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The climate has not changed appreciably since the 1960s. Where I lived it was “hot as hell” in the summer and cold in the winter. There were lots of storms and tornadoes. In some summers, there were droughts that caused loss of crops. In others, there were rainstorms for days with resultant floods. Some winters had lots of snow; others not so much.The main difference was that the climate news was all about possible imminent catastrophic global cooling, more so as the 70s came about.Now you have probably heard from current-day catastrophic anthropogenic global warming alarmists that there was no big concern about global cooling in the 70s. But that claim comes from either outright mendacity or from ignorance of the facts. They obviously do not want us to know about this failed prediction (or maybe it was also a scam to have money directed to climate scientists). It would tend to discredit their current alarm about future catastrophic warming.To this end, alarmists have tried to eliminate all references to the global cooling scare of the 70s. But factual information can still be found with a diligent search. As even the CIA stated: there is “growing consensus among leading climatologists that the world is undergoing a global cooling trend”, which “could have an enmormous impact, not only on the food-population balance, but also on the world balance of power.” (see below).Despite the fallacious claims by AGW alarmists, there was, indeed, a fake catastrophic global cooling scare in the 1970s. Furthermore, it was created by some of the same climate scientists who now are pushing CAGW. Here is just one paper from two eminent climate scientists (S.I. Rasool and Stephen Schneider from NCAR and Stanford) who predicted severe global cooling in the 1970s but switched to the global warming scare in the 1980s and 1990s. They both believed that increasing aerosol pollution was causing the reported global cooling which began after WWII, and that, if it continued, it might lead to an ICE AGE!Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Aerosols: Effects of Large Increases on Global Climate Rasool, S. I.; Schneider, S. H. Publication: Science, Volume 173, Issue 3992, pp. 138-141 Pub Date: July 1971 DOI: 10.1126/science.173.3992.138 Bibcode: 1971Sci...173..138RAbstract: Effects on the global temperature of large increases in carbon dioxide and aerosol densities in the atmosphere of Earth have been computed. It is found that, although the addition of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere does increase the surface temperature, the rate of temperature increase diminishes with increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. For aerosols, however, the net effect of increase in density is to reduce the surface temperature of Earth. Because of the exponential dependence of the backscattering, the rate of temperature decrease is augmented with increasing aerosol content. An increase by only a factor of 4 in global aerosol background concentration may be sufficient to reduce the surface temperature by as much as 3.5 degrees K. If sustained over a period of several years, such a temperature decrease over the whole globe is believed to be sufficient to trigger an ice age.Let’s look at that again, shall we?: “If sustained over a period of several years, such a temperature decrease over the whole globe is believed to be sufficient to trigger an ice age.”There is no question whatsoever that both Rasool and Schneider, top climate scientists, were both seriously concerned about imminent global cooling and a possible new ice age.This 1976 book about imminent catastrophic global cooling stated: “Our climate has swung wildly from severe warming during the Dust Bowl era of the 1930s to severe cooling during the 1960s. . . . The cooling is a fact.” - p. 31; “This cooling has already killed hundreds of thousands of people. If it continues and no strong action is taken, it will cause world famine, world chaos and world war, and this could all come about before the year 2000.” —Page xv The Cooling: Has the Next Ice Age Already Begun? Can We Survive It? (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976 by Lowell Ponte )And here is what Dr. Schneider wrote about this book for its back cover:“This well-written book points out in clear language that the climatic threat could be as awesome as any we might face, and that massive world-wide actions to hedge against that threat deserve immediate consideration.” - Stephen Schneider, endorsing: The Cooling: Has the Next Ice Age Already Begun? His quote sounds exactly like what alarmists are now saying about impending CAGW: catastrophe requiring immediate world-wide actions!Along with most of the other “global cooling alarmists”, Schneider later became a vigorous global warming alarmist and made a revealing quote about using scientific dishonesty: "…we need to get some broadbased support, to capture the public's imagination. That, of course, entails getting loads of media coverage. So we have to offer up scary scenarios, make simplified, dramatic statements, and make little mention of any doubts we might have. This 'double ethical bind' we frequently find ourselves in cannot be solved by any formula. Each of us has to decide what the right balance is between being effective and being honest. I hope that means being both.” - Dr. Stephen Schneider, Stanford Professor of Climatology, lead author of many IPCC reports (Quoted in Discover, pp. 45–48, October 1989.)Dr. Schneider’s also made this prediction in 1974 about imminent global cooling causing “food shortages and death by starvation for millions”:Somehow it doesn’t appear he had the right balance between “being effective and being honest”!And here is a journal article written by one of Schneider’s colleagues at NCAR (National Center for Atmospheric Research), Walter Roberts, astronomer and atmospheric physicist: A New World Climate Norm? Climate Change and its Effect on World Food- Walter Orr Roberts, Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies, and National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado:“In February of 1972 earth-orbiting artificial satellites revealed the existence of a greatly increased area of the snow and ice cover of the north polar cap as compared to all previous years of space age observations. Some scientists believe that this may have presaged the onset of the dramatic climate anomalies of 1972 that brought far-reaching adversities to the world's peoples. Moreover, there is mounting evidence that the bad climate of 1972 maybe the forerunner of a long series of less favorable agricultural crop years that lie ahead for most world societies.“Thus widespread food shortages threaten just at the same time that world populations are growing to new highs. Indeed, less favorable climate may be the new global norm. The Earth may have entered a new ‘little ice age’. Perhaps this future period will not be so extreme as that around 1700 AD, but it seems likely, at least, to be a cooler period resembling the hemispheric climatic regimes of the period from 1880-1920.