research demonstrates that the average height of men and women has gradually increased over the centuries, a process that, for reasons of progressively better diet and public health, has accelerated during the past 150 years or so. The majority of surviving armors from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries appear to confirm these findings.However, when trying to affirm such generalizations from armor, a number of factors need to be carefully considered. First, is the armor complete and homogeneous (i.e., do all parts belong together), thereby giving an accurate impression of the height of the original wearer? Second, even a high-quality armor, made to measure for a particular owner, can provide only an estimate of its former wearer’s height with a margin of at least an inch or two (2–5 cm), since the overlap of the protections for lower abdomen (skirt and tassets) and thighs (cuisses) can only be approximated.Indeed, armor comes in all shapes and sizes, such as armor for children or young men (as opposed to that for adults), and there are even armors made for dwarfs and giants (often found at European courts as “curiosities”). Moreover, then as now, other general factors have to be taken into account, such as differences in average body height between northern and southern Europeans for example, or the simple fact that there have always been people who were exceptionally tall or short when compared to their average contemporary.Among the famous exceptions are royal examples such as Francis I, king of France (r. 1515–47), or Henry VIII, king of England (r. 1509–47). The latter’s height of about 6 feet (180 cm) was commented upon by his contemporaries, and can be verified by the more than half-dozen of his armors surviving today (two of them in the Metropolitan Museum).For an interesting contrast in the galleries of the Metropolitan Museum’s Department of Arms and Armor, compare the (composite) German harness of about 1530 and the field armor attributed to Emperor Ferdinand I (r. 1556–64), of about 1555 (33.164). Neither armor is complete, and the sizes of the former owners are necessarily broad estimates, yet the differences in size and stature are remarkable: while the owner of the first armor was probably around 6 feet 4 inches (ca. 193 cm) tall, with his chest measuring about 54 inches (137 cm) in circumference, the owner of the latter harness, probably Emperor Ferdinand, does not appear to have measured more than about 5 feet 7 inches (170 cm) in height.14. Men’s clothing usually closes and buttons left over right because early armor was closed in such a manner.—Uncertain.The theory behind this statement is that some forms of early armor (coats of plates and brigandines of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, as well as the armet, a fifteenth- and sixteenth-century helmet, or the sixteenth-century waistcoat-cuirass) had left side overlapping right so as not to offer any gap to an enemy’s sword thrust. As most people were expected to be right-handed, most strikes or thrusts were anticipated to come from the left, thus hopefully glancing off the armor, across the overlap, toward the right.Although this theory is persuasive, not enough continuous evidence exists to support the notion that modern-day male clothing was directly influenced by such armor. In fact, although the defensive theory may in general be true for medieval and Renaissance armor, a number of genuine helmets and body armor overlap the other way round (right over left).Misconceptions and Questions Relating to Edged Weapons15. Only knights were allowed to carry swords.—Wrong, or not entirely true.As with the wearing of armor, not everyone who carried a sword was a knight. But the idea that the sword is an exclusively “knightly” weapon is not entirely wrong. The custom, or even the right, to wear a sword varied according to time, place, and changing regulations.Throughout medieval Europe, swords were the chief weapon of knights and mounted men-at-arms. In times of peace, however, generally speaking only noblemen were allowed to carry a sword in public. Since in most regions swords were regarded as “weapons of war” (as opposed to the dagger, for example), peasants and burghers, not belonging to the “warrior class” of medieval society, were forbidden to carry swords. An exception to this rule was granted to travelers (citizens, merchants, even pilgrims) due to the inherent dangers of travel by land and sea. Within the walls of most medieval cities, however, the carrying of swords was generally prohibited for everyone—sometimes even nobility—at least during times of peace. Standardized measures for the trade, usually attached prominently to medieval churches or city halls, often also included examples of the permissible length of daggers or swords that could be carried inside city walls without fear of penalty.It is undoubtedly due to such regulations that the sword was transformed into an exclusive symbol of both the warrior class and knightly status. Yet, due to social changes and newly evolved fighting techniques during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it became gradually acceptable for civilians and noblemen alike to carry the lighter and thinner successor of the sword, the rapier, as an everyday weapon for self-defense in public. Indeed, until the early nineteenth century, rapiers and smallswords became an indispensable dress accessory for the European gentleman.16. Swords are heavy and crude weapons.—Wrong.It is a common notion that the sword of medieval and Renaissance times is an unsophisticated instrument of brute force, excessively heavy, consequently almost impossible to be wielded by a “normal” man, and thus a rather inefficient weapon. The reasons for these allegations are easily explained. Due to the rarity of genuine specimens, few people have ever handled a medieval or Renaissance sword. Furthermore, practically all of these swords—with rare exceptions—are in excavated condition. Their corroded appearance today, which can easily give the impression of crudity, can be compared to that of a burnt-out car, having lost all signs of its former glory and sophistication.The majority of genuine medieval and Renaissance swords tell a different story. Whereas a single-handed sword on average weighed 2–4 lbs., even the large two-handed “swords of war” of the fourteenth to the sixteenth century rarely weighed in excess of 10 lbs. With the length of the blade skillfully counterbalanced by the weight of the pommel, these swords were light, sophisticated, and sometimes beautifully decorated. As illustrated by documents and works of art, such a sword, in the hands of a skilled warrior, could be used with terrible efficiency, capable of severing limbs and even cutting through armor.17. “Blood grooves” and poisoned blades?Swords as well as some daggers, whether European, Islamic, or Asian, often have one or more grooves extending down one or both sides (or faces) of the blade. Misconceptions as to their function have led to these grooves being called “blood grooves” or “blood channels.” It is commonly believed that these grooves would speed the flow of blood from an opponent’s wound, thus ensuring a more severe or fatal injury, or that they would break the suction on the blade created by the opponent’s wound, which would make the removal of the weapon easier and a twisting of the blade unnecessary. As misguidedly “entertaining” as these gory theories may be, the actual function of such a groove or grooves is simply to lighten the blade, decreasing its mass, without weakening the blade or diminishing its flexibility. Consequently, such grooves should correctly be referred to as either a groove or a fuller, or by another appropriate technical term.On a number of European edged weapons, such as swords, rapiers, and daggers as well as some staff weapons, these grooves show elaborately cut and pierced perforations. Similar perforations can be found on Indian and Near Eastern edged weapons. It has been proposed, based on scant documentary evidence, that these perforations served to retain poison in order to ensure an opponent’s death. This misconception has also led to such weapons, especially the daggers, being labeled “assassin’s weapons.” Although references to poisoned Indian weapons exist, and there may have been similar but rare incidents in Renaissance Europe, the actual function of these perforations is unsensational. First, the perforations resulted in a loss of material and accordingly served to make the blade lighter. Second, these perforations are often arranged in delicate decorative patterns, serving both as a demonstration of the bladesmith’s skill as well as an aesthetically pleasing decoration. If further proof is wanted, one only need point to the fact that the majority of these perforations are usually found near the hilt (grip and guard) of the weapon and not closer to the blade, as one would expect were the weapon to carry poison.CitationBreiding, Dirk H. “Arms and Armor—Common Misconceptions and Frequently Asked Questions.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/aams/hd_aams.htm (October 2004)Additional Essays by Dirk H. BreidingBreiding, Dirk H.. “Arms and Armor in Renaissance Europe.” (October 2002)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Famous Makers of Arms and Armors and European Centers of Production.” (October 2002)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Fashion in European Armor, 1000–1300.” (October 2004)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Techniques of Decoration on Arms and Armor.” (October 2003)Breiding, Dirk H.. “The Decoration of Arms and Armor.” (October 2003)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Fashion in European Armor, 1400–1500.” (October 2004)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Fashion in European Armor, 1500–1600.” (October 2004)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Fashion in European Armor, 1600–1700.” (October 2004)Breiding, Dirk H.. “The Decoration of European Armor.” (October 2003)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Fashion in European Armor.” (October 2004)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Fashion in European Armor, 1300–1400.” (October 2004)Breiding, Dirk H.. “The Function of Armor in Medieval and Renaissance Europe.” (October 2002)Breiding, Dirk H.. “Horse Armor in Europe.” (March 2010)http://metmuseum.orgMedieval WarfareBalista - a Roman artillery weapon rediscovered in the late Middle AgesThe Middle Ages saw the development of new modes of warfare encompassing both pitched battles and siege warfare. Then as now the western world was engaged in an arms race. New weapons technology prompted new defensive technologies, for example the introduction of cross-bows led quickly to the adoption of plate armour rather than chain mail.During the Dark Ages Christendom had largely abandoned the sophisticated techniques of Classical times, arguing that anything not mentioned in the bible was of satanic origin and that God would ensure victory for his faithful followers.Along with the scientific advances, military techniques had been abandoned and forgotten. This affected building as well as weaponry. For example the Greeks and Romans had used iron ties to join blocks of stone together. Knowing the effects of rust they encased the iron in lead so that it did not rust, and stonework using this technique survives intact today. Medieval builders did not know about the lead protection and used iron ties that rusted, expanded and fractured the surrounding stone.So it was with military engines like the balista and military techniques like the Romans' famous tortoise. So too, ancient techniques for making quick-setting concrete and prefabricated defences were forgotten.To some extent the development of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment is the story of the rediscovery of ancient techniques.Preparations for Medieval Battle Medieval Pitched Battles Medieval Fortifications Medieval Siege WarfareSiege TowersBattering RamsCats and WeaselsChemical, Biological and Psychological WarfareMining: undermining castle wallsMedieval Water SuppliesMedieval Supplies and LogisticsMedieval Equipment & WeaponsMedieval Weapons TechnologyMedieval CommunicationsMedieval Military OrganisationMedieval Women at WarPreparations for Medieval BattlesFor larger battles, planning typically consisted of a council of the war leaders, which could either be the commander laying down a plan or a debate between the different leaders, depending on how much authority the commander possessed.Often decisions were dictated by the Church and formulated for religious rather than military reasons. This explains for example some of the worst disasters suffered by crusaders armies during the Crusades where senior clergy in command of armies routinely ignored advice from seasoned commanders.A medieval pitched battleMedieval Pitched BattlesInfantry, including missile troops, would typically be employed at the outset of the battle to break open infantry formations. Cavalry attempteto defeat the enemy cavalry.Once one side coaxed their opposing infantry into breaking formation, the cavalry would be deployed in attempt to exploit the loss of cohesion in the opposing infantry lines and begin slaying the infantrymen from horse top.Once a break in the lines was exploited, the cavalry became instrumental to victory - causing further breakage in the lines and wreaking havoc amongst the infantrymen, as it is much easier to kill a man from the top of a horse than to stand on the ground and face a half-ton destrier carrying an armed knight.Until a significant break in the enemy infantry lines arose, the cavalry could not be used to much effect against infantry since horses are not easily harried into a wall of pikemen. Pure infantry conflicts would be drawn-out affairs.A hasty retreat could cause greater casualties than an organized withdrawal, because the fast cavalry of the winning side's rearguard would intercept the fleeing enemy while their infantry continued their attack.In most medieval battles, more soldiers were killed during the retreat than in battle, since mounted knights could quickly and easily dispatch the archers and infantry who were no longer protected by a line of pikes as they had been during the previous fighting.Herstmonceux CastleA medieval pitched battleMachicolationsThese fortifications evolved over the course of the Middle Ages, the most important form being the castle, a structure which has become synonymous with the Medieval era to many.The castle served as a protected place for the local elites. Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the raiders from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host.Fortifications provided safety to the lord, his family, his servants and his local vassals. They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle. Heavy cavalry which dominate an open battle was useless against fortifications.Building siege engines was a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign. Sieges could take months, or even years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently.Medieval Siege WarfareIn the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, ballista, and trebuchet. Siege techniques also included mining.Advances in the prosecution of sieges encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, medieval fortifications became progressively stronger — for example, the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades — and more dangerous to attackers as witnessed by the increasing use of machicolations and murder-holes, as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances. Arrow slits, concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege.Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates with drawbridges, portcullises and barbicans. Wet skins of freshly slaughtered animals were draped over gates, hourdes and other wooden structures to retard fire. Moats and other water defences, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls. Carcassonne and Dubrovnik in Dalmatia are well-preserved examples. The more important cities had citadels, forts or castles inside them, often built against the city walls. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia.Attackers would try to get over the walls using scaling ladders, siege towers called belfries, and grapples. Alternatively they could try to get through the doors using a battering ram, or through the walls using heavy artillery. They might try tunnelling under the walls to gain access, but more often they would try to undermine the walls to bring them down.In a siege one army typically attacks an enemy within a stronghold. either a castle or a fortified town. Medieval towns were generally surrounded by defensive walls, just like castles. Indeed the distinction between castles and fortified towns is often blurred. Castles were often located within fortified towns - in fact many towns grew up around existing castles - so that the castle became a sort of citadel within the fortified town.Plan of Carcassonne - you can see the castle (chateau comtal) within the city walls. The odd external feature was a stairway down to the River Aude.Attackers therefore often had two sets of obstacles - first the city walls, then the castle walls. This could lead to interesting complications as at Beaucaire in 1216. For months Simon de Montfort besieged Raymondet in the town, while Raymondet besieged a garrison loyal to de Montfort in the castle within the town.Sometimes there were three sets of obstacles, because fauxburgs with their own defensive walls were often built on to the exterior of city walls, as at Carcassonne and Termes.The Siege of a Castle, Hartlet, Dorothy and Elliot, Margaret M.: “Life and Work of the People of England: The Fourteenth Century” (1929)The Siege of DamiettaBesiegers had a number of techniques for gaining control of their objective - either by forcing a way in, or by forcing the besieged garrison out. Specific techniques - established since prehistoric times - include:breaching the walls or doorways. Attackers would use weapons to get through walls. Examples are stone throwing machines petriers such as trebuchets and mangonels); machines to knock holes in walls such as battering rams; and engines to extract individual dressed stones one by one (cats, weasels and simple picks).tunelling under the walls. Attackers would build mines, either to gain access to the interior or to undermine and collapse the defensive walls.getting over the walls. Attackers would use scaling ladders and siege engines such as large mobile wooden towers known as belfries.sitting and waiting. If communications between the besieged and the outside world could be cut then the defenders could be denied food supplies and sometimes water (as at Beaucaire, Carcassonne, Minerve, and Termes). This was not always possible (as for Raymondet at Beaucaire and at Montsegur). The word siege means "to sit", an indication that this was a standard technique.A Fifth Column. Inducing someone on the inside to assist the attackers, either by bribery or exploiting divided loyalties. They could for example open a postern gate at night. Occasionally attackers could be smuggled in to the besieged fortification to fulfil this role, as for example in ancient times in the famous Trojan horse.Diplomacy, threats, terror and psychological techniques. To help weaken the will of the defenders, attackers could make threats or promises, or terrorise the defenders - for example by mutilating or executing hostages, or by using throwing machines to lob fire, or human heads or other body parts, into the the fortification.Biological Warfare. Medieval besiegers were known to project diseased animals into fortifications with the deliberate intention of spreading disease and so weakening the garisson. I some cases it was possible to poison water supplies, though most fortifications had their own wells or water cisterns.Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favoured the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege, giving rise to a new form of defensive structure, the star-fort.The Second Siege Of Acre, 1291Philippe Augustus, King of France, recieves the keys of a surrendered city from two of the inhabitants.Siege Towers (Belfries, Belfrois)A wheeled belfry with its own battlementsThe medieval belfry was not a church tower, but a siege engine - the modern meaning seemsto have come about by the erroneous association of towers and bells (etymologically, the bel in belfry is not connected with the word "bell").A belfry was used for gaining access to a castle, generally at the level of the battlements. It was typically constructed in wood, on several stories - as many as necessary to reach the battlements. Each story offered a location for attack - bows and crossbows in the lower levels, and armed men in the upper level, ready to drop a sort of drawbridge and gain access to the castle ramparts. The belfry was normally wheeled, so that it could be moved up against the castle walls, and like all exposed wooden engines of war it would be covered in the hides of freshly slaughtered animals and regularly dowsed in water to keep it fireproof.One way to foil the approach of a belfry was to have sloping castle walls. This forced the attackers to cover a greater distance from the top of the belfry to the top of the castle wall. This was one of the benefits of a talus.Another way to foil the approach was to build ditches and moats to prevent the approach of belfries.As on the right, attackers often needed to fill up the ditch or moat to provide a level surface that extended all the way to the foot of the castle wall.In practice, all sorts of material was used for this: earth, rocks, straw, dead bodies, wood, whatever came to hand. If too much wood was used in the infill then the infill itself became a target for fire