“ https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16505796265.pdf (1974)A few more excerpts from his article discussing possible catastrophic global cooling:“If we are, indeed, experiencing a worsening of world climates it is, perhaps, equal in severity to any within the last millennium. The arguments for this view were developed by several of the climatologists who attended an international workshop on climate and its effects on human life convened in May 1974 in Bonn, Germany.““At this meeting Profs. H. Flohn of Germany, H.H. Lamb of the United Kingdom and Reid Bryson of the United States developed a highly persuasive demonstration that there has been a steady cooling of northern hemisphere temperatures during the last 30 years, with the strongest cooling at the higher latitudes. The average cooling has been only about 0.3°C, but this appears to be sufficient to cut about one week from the mid-latitude growing season, a highly significant matter agriculturally.“Even more important, however, such a cooling appears, these climatologists believe, to be accompanied by a more variable climate, with agriculturally adverse droughts, abnormally cold spells, heat waves, and other extremes becoming more common.” (The exact same weather extremes climate alarmists are now blaming on anthropogenic global warming! Getting the picture?)“The participants, from 11 countries, included climatologists, agricultural economists, geographers, lawyers, oceanographers, political scientists…Their unanimously adopted conclusions are sobering. They expect anomalies like 1972 to recur, and consider the world ill-equipped to deal with them…"The facts of present climate change are such that the most optimistic experts would assign near certainty to major crop failures within a decade. (i.e., by 1984!!!) If national and international policies do not take these near certain failures into account, they will result in mass deaths by starvation and probably in anarchy and violence that could exact a still more terrible toll.” https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16505796265.pdf (1974)The above embarrassing 1974 report from the National Center for Atmospheric Research, was removed from its website [can’t have this evidence of a global cooling consensus around for skeptics to find] but is still listed at https://www.personal.psu.edu/lxv1/climate3.html and https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/16505796265.pdfThe results of the satellite survey mentioned in the above report was also recounted in the leftist newspaper, The Guardian (1974), which now constantly reports about the coming apocalypse of CO2-caused global warming:From a Windsor Star April 18, 1974 article (shown below), severe drought caused by the ongoing global cooling is expected to continue for 30 years, according to British climatologist Hubert Lamb. And American climatologist, Reid Bryson, attributes the drought to the fact that “heat reaching the earth from the sun has declined noticeably in the past 30 years. The cause could be the veil of dust pumped into the atmosphere by industry, or simply a cyclical change in the power of the sun itself.” He fears the current global cooling and drought will kill “a billion people”! As I recall, it didn’t:And note that they think decreased solar activity has caused the polar vortex to shift farther south, creating the cold and drought. Isn’t that the same polar vortex that CAGW alarmists recently told us global warming was causing to move farther south, creating the recent colder winters?? Strange how global warming and global cooling cause almost all of the same climatic extremes!Here’s another 1974 story from the reliable NYT about climatologists from Japan, Europe and the US warning about global cooling, prompting policy-makers at the National Academy of Sciences to propose the evacuation of 6 million people!!And here’s a report from the CIA summarizing the “growing consensus among leading climatologists that the world is undergoing a global cooling trend”, which “could have an enormous impact, not only on the food-population balance, but also on the world balance of power”:Also see: CIA 1974 National Security Threat : Global Cooling/Excess Arctic Ice Causing Extreme Weather and http://www.climatemonitor.it/wp-... and The CIA documents the global cooling research of the 1970’sHere’s a report and subsequent letter written to President Nixon in 1972 by two climate scientists and professors at the Brown University Department of Geological Sciences, Kukla and Matthews, about the National Science Foundation meeting held at Brown titled “When Will the Present Interglacial End?” and published in Science:In the paper, these scientists discuss recent global cooling, which could signal the beginning of the end of the current Interglacial:“The present global cooling, which reversed the warm trend of the 1940s, is still underway.”And they list some of the changes which had occurred, bolstering their concern, such as: “Pack ice around Iceland is once again becoming a serious hindrance to navigation.”Illustrating the seriousness of the scientific conclusion, two months after publication of the above report, the two scientists sent the letter shown below to President Nixon about the prediction of more global cooling causing insufficient food production and extreme weather events, leading to a possible ice age, which “42 top American and European investigators” reached at the NSF meeting (sounds like the beginning of a consensus as there were a lot fewer climate scientists in 1972):Nixon referred the letter to various administration officials and scientists for study and recommendations. Even the CIA and the military bought into the scare, and in 1973, DARPA initiated the formation of an ad hoc panel within the Interdepartmental Committee on Atmospheric Sciences (ICAS) to study this non-existent problem!:“This panel is hereby established to review the status of Federal awareness, understanding, preparation and research concerning the contingency of a transition from the present interglacial period to a new glacial period.”In 1975, a NOAA climatologist stated: “We can call the cooling trend ominous…if it continues long enough…”In June, 1974 Time Magazine published the following article based upon interviews with numerous climate scientists and a review of published journal papers:Another Ice Age?“…a growing number of scientists are beginning to suspect that many seemingly contradictory meteorological fluctuations are actually part of a global climatic upheaval. However widely the weather varies from place to place and time to time, when meteorologists take an average of temperatures around the globe they find that the atmosphere has been growing gradually cooler for the past three decades. The trend shows no indication of reversing. Climatological Cassandras are becoming increasingly apprehensive, for the weather aberrations they are studying may be the harbinger of another ice age.“Telltale signs are everywhere —from the unexpected persistence and thickness of pack ice in the waters around Iceland to the southward migration of a warmth-loving creature like the armadillo from the Midwest. Since the 1940s the mean global temperature has dropped about 2.7° F. Although that figure is at best an estimate, it is supported by other convincing data. When Climatologist George J. Kukla of Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory and his wife Helena analyzed satellite weather data for the Northern Hemisphere, they found that the area of the ice and snow cover had