setters.A covered belfry crossing an infilled dry moat, with a boarding party crossing the lowered drawbridgeBattering RamsA battering ram is a siege engine originating in ancient times to breach fortification walls or doors. In its simplest form, a battering ram is just a large, heavy log carried by several people and propelled with force against the target, the momentum of the ram damaging the target.Some battering rams were supported by rollers. This gave the ram much greater travel so that it could achieve a greater speed before striking its target and was therefore more destructive. Such a ram was used by Alexander the GreatIn a more sophisticated design, the ram was slung from a wheeled support frame so that it could be much more massive and also more easily swung against its target. Sometimes the ram's attacking point would be reinforced with a metal head. A capped ram is a battering ram that has an accessory at the head (usually made of iron or steel, traditionally shaped into the head and horns of a ram to do more damage to a building.Many battering rams had protective roofs and side-screens covered in materials, often fresh wet hides to prevent the ram being set on fire, as well as to protect the ram's operators of the ram from enemies firing arrows down on them.An image of an Assyrian battering ram shows how sophisticated attack and defence had come by the 9th century BC. In the image defenders are trying to set the ram alight with torches and have also put a chain under the ram. The attackers are trying to pull on the chainWhen a castle was being attacked, defenders attempted to foil battering rams by dropping obstacles in front of the ram just before it hit a wall, using grappling hooks to immobilize the log, setting the ram on fire, or sallying out to attack the ram. Battering rams had an important effect on the evolution of defensive walls - the talus for example was one way of reinforcing wall.Battering ram - covered for protection and wheeled to move it up to the wallBattering ram at Château des Baux, FranceBattering ram in actionRaymondet, the future Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, used a ram at Beaucaire in 1216. He was himself besieged in the town by Simon de Montfort's Crusader forces, while he himself was besieging the garisson of the castle within the fortified town. The The Song of the Crusade (the Canso) tells us a little about the ram. We know for example that it had an iron head. The poet tells us that it was"... long, straight, sharp and shod with iron; it thrust, carved and smashed till the wall was breached and many of the dressed stones thrown down. When the besieged Crusaders saw that, they did not panic but made a rope lasso and used a device to fling it so that they caught and held the ram's head, to the rage of all in Beaucaire.Then the engineer who had set up the battering ram arrived. He and his men slipped secretly into the rock itself [presumably the hole already made by the ram, intending to break through the wall with their sharp picks. But when the men in the keep realised this, they cast down fire, sulphur and tow together in a piece of cloth and let it down on a chain.When the fire caught and the sulphur ran, the flames and stench so stupefied them that not one of them could stay there. Then they used their stone throwers and broke down the beams and palisades." (The Song of the Crusade, laisse 164).The CatA Cat was a wooden structure built (or moved) up to a defensive wall. From surviving documents it seems that an arm could manipulated to claw away at the castle wall - hence the name.Cats could be large multi-purpose structures, perhaps with a trebuchet on top and sappers operating from the protected interior.Cats were much feared and if they possibly could, castle defenders would try to destroy them by mounting sorties, by using stone throwing engines, or by setting fire to them.Like all wooden siege engines they would be routinely covered in the skins of freshly slaughtered animals and regularly dowsed with water to keep them fireproof.Simon de Montfort used a cat at the Siege of Beaucaire in 1216, but unsuccessfully. According to the Canso it had "no more effect than an enchanter's dream". It was "a spider's web and a sheer waste of material".Perhaps the most famous cat was one Simon built two years later, attempting to besiege the City of Toulouse in 1217-18. It was while protecting his cat from counter attack by the citizens of Toulouse that Simon de Montfort was struck on the head by a massive stone projectile from a trebuchet on the city walls, and killed instantly.The WeaselA weasel was a similar sort of structure to a cat, but smaller and lighter. It seems to have been more manoeuvrable and used a spike rather than a paw to attack castle walls.It may have taken its name from its business end looking like a weasel's nose, or perhaps its long thin body, or both.A weasel was used by the forces of Raymondet, the future Count Raymond VII of Toulouse, at Beaucaire in 1216 according to the The Song of the Crusade(Canso de la crozada). As Simon de Montfort was conducting a Council of War, a beggar burst in, shouting that he had seen a weasel. The weasel was already against the citadel wall and ready to drive a spike into it. The defenders were quick to react. The chief engineer hurled a pot of molten pitch at it, hitting it in exactly the right spot and it burst into flames.A Cat depicted at CarcassonneChemical Weapons - Greek FireIncendiary devices were standard weapons of war. Wooden defences always needed protection from burning. Wet animal hides were highly effective against burning arrows so military engineers dedicated themselves to finding ways of ensuring that fires burned as long and as strongly as necessary to catch. All sorts of chemicals could be used for this purpose - petroleum, sulphur, quicklime and tar barrels for example.Liquid fire is represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea in 429 BC the Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the walls wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on fire, and at the siege of Delium in 424 BC a cauldron containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal was placed against the walls. A century later Aeneas Tacticus mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow packed in wooden vessels, ignited and thrown onto the decks of enemy ships. Formulae given by Vegetius around AD 350 add naphtha or petroleum. Some nine centuries later the same substances are found and later recipes include saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance. The ultimate in this form of chemical warfare was called Greek-Fire.Greek fire was a burning-liquid used as a weapon of war by the Byzantines, and also by Arabs, Chinese, and Mongols. Incendiary weapons had been in use for centuries: petroleum and sulphur had both been in use since the early days of the Christianity. Greek fire was vastly more potent. Similar to modern napalm, it would adhere to surfaces, ignite upon contact, and could not be extinguished by water alone.Byzantines used it in naval battles to great effect because it burned on water. It was responsible for numerous Byzantine military victories on land as well as at sea - and also for enemies preferring discretion to valour so that many battles never took place at all. It was the ultimate deterrent of the time, and helps explain the Byzantine Empire's survival until 1453. There was no defence. As the Lord of Joinville noted in the thirteenth century "Every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger." Men were known to simply flee their posts rather than face Greek Fire. On the other hand Greek fire was very hard to control, and it would often accidentally set Byzantine ships ablaze.Greek Fire is said to have been invented by a Syrian Engineer, one Callinicus or Kallinikos, a refugee from Maalbek, or an architect from Heliopolis in the Byzantine Province of Judaea, in the seventh century (673 AD). The formula for Greek fire was a closely guarded secret and it remains a mystery to this day.The term Greek Fire was not attributed to it until the time of the European Crusades. Some of the original names include Liquid Fire, Marine Fire, Artificial Fire and Roman Fire. (Muslims against whom the weapon was used called the Byzantines Romans).The weapon was first used by the Byzantine navy, and the most common method of deployment was to squirt it through a large bronze tube onto enemy ships. Usually the mixture would be stored in heated, pressurised barrels and projected through the tube by some sort of pump, operators being protected behind large iron shields. Byzantines used Greek Fire only rarely, apparently out of fear that the secret mixture might fall into enemy hands. The loss of the secret would be a greater loss to Byzantium then the loss of any single battle.In 678 the Byzantines utterly destroyed a Muslim fleet - over 30,000 men were lost. In 717-718 Caliph Suleiman attacked Constantinople (Byzantium). Most of the Muslim fleet was once again destroyed by Greek Fire, and the Caliph was forced to flee. There is virtually no documentation of its usage after this time by the Byzantines and it is generally believed that it was during this era that the secret of creating Greek Fire was lost. Formulae used after this date never seems to have had the same devastating effect.Some form of Greek Fire continued to be used for centuries. Byzantines used it against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade. A so-called "carcass composition" containing sulphur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and antimony, became known to the Crusaders as Greek fire but is more correctly called wildfire.So far, no-one has been able to recreate Greek Fire. Arabian armies, who eventually created their own version sometime between the mid-seventh century and the early tenth. It was relatively weak copy of the original Byzantine substance, though still one of the most devastating weapons of the period. Arabs used the Greek Fire much like Byzantines, using brass tubes mounted aboard ships or on castle walls. They also filled jars with it, to be hurled by hand at their opponents. Arrows and javelins would be used to carry the mixture further and engines of war could be used to throw larger amounts over castle walls.As a defence, water alone was ineffective. On land sand could be used to stop the burning . Intriguingly it is also known that vinegar and urine were effective - suggesting an alkaline composition that could be neutralised by acid. According to some accounts pure or salt water served to intensify the burning, suggesting that Greek Fire may have been a 'thermite-like' reaction, perhaps involving quicklime. According to some sources, Greek Fire burst into flames on contact with water. Some have suggested phosphorus, Others have suggested a form of naphtha or another low-density liquid hydrocarbon (petroleum was already known in the East). There are numerous candidates including liquid petroleum, naphtha, burning pitch, sulphur, resin, quicklime and bitumen, along with a hypothetical unknown "secret ingredient". The exact composition is unlikely ever to be deduced from the inadequate surviving records.It is not clear from contemporary reports if the operator ignited the mixture with a flame as it emerged from the syringe, or if it ignited spontaneously on contact with water or air. If the latter is the case, it is possible that the active ingredient was calcium phosphide, made by heating lime, bones, and charcoal. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases phosphine, which ignites spontaneously. The reaction of quicklime with water also creates enough heat to ignite hydrocarbons, especially if an oxidiser such as saltpetre is present.Ingredients were apparently preheated in a cauldron, and then pumped through a pump or used in hand grenades. If a pyrophoric reaction was involved, perhaps these grenades contained chambers for the fluids, which mixed and ignited when the vessel broke on impact with the target.More informationProfessor J.R. Partington, A History of the Greek Fire and Gunpowder, Heffer, 1960.Greek fire was not the only Chemical Weapon. Poisoned arrows could be employed and in the late medieval period gunpowder became common.Biological WeaponsMedieval warriors also used basic biological weapons, for example catapulting dead and diseased animals into a defended fortress to help spread disease.Psychological WeaponsAncient armies had used sophisticated psychological weapons. For example would have mad armour suitable for a man of several times normal size. He would then leave a few samples laying around the scene of his victories against the Persians. After he had gone Persians would find this armour and were were soon spreading stories of Alexander's superhuman giant soldiers.Christendom did not stretch to this level of sophistication, but it did engage in some psychological warfare, spreading rumours for example, sometimes with success effectively turning a military defeat into a political victory. Other examples of psychological warfare include making loud noises (an old Celtic practice) and catapulting the severed heads of captured enemies back into the enemy camp.Defenders in castles under siege might prop up dummies beside the walls to make it look like there were more defenders than there really were. They might throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful (Dame Carcas, who saw off the Franks, supposedly gave her name to Carcassonne after feeding the last few scraps of food in the besieged city to the last pig and then tossing over the walls as a present to the Franks. As intended, they deduced that their siege was useless and raised it the next day).Firearms provided a strong psychological benefit when they were introduced, even though their rate of fire rendered them almost useless - and their users often blew themselves up rather than the enemy - literally hoist by their own petard.Chemical Weapons - Greek FireIncendiary devices were standard weapons of war. Wooden defences always needed protection from burning. Wet animal hides were highly effective against burning arrows so military engineers dedicated themselves to finding ways of ensuring that fires burned as long and as strongly as necessary to catch. All sorts of chemicals could be used for this purpose - petroleum, sulphur, quicklime and tar barrels for example.Liquid fire is represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea in 429 BC the Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the walls wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on fire, and at the siege of Delium in 424 BC a cauldron containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal was placed against the walls. A century later Aeneas Tacticus mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow packed in wooden vessels, ignited and thrown onto the decks of enemy ships. Formulae given by Vegetius around AD 350 add naphtha or petroleum. Some nine centuries later the same substances are found and later recipes include saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance. The ultimate in this form of chemical warfare was called Greek-Fire.Greek fire was a burning-liquid used as a weapon of war by the Byzantines, and also by Arabs, Chinese, and Mongols. Incendiary weapons had been in use for centuries: petroleum and sulphur had both been in use since the early days of the Christianity. Greek fire was vastly more potent. Similar to modern napalm, it would adhere to surfaces, ignite upon contact, and could not be extinguished by water alone.Byzantines used it in naval battles to great effect because it burned on water. It was responsible for numerous Byzantine military victories on land as well as at sea - and also for enemies preferring discretion to valour so that many battles never took place at all. It was the ultimate deterrent of the time, and helps explain the Byzantine Empire's survival until 1453. There was no defence. As the Lord of Joinville noted in the thirteenth century "Every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger." Men were known to simply flee their posts rather than face Greek Fire. On the other hand Greek fire was very hard to control, and it would often accidentally set Byzantine ships ablaze.Greek Fire is said to have been invented by a Syrian Engineer, one Callinicus or Kallinikos, a refugee from Maalbek, or an architect from Heliopolis in the Byzantine Province of Judaea, in the seventh century (673 AD). The formula for Greek fire was a closely guarded secret and it remains a mystery to this day.The term Greek Fire was not attributed to it until the time of the European Crusades. Some of the original names include Liquid Fire, Marine Fire, Artificial Fire and Roman Fire. (Muslims against whom the weapon was used called the Byzantines Romans).The weapon was first used by the Byzantine navy, and the most common method of deployment was to squirt it through a large bronze tube onto enemy ships. Usually the mixture would be stored in heated, pressurised barrels and projected through the tube by some sort of pump, operators being protected behind large iron shields. Byzantines used Greek Fire only rarely, apparently out of fear that the secret mixture might fall into enemy hands. The loss of the secret would be a greater loss to Byzantium then the loss of any single battle.In 678 the Byzantines utterly destroyed a Muslim fleet - over 30,000 men were lost. In 717-718 Caliph Suleiman attacked Constantinople (Byzantium). Most of the Muslim fleet was once again destroyed by Greek Fire, and the Caliph was forced to flee. There is virtually no documentation of its usage after this time by the Byzantines and it is generally believed that it was during this era that the secret of creating Greek Fire was lost. Formulae used after this date never seems to have had the same devastating effect.Some form of Greek Fire continued to be used for centuries. Byzantines used it against the Venetians during the Fourth Crusade. A so-called "carcass composition" containing sulphur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and antimony, became known to the Crusaders as Greek fire but is more correctly called wildfire.So far, no-one has been able to recreate Greek Fire. Arabian armies, who eventually created their own version sometime between the mid-seventh century and the early tenth. It was relatively weak copy of the original Byzantine substance, though still one of the most devastating weapons of the period. Arabs used the Greek Fire much like Byzantines, using brass tubes mounted aboard ships or on castle walls. They also filled jars with it, to be hurled by hand at their opponents. Arrows and javelins would be used to carry the mixture further and engines of war could be used to throw larger amounts over castle walls.As a defence, water alone was ineffective. On land sand could be used to stop the burning . Intriguingly it is also known that vinegar and urine were effective - suggesting an alkaline composition that could be neutralised by acid. According to some accounts pure or salt water served to intensify the burning, suggesting that Greek Fire may have been a 'thermite-like' reaction, perhaps involving quicklime. According to some sources, Greek Fire burst into flames on contact with water. Some have suggested phosphorus, Others have suggested a form of naphtha or another low-density liquid hydrocarbon (petroleum was already known in the East). There are numerous candidates including liquid petroleum, naphtha, burning pitch, sulphur, resin, quicklime and bitumen, along with a hypothetical unknown "secret ingredient". The exact composition is unlikely ever to be deduced from the inadequate surviving records.It is not clear from contemporary reports if the operator ignited the mixture with a flame as it emerged from the syringe, or if it ignited spontaneously on contact with water or air. If the latter is the case, it is possible that the active ingredient was calcium phosphide, made by heating lime, bones, and charcoal. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases phosphine, which ignites spontaneously. The reaction of quicklime with water also creates enough heat to ignite hydrocarbons, especially if an oxidiser such as saltpetre is present.Ingredients were apparently preheated in a cauldron, and then pumped through a pump or used in hand grenades. If a pyrophoric reaction was involved, perhaps these grenades contained chambers for the fluids, which mixed and ignited when the vessel broke on impact with the target.More informationProfessor J.R. Partington, A History of the Greek Fire and Gunpowder, Heffer, 1960.Greek fire was not the only Chemical Weapon. Poisoned arrows could be employed and in the late medieval period gunpowder became common.Biological WeaponsMedieval warriors also used basic biological weapons, for example catapulting dead and diseased animals into a defended fortress to help spread disease.Psychological WeaponsAncient armies had used sophisticated psychological weapons. For example would have mad armour suitable for a man of several times normal size. He would then leave a few samples laying around the scene of his victories against the Persians. After he had gone Persians would find this armour and were were soon spreading stories of Alexander's superhuman giant soldiers.Christendom did not stretch to this level of sophistication, but it did engage in some psychological warfare, spreading rumours for example, sometimes with success effectively turning a military defeat into a political victory. Other examples of psychological warfare include making loud noises (an old Celtic practice) and catapulting the severed heads of captured enemies back into the enemy camp.Defenders in castles under siege might prop up dummies beside the walls to make it look like there were more defenders than there really were. They might throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful (Dame Carcas, who saw off the Franks, supposedly gave her name to Carcassonne after feeding the last few scraps of food in the besieged city to the last pig and then tossing over the walls as a present to the Franks. As intended, they deduced that their siege was useless and raised it the next day).Firearms provided a strong psychological benefit when they were introduced, even though their rate of fire rendered them almost useless - and their users often blew themselves up rather than the enemy - literally hoist by their own petard.Napalm, the modern equivalent of Greek Fire, deployed by the US navy during the Vietnam war much as the Byzantine navy deployed Greek FireA contemporary account of the Byzantines in action:[The Byzantine Emperor Alexios] had fixed to the bows of each of his galleys a tube ending in the head of a lion or other beast wrought in brass or iron, 'so that the animals might seem to vomit flames'. The fleet came up with the Pisans between Rhodes and Patara, but as its vessels were pursuing them with too great zeal it could not attack as a single body. The first to reach the enemy was the Byzantine admiral Landulph, who shot off his fire too hastily, missed his mark and accomplished nothing. But Count Eleemon, who was the next to close, had better fortune; he rammed the stern of a Pisan vessel, so that the bows of his ship got stuck in its steering-oar tackle. Then, shooting forth the fire, he set it ablaze, after which he pushed off and successfully discharged his tube into three other vessels, all of which were soon in flames. The Pisans then fled in disorder, 'having had no previous knowledge of the device, and wondering that fire, which usually burns upwards, could be directed downwards or to either hand, at the will of the engineer who discharged it'. That the Greek fire was a liquid, and not merely an inflammable substance attached to ordinary missiles, after the manner of fire-arrows, is quite clear from the fact that Leo [VI the Wise] proposes to cast it on the enemy in fragile earthen vessels which may break and allow the material to run about—as also from the name pyr enygron or 'liquid fire' which Anna uses for it.C.W.C. Oman paraphrasing an account by Alexios's daughter Anna Comnena (1083–1153) about a sea battle between the Pisans and Byzantines near Rhodes in the year 1103.The Lord of Joinville, a thirteenth century French nobleman, mentions Greek Fire during the seventh Crusade:It happened one night, whilst we were keeping night-watch over the tortoise-towers, that they brought up against us an engine called a perronel (which they had not done before) and filled the sling of the engine with Greek fire. When that good knight, Lord Walter of Cureil, who was with me, saw this, he spoke to us as follows: "Sirs, we are in the greatest peril that we have ever yet been in. For, if they set fire to our turrets and shelters, we are lost and burnt; and if, again, we desert our defences which have been entrusted to us, we are disgraced; so none can deliver us from this peril save God alone. My opinion and advice therefor is: that every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger.So soon as they flung the first shot, we went down on our elbows and knees, as he had instructed us; and their first shot passed between the two turrets, and lodged just in front of us, where they had been raising the dam. Our firemen were all ready to put out the fire; and the Saracens, not being able to aim straight at them, on account of the two penthouse wings which the King had made, shot straight up into the clouds, so that the fire-darts fell right on top of them.This was the fashion of the Greek fire: it came on as broad in front as a vinegar cask, and the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed.Thrice that night they hurled the Greek fire at us, and four times shot it from the tourniquet cross-bow.spraying Greek FireSpraying Greek Fire (detail)Mining, Undermining Defensive WallsA"mine" was a tunnel dug to destabilise and bring down castles and other fortifications. The technique could be used only when the fortification was not built on solid rock. It was developed as a response to stone built castles that could not be burned like earlier-style wooden forts.A tunnel would be excavated under the outer defences either to provide access into the fortification or more often to collapse the walls. These tunnels were supported by temporary wooden props as the digging progressed, just as in any mine. Once the excavation was complete, the mine was filled with combustible material. When lit it would burn away the props leaving the structure above unsupported and liable to collapse.To save effort attackers would start the digging as near as possible to the wall or tower to be undermined. This exposed the sappers to enemy fire so it was necessary to provide some sort of defence. Pierre des Vaux de Cernayrecounts that at the siege of Carcassonne in 1209, during the Cathar wars (Albigensian Crusade),"... after the top of the wall had been somewhat weakened by bombardment from petraries, our engineers succeeded with great difficulty in bringing a four-wheeled wagon, covered in oxhides, close to the wall, from which they set to work to sap the wall" (Historia Albigensis - Pierre des Vaux de Cernay, 53).Successful sapping usually ended the battle since either the defenders would no longer be able to defend and surrender, or the attackers would simply charge in and engage the defenders in close combat.There were several methods to resist under mining. Often the siting of a castle would be such as to make mining difficult. The walls of a castle could be constructed either on solid rock or water-logged land making it difficult to dig mines. A very deep ditch or moat could be constructed in front of the walls, or even an artificial. This makes it more difficult to dig a mine and even if a breach is made the ditch or moat makes exploiting the breach difficult.The defenders could also dig counter mines. From these they could then either dig into the attackers tunnels and sortie into them to either kill the sappers or to set fire to the pit-props to collapse the attackers' tunnel. Alternatively they could undermine the attackers' tunnel to collapse it.If the walls were breached they could either place obstacles in the breach for example a chevaux de frise to hinder an attack, or construct a coupure.The practice has left us reminders in English. "undermining" has acquired figurative as well as literal meanings. And military engineers are still known as Sappers.Water SuppliesWater was essential to any army and the defence of any stronghold. Wherever practical castles were built on the site of natural springs but that was not always possible.Where it was not, much effort went into digging wells or aqueducts (sometimes subterranean), or massive cisterns.Many of the castles that fell during the Cathar Wars did so because of a shortage of water, including Termes and Carcassonne. The illustration on the left shows a massive defensive structure built at Carcassonneto ensure a water supply and access to the River Aude.plan view of a model of the water corridor at carcassonneSupplies and LogisticsThe usual method for solving logistical problems for smaller armies was foraging or "living off the land" - effectively stealing whatever was needed: animals, crops, wood and so on.The normal "campaign season" corresponded to the seasons of the year when there would be food on the ground and relatively good weather. This season was usually from spring to autumn. Soldiers were rarely full-time and often needed to attend to their own land at home. In many European countries peasants were obliged to perform around 45 days of military service per year without pay, usually during this campaign season when they were not required for agriculture. By early-spring all the crops would be planted, freeing the male population for warfare until they were needed for harvest time in late-autumn.Plunder in itself was often an objective of military campaigns, to either pay mercenary forces, seize resources, reduce the fighting capacity of enemy forces, or even just as a public insult to the enemy ruler.With the advent of castle-building and the extended siege, supply problems became much greater, as armies had to stay in one spot for months, or even years.Supply trains are as much a feature of Medieval warfare as they are of ancient and modern warfare. Due to the impossibility of maintaining a real front in pre-modern warfare, supplies had to be carried with the army or transported to it while under guard. However, a supply source moving with the army was necessary for any large-scale army to operate. Medieval supply trains are often found in illuminations and even poems of the period.River and sea travel often provided the easiest way to transport supplies. During his invasion of the Levant, Richard I of England was forced to supply his army as it was marching through a barren desert. By marching his army along the shore, Richard was regularly re-supplied by ships travelling along the coast. Likewise, as in Roman Imperial times, armies would frequently follow rivers while their supplies were being carried by barges. Supplying armies by mass land-transport would not become practical until the invention of rail transport and the internal combustion engine.The baggage train provided an alternative supply method that was not dependent on access to a water-way. However, it was often a tactical liability. Supply chains forced armies to travel more slowly than a light skirmishing force and were typically centrally placed in the army, protected by the infantry and outriders. Attacks on an enemy's baggage when it was unprotected — as for instance the French attack on the English train at Agincourt, highlighted in the play Henry V—could cripple an army's ability to continue a campaign. This was particularly true in the case of sieges, when large amounts of supplies had to be provided for the besieging army. To refill its supply train, an army would forage extensively as well as re-supply itself in cities or supply points - border castles were frequently stocked with supplies for this purpose.A failure in logistics often resulted in famine and disease for a medieval army, with corresponding deaths and loss of morale. A besieging force could starve while waiting for the same to happen to the besieged, which meant the siege had to be lifted. With the advent of the great castles of high medieval Europe however, this problem was typically something commanders prepared for on both sides, so sieges could be long, drawn-out affairs.Epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, cholera, typhoid, and dysentery often swept through medieval armies, especially when poorly supplied or sedentary. In a famous example, in 1347 the bubonic plague erupted in the besieging Mongol army outside the walls of Caffa, Crimea where the disease then spread throughout Europe as the Black Death.For the inhabitants of a contested area, famine often followed protracted periods of warfare, because foraging armies ate any food stores they could find, reducing or depleting reserve stores. In addition, the overland routes taken by armies on the move could easily destroy a carefully planted field, preventing a crop the following season. Moreover, the death toll in war hit the farming labour pool particularly hard, making it even more difficult to recoup losses.Medieval Wars: Major European wars of the Middle Ages, arranged chronologically by year begunUmayyad conquest of Hispania (711-718)Muslim conquest of southern Italy (831-902)Byzantine-Seljuk wars (1064–1308)Byzantine-Ottoman wars (1299–1453)Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars (1354–1422)The Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars (680–1364)The Saxon Wars - (772-804)The Spanish Reconquista (718-1492): In which the Moors were driven from the Iberian Peninsula; begun under Pelayo in Asturias, concluded under the Catholic Monarchs (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon), of Columbus fame.The Crusades (1096–1291): A generic, catch-all term for Church-sanctioned wars against non-Christians or heretics.1096–1099—First Crusade: The only "successful" crusade against the Islamic Near East; Christian states were established throughout the Levant.1101—Crusade of 11011147–1149—Second Crusade1147-1410—Northern Crusades1187–1191—Third Crusade1202–1204—Fourth Crusade: In which the Western forces sacked Constantinople1209–1229—Albigensian Crusade: In which the Albigensians in southern France were crushed.1217–1221—Fifth Crusade1228—Sixth Crusade1248–1254—Seventh Crusade1270—Eighth Crusade1271–1291—Ninth CrusadeThe Hussite Wars (1420–1434)The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453): In which the English were eventually driven out of France;The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487): War for the English throne between the Houses of Lancaster and YorkMedieval Battle Equipment & WeaponsBladed Hand WeaponsSwordsArming SwordsBroad SwordsFalchionsLong SwordDaggers & KnivesAnelacesStilettosPoingnardsRondelBlunt Hand WeaponsClubs and MacesMorningstarssHoly Water SprinklersFlailsWar HammersHorsemen's PicksPolearmsQuarterstavesSpearsWinged SpearsLancesPikesCorsequesFauchardsGlaivesGuisarmesHalberdsDanish AxesSparthsBardichesPollaxesMaulsBecs de CorbinRanged Weapons.FranciscasJavelinsBows, LongbowsCrossbowsArbalestsGunsHand CannonsArquebusesPierriersTraction TrebuchetsCounterweight TrebuchetsOnagers and MangonelsBallistas and SpringaldsArtilleryBombardsPetardsOther Siege Weapons Siege Towers (Belfries, Belfrois)Battering RamsCats and WeaselsChemical, Biological and Psychological WeaponsArmourChain Mail, Hauberks or Haubergeons, Coifs and PixanesPlate ArmourHead Armour: Helms, Nasal Helmets, Great Helms, Templar Helms, Bascinets, Armets, Sallets, Barbutes, Close Helms, Burgonets, MorionsNeck Armour, Aventails or Camails, Bevor, Gorget Body Armour, Brigandines, Cuirasses, Corslets, Plackards, Faulds, CuletsArm and Shoulder Armour Hand Armour: GauntletsLeg Armour:Tasset or Tuille, Cuisse, Poleyn, Schynbald, Greave, Chausses,Foot Armour: Sabatons or SolleretsHorsesShieldsMedieval Military TechnologyPerhaps the most important technological advancement for medieval warfare in Europe was the invention of the stirrup, which had been unknown to the Romans. It most likely came to Europe with the Avars in the 600's AD, although it was not fully adopted by Europeans until the 900's AD.In the Medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield. Heavily armoured, mounted knights represented a formidable foe for peasant draftees and lightly-armoured freemen. To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques developed in Antiquity by the Greeks. Ancient generals of Asia used regiments of archers to fend off mounted threats. Alexander the Great combined both methods in his clashes with swarming Asiatic horseman, screening the central infantry core with slingers, archers and javelin men, before unleashing his cavalry to see off attackers.The use of long pikes and densely-packed foot troops was not uncommon in Medieval times. Flemish footmen at the Battle of the Golden Spurs met and overcame French knights in 1302, and the Scots held their own against heavily-armoured English invaders.During the St. Louis' crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry. The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period. While pikemen usually grouped together and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive manoeuvring, forcing their opponents to respond. The Swiss won at Morgarten, Laupen, Sempach, Grandson and Murten, and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons.Welsh & English longbowman used a single-piece longbow to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporary plate armour and mail. The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring years of use and constant practice. A skilled longbowman could shoot about 12 shots per minute. This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like the crossbow or early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias and mercenary forces. The crossbow had greater range and penetrating power, and did not require the extended years of training.At Crécy and Agincourt bowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights. At Crécy, even 15,000 Genoese' crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill. At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercing bodkin point arrows and horse-maiming broadheads. The Welsh longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility.Since the longbow was difficult to deploy in a thrusting mobile offensive, it was best used in a defensive configuration. Bowmen were extended in thin lines and protected and screened by pits (as at the Battle of Bannockburn), staves or trenches. The terrain was usually chosen to put the archers at an advantage forcing their opponents into a bottleneck (Agincourt) or a hard climb under fire (Crécy). Sometimes bowmen were deployed in a shallow "W", enabling them to trap and enfilade their foes.The pike and the longbow put an end to the dominance of cavalry in European warfare, making the use of foot soldiers more important than they had been in recent years. Knights began themselves to rather fight dismounted, using two-handed swords, poleaxes and other polearms, as the improved knightly plate armour made them fairly immune to arrows.Gunpowder eventually was to provoke even more significant changes. However, a mounted reserve was often kept, and the heavy cavalry continued to be an important battlefield arm of European armies until the nineteenth century, when new and more accurate weapons made the mounted soldier too easy a target.In the armies of Europe, mounted and unmounted crossbowmen, often mixed with javeliners and archers, occupied a central position in battle formations. Usually they engaged the enemy in offensive skirmishes before an assault of mounted knights. Crossbowmen were also valuable in counterattacks to protect their infantry. The rank of commanding officer of the crossbowmen corps was one of the highest positions in any army of this time. Along with polearm weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the Taborites.Mounted knights armed with lances proved ineffective against formations of pikemen combined with crossbowmen whose weapons could penetrate most knights' armor. The invention of pushlever and ratchet drawing mechanisms enabled the use of crossbows on horseback, leading to the development of new cavalry tactics. Knights and mercenaries deployed in triangular formations, with the most heavily armoured knights at the front. Some of these riders would carry small, powerful all-metal crossbows of their own. Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by more powerful gunpowder weapons, although early guns had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows. Later, similar competing tactics would feature arquebusiers or musketeers in formation with pikemen, pitted against cavalry firing pistols or carbines.Cannons were introduced to the battlefield in the later medieval period. However, their very poor rate of fire (which often meant that only one shot was fired in the course of an entire battle) and their inaccuracy made them more of a psychological force multiplier than an effective anti-personnel weapon.Later on in medieval warfare, one handed cannons were introduced, the rate of fire improved only slightly, but the cannons became far easier to aim, largely because they were smaller and much closer to their wielder. Users could be easily protected, because the cannons were lighter and could be moved far more quickly. Real field artillery did not become truly effective or commonly employed until well into the early modern period. The introduction of the arquebus is reflected in contemporary castle architecture - traditional arrow slits were replaced by (or adapted into gun ports).Some Medieval BattlesThe Siege of Constantinople (718)The Battle of Tours (732)The Battle of Brunanburh (937)The Battle of Lechfeld (955)The Battle of Tara (980)The Battle of Maldon (c. 991)The Battle of Kleidion (1014)The Battle of Stamford Bridge (1066)The Battle of Hastings (1066)The Battle of Manzikert (1071)The Battle of Levounion (1091)The Siege of Jerusalem (1099)The Siege of Lisbon (1147)The Battle of Sirmium (1167)The Battle of Myriokephalon (1176)The Battle of Hattin (1187)The Battle of Adrianople (1205)The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212)The Battle of Bouvines (1214)The Battle of Baghdad (1258)The Battle of Fishing Town (1259)The Battle of Ain Jalut (1260)The Battle on the Marchfeld (1278)The Battle of Yamen (1279)The Second Battle of Homs (1281)The Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297)The Battle of the Golden Spurs (1302)The Battle of Bannockburn (1314)The Battle of Dysert O'Dea (1318)The Battle of Faughart (1318)The Battle of Velbazhd (1330)The Battle of Crécy (1346)The Battle of Poitiers (1356)The Battle of Lake Poyang (1363)The Battle of Maritsa (1371)The Battle of Kulikovo (1380)The Battle of Aljubarrota (1385)The Battle of Kosovo (1389)The Battle of Nicopolis (1396)The Battle of Ankara (1402)The Battle of Grunwald/Tannenberg (1410)The Battle of Agincourt (1415)The Battle of Patay (1429)The Battle of Varna (1444)The Fall of Constantinople (1453)The Siege of Belgrade (1456)The Battle of Towton (1461)The Battle of Vaslui (1475)The Battle of Nancy (1477)The Siege of Rhodes (1480)The Battle of Bosworth Field (1485)The Battle of Knockdoe (1504)HorsesShieldsLongbow MenArquebusArmour piercing bodkin - a type of arrow headMons Meg at Edinburgh CastleThe Christian surrender at the battle of Hattin - 1187Medieval Military CommunicationsBattlefield communications before the advent of strict lines of communication were difficult. Communication was done through musical signals (drums and horns), audible commands, mounted messengers, and visual signals such as flags.Fire beacons were used in many places where there was a network of towers or castles visible one from another. On the border between England and scotland a line of Peel Towers was built for exactly this purpose. In Scandinavia many hill forts were part of beacon networks to warn against invading pillagers. In Wales, the Brecon Beacons were named for beacons used to warn of approaching English raiders. In England, the most famous examples are the beacons used in Elizabethan England to warn of the approaching Spanish Armada. Many hills in England were named Beacon Hill after such beacons. In the Languedoc, where castles were often built on mountain tops, castles were almost invariably in view of at least one one other castle.Carrier pigeons historically carried messages only one way, to their home. They had to be transported manually before another flight. By placing their food at one location and their home at another location, pigeons have been trained to fly back and forth up to twice a day reliably. This setup allows Pigeons to cover 160 km round trip.Fire BeaconMedieval Military OrganisationThe medieval knight was usually mounted and armoured, often connected with nobility or royalty, although especially in north-eastern Europe knights could also come from the lower classes.The cost of a knight's armour, horses, and weapons was great. This helped transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors.During the crusades, holy orders of monks who were also knights were created, including the Knights Templar, the Knights Hospitaller and the Teutonic Knights. They were formed to fight in the Holy Land and became the "storm troops" of the Christian crusaders.Heavy cavalry, armed with lances and an assortment of hand weapons, played a significant part in the battles of the Middle Ages. The heavy cavalry consisted of nobles and wealthy knights who could afford the equipment.Heavy cavalry made the difference between victory and defeat in many key battles. Their charges could break the lines of most infantry formations, making them a valuable asset to all medieval armies, the equivalent of twentieth century tank regiments.Light cavalry consisted of lighter armed and armoured men, who could have lances, javelins or missile weapons, such as bows or crossbows. Light cavalry were used as scouts, skirmishers or outflankers. Many countries developed their own styles of light cavalry, such as Hungarian mounted archers, Spanish jinetes, Italian and German mounted crossbowmen.Crusaders tended to favour heavy cavalry mounted on mares while the Saracens favoured light cavalry mounted on stallions.Infantry were recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers.In sieges, perhaps the most common element of medieval warfare, infantry units served as garrison troops and archers, among other positions. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, with the advancements of weapons and armour, infantrymen became more important.In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle from his liege lord with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.Typically feudal armies consisted of a core of highly skilled knights and their household troops, mercenaries hired for the time of the campaign and feudal levies fulfilling their feudal obligations, who usually were little more than rabble. They could, however, be efficient in disadvantageous terrain. Towns and cities could also field militias.As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen and mercenary armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. It is often claimed that the best infantrymen came from the younger sons of free land-owning yeomen, such as the English archers and Swiss pikemen.England was one of the most centralized states in the Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the Hundred Years' War were mostly paid professionals. In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days (called quarantine) was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent.Scutage was introduced, under which most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. Almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from the early twelfth century.As the Middle Ages progressed, both the Papacy and Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces. In Italy they came to dominate the armies of the city states. While at war they were considerably more reliable than a standing army, but in peacetime they proved a risk to the state itself (as the Pretorian Guard had once been in Roman times).Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles, since the condottieri recognized it was more efficient to attack the enemy's ability to wage war rather than his battle forces,, and attempting to attack the enemy supply lines, his economy and his ability to wage war rather than risking an open battle, and manoeuvre him in a position where risking a battle would have been suicidal.Knights were drawn to battle by feudal and social obligation, but also by the prospect of profit and advancement. Those who performed well stood to increase their landholdings and advance in the social hierarchy - this was a major factor in the Crusades in the Holy Land and also European crusades such as the Albigensian Crusade - the War against the Cathars of the Languedoc.For the mounted knight Medieval Warfare could be a relatively low risk affair. Nobles avoided killing each other, rather preferring capturing them alive, for several reasons for one, many were related to each other, had fought alongside one another, and they were all members of the same elite culture; for another, a noble's ransom could be very high, and indeed some made a living by capturing and ransoming nobles in battle.Huge ransoms could be demanded for captured knights and more still for high nobles and kings. Some knights made their fortunes by fighting. William the Marshall being the best known example. Even peasants, who did not share the bonds of kinship and culture, would often avoid killing a nobleman, valuing the high ransom that a live capture could bring, as well as the valuable horse, armour and equipment that came with him. On the other hand it was quite common, even at the height of "chivalric" warfare, for the knights to suffer heavy casualties during battles. Christendom was shaken when King Peter II of Aragon was killed fighting on the side of his vassal Raymond of Toulouse at Muret in the Languedoc.Clergymen played a major part in battles - from their planning to building siege engines (a clerical specialty), encouraging the troops and taking part in the fighting. We have many accounts of senior clergy leading battles and not only during the crusades. They are also depicted in contemporary art - popes, cardinals and bishops, wearing full armour and wielding weapons. The role of military bishops is commemorated today by the presence of four bishops on a chess board. Clerical combatants are depicted in medieval art and according to tradition favoured the mace as a weapon (a mace could kill without shedding blood which the Church considered desirable).On the other hand swords feature more heavily than maces in the arms of England bishopsBishop of LondonBishop of St-AlbansBishop of WinchesterBishop of ExeterKnights Templar and Knights Hospitaller, the shock troops of Christian armies, were monks in the fullest sense- they took the same vows as other monks in addition to their vows as knights. If caught by the enemy they were almost always executed while other knights were usually ransomed. The reason was that they were such fanatical fighters that it made sense to put them permanently out of the war whenever possible.The practice of carrying relics into battle is a feature that distinguishes medieval warfare from its predecessors or from early modern warfare. The presence of relics was believed to be an important source of supernatural power that served both as a spiritual weapon and a form of defence; the relics of martyrs were considered by Saint John Chrysostom much more powerful than "walls, trenches, weapons and hosts of soldiers" - another reason for so many lost battles.In Italy, the carroccio or carro della guerra, the "war wagon" , was an elaboration of this practice that developed during the 13th century. A Carroccio was a four-wheeled war altar drawn by oxen, used by the medieval republics of Italy. It was a rectangular platform on which the standard of the city and an altar were erected. Priests held services on the altar before the battle, and the trumpeters beside them encouraged the fighters to the fray.The carro della guerra of Milan was draped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen caparisoned in white with the red cross of Saint George, the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast.Knights TemplarBishop Odo wielding his mace against an Anglo-Saxon knight at the Battle of Hastings (From the Bayeaux Tapestry)Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy a bishop, recognisable by his mitre, riding to battle with other knights at Antioch on 28th June 1098. He is carrying a Holy Lance.A War Waggoncarroccio della guerra - A religious war waggonThe Prince Bishop of Durham displayed (and still displays) his bishop's mitre within a ducal coronet, reflecting his temporal power. Behind the shield are a crozier and a sword.Women at WarContrary to popular belief, women often engaged in medieval warfare. If the Chatelaine happened to be at home while their husband was away and their castle was besieged, it was routine for her to command the defences.Here are some examples of notable Medieval femail warriors:8th century: Shieldmaidens fight at the Battle of Bråvalla on the side of the Danes.722: Queen Aethelburg of Wessex destroys the town of Taunton.750: Veborg, as well as many other Shieldmaidens, participate in the Battle of Bråvalla in Sweden.783: Saxon women throw themselves barebreasted into battle against Charlemagne's forces. Among them is Fastrada, who became Charlemagne's fourth wife.Early 9th century: Cwenthryth fights Wulfred, Archbishop of Canterbury, for control of her abbey estates.880: Ermengarda defends Vienne.[20]912-922: Reign of Ethelfleda, ruler of Mercia. She commanded armies, fortified towns, and defeated the Danes. She also defeated the Welsh and forced them to pay tribute to her.Mid 10th century: Queen Thyra of Denmark leads an army against the Germans.971: The Scandinavian ruler of Kiev attacked the Byzantines in Bulgaria in 971. When the Norsemen had been defeated, the victors discovered shieldmaidens among the fallen warriors.Early 11th century: Freydís Eiríksdóttir, a Viking woman, sails to Vinland with Thorfinn Karlsefni. When she faced hostile natives while pregnant, she exposed her breasts and beat her chest with a sword. This caused the natives to run away.1040-1090: Sichelgaita of Salerno second wife of Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, accompanies her husband on military campaigns, and regularly puts on full armor and rides into battle at his side. At the Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081) she rallied Robert's troops when they were initially repulsed by the Byzantine army.1046-1115: Lifetime of Matilda of Tuscany, the principal Italian supporter of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy.. She is sometimes called la Gran Contessa ("the Great Countess") or Matilda of Canossa after her ancestral castle of Canossa.1071: Richilde, Countess of Mons and Hainaut is captured fighting in the Battle of Cassel.1072: Urraca of Zamora, Infanta of Castile, defends the city of Zamora against her brother, Sancho II of Castile.1075: Emma de Guader, Countess of Norfolk defends Norwich castle while it is under siege.1090: A Norman woman Isabel of Conches rides armed as a knight.1121:Urraca of Castile fights her half-sister, Theresa, Countess of Portugal when she refuses to surrender the city of Tuy.1131-1160: Melisende of Jerusalem ruler of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem is one of the rulers involved in the Second Crusade.1136: Welsh princess Gwenllian ferch Gruffydd leads an army against the Normans. She is defeated and killed.1141: Matilda of Boulogne raises an army to continue the fight for the crown of England, after her husband, King Stephen is captured by the Empress Matilda.1145: Eleanor of Aquitaine accompanies her husband on the Second Crusade.1172: Alrude Countess of Bertinoro ends a siege of Aucona by leading an army into battle and crushing imperial troops.Late 12th century: Eva MacMurrough conducts battles on behalf of her husband, the Earl of Pembroke.3rd May 1211. The chatelaine of Lavaur, Gerauda (or Geralda) de Lavaur, was murdered by Catholic Crusaders because of her part in resisting their siege of Lavaur during the Cathar Crusade. Click here to read more about the siege of LavaurMid 13th century: Eleanor of Castile accompanies her husband on his crusade. According to legend, she saves his life by sucking poison from his wound when he was injured.1264: Eleanor of Provence raises troops in France for her husband during the Baron's War.1271: Isabella of Aragon dies at Consenza on the way back from the Crusades.1290: An illustration of a woman named Walpurgis is shown training in sword and buckler techniques14th century: Jane, Countess of Montfort leads troops into battle. Countess Jeanne de Penthievre is among her antagonists.1326: Isabella of France invades England with Roger de Mortimer, and overthrows Edward II, replacing him with her son Edward III, with her and de Mortimer acting as regents.1334: Agnes Dunbar successfully defends her castle against a siege by the Earl of Salisbury.1335: The Scots defeat a company led by the Count of Namur. Amongst the Count's casualties was a female lancer who had killed her opponent, Richard Shaw, at the same moment that he had killed her. Her gender was only discovered when the bodies were being stripped of their armour at the end of the engagement. "The chronicler Bower seems to have been at least as impressed by the rarity of two mounted soldiers simultaneously transfixing one another with their lances as with the fact that one of them was a woman."1364-1405: Tamerlane uses female archers to defend baggage trains.1383: Eleanor of Arborea, ruler of Sardinia, conducts a defensive war against Aragon.15th century: Maire o Ciaragain leads Irish clans in rebellion.15th century: Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine, leads an army to rescue her husband from the Duke of Burgundy.1429: Joan of Arc leads the French army. Yolande of Aragon supports her. Pierronne, a contemporary of hers, also hears voices and fights for the king of France.1461: Queen Margaret of Anjou defeats the Earl of Warwick in the Wars of the Roses.1461: Lady Knyvet defends Buckingham Castle at Norfolk against Sir Gilbert of Debenhem1471: Queen Margaret of Anjou is defeated in battle at Tewksbury.1472: Onorata Rodiana from Cremona, Italy is mortally wounded in battle. She had disguised herself as a man to become a soldier.June 27, 1472: Jeanne Hachette rips down the flag of the invading Burgundians at Beauvais, inspiring the garrison to win the engagementEleanor of ArboreaIsabella of FranceJoan of ArcCrusaders atAntiochFall of Acre, the Crusaders' last stronghold in the Holy Land, in 1291.Taunting was an integral part of siege warfareA siege using early cannon to fire stone balls to destroy the top of the castle walls.Here, the defenders have used barrels filled with stones as a temporary repair to their defences.a rather basic and precarious belfryCounterwieght trebuchetsA war-waggonA war-wagon adapted to carry a field gunThe city of Ai is captured and its King is hanged - Joshua 8:23 - Pictures from the Maciejowski Bible ~1250Medieval pictures represent contemporary fashions and weaponry - not those approriate to the period represented.Siege of ConstantinopleCannon used at the siege of Rouen (19 January 1419)An early gun. Bellifortis Besançon (BM, 1360)Göttingen, Staatsbibliothek, Codex. MS. philos. 63 (15th century)The besiegers are trying to pull down the drawbridge. Others appear to be canouflaged as bushes,presumably to get near to the walls.Philippe Augustus and Richard the Lion-Heart recieving the keys to the city afterthe siege of Acre - 12th centuryThis is a French illustration so bolsters the role of the French King.As a military commander Philippe was in reality several leagues below Richard.A model belfry showing how it could opperate at several levels,with a ram at the bottom, draw bridges all the way up, and crenallations at the top.Another style of belfry, with defensive metal plates at different levels.Another belfry - showing how the skins of freshly slaughtered animals were used to protect against fire.Design for a belfryBelfries and a ram in actionMittelalterliches Hausbuch von Schloss Wolfegg. DetailThe Trojan horse - an early example of the use of psychology in warfareCounterweight TrebuchetsAncient Roman siege machines were more technologically advanced than their medieval counterpartsA siege ladder features in the crest of the arms of Grey.Greek stamp showing the use of Greek Fire at seaWomen were not trained as warriers, but often participated in defending their cities when needed(as at Toulouse in 1218, where the women of the city were credited with killing Simon de Montfort)Ram from a Treatises on Engines and Weapons, Italy- c. 1510 MS Hunter H220 38vdA belfry, from a Treatises on Engines and Weapons, Italy - c. 1510 MS Hunter 220 (U.2.1) H220 10rdA Tortoise (under which miners would undermine walls).Apollodori-Poliorcetica (Excerpta), detail of folio 26 verso - H220 26vdA ramMounted CrossbowYet another belfryA large crossbowA MangonellAnother style of ram, mounted on a slider, moved by pulling ropesManuscript drawing of a gonne, or hand cannon from the 1400'sBombard 1400sThis castle has a walk-way giving access to an external water supply.The style is similar to the one at Carcassonne.Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans.A counterwieght trebuchetA counterwieght trebuchetThe taking of Château Gaillard - Vigiles du roi Charles VIIRecommended sites for Further InformationMedievality http://www.medievality.com/Knights and Armor http://www.knightsandarmor.comWarfare during the Crusades http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/categories/crusadeswarfare.htmA collection of translations of primary source material, articles and reviews on the period.Medieval Sourcebook http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.htmlOnline Reference Book for Medieval Studies http://the-orb.net/Cunnan http://cunnan.sca.org.au/wiki/Main_PageMostly Medieval http://www.mostly-medieval.com/Flags of the Crusades 1099-1291 http://flagspot.net/flags/crusade.htmlMedieval Fiefdom http://library.thinkquest.org/10949/An educational site about living and working in eleventh to fourteenth century England, produced by high school students.The End of Europe's Middle Ages http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/A large tutorial site designed to assist those students engaged in Renaissance, Reformation and Early Modern studies who lack a background in medieval European history.The History of Costume http://www.siue.edu/COSTUMES/COSTUME3_INDEX.HTML Illustrations from Braun & Schneider - c.1861-1880Eyewitness to History http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/mefrm.htmImportant events described by eyewitnesses, with introductory explanations. Includes the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle on the 12th-century English civil war, Marco Polo describing Kublai Khan in battle, and the discovery of America by Columbus.The Normans, A European People http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/index.htmComprehensive coverage of the history, culture and heritage of the Normans in France, the British Isles and Italy. Includes biographies, genealogies of rulers, a gazetteer of Norman buildings, places to visit and bibliographies.The Year 1000 http://www.mille.org/scholarship/1000/1000-pg.htmlMedieval attitudes to the end of the previous millennium and argues for an apocalyptic viewpoint, Center for Millennial Studies.Archery articles http://margo.student.utwente.nl/sagi/artikel/Selection of articles from the Journal of the Society of Archer-Antiquaries.De Re Militari Society homepage http://www.deremilitari.org/An academic association examining medieval warfare and military history. Features information on the society as well as original articles and book reviews.The Society of Ancients http://www.soa.org.uk/The International Amateur Society for Ancient and Medieval WargamersORB http://the-orb.net/bibliographies/castles.htmlSiège de Melun par Robert le Pieux, roi de France. Grandes Chroniques de France de Charles V, Paris, XIVème siècle« Bataille entre les Francs, commandés par le roi Clotaire II, et les Saxons ». Grandes Chroniques de France de Charles V. France, Paris, XIVème siècle. 65 x 65 mm. Bibliothèque nationale de France.Bataille de Roncevaux entre Roland et Marsile (778). Grandes Chroniques de France France, Paris, XIVe sMassacre de Sarrasins. Grandes Chroniques de France, Paris, XIVe s. Bibliothèque Nationale de France.« Combat singulier entre le roi Clotaire II et Bertoald ». Grandes Chroniques de France de Charles V. France, Paris, XIVème siècle. 65 x 65 mm. Bibliothèque nationale de FranceAssassinat de sigebert Ier. Grandes Chroniques de France vers 1375-1380. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris.Os Jacques são massacrados em Meaux (1358) (FR 2813), fol. 414v, Grandes Chroniques de France, France, Paris, XIVe s. (70 x 65 mm)Recommended VideosSiege of Rochester 1215TrebuchetLaddersSiege towersSiege towersLong bowLaddersSiege towersLong bowCross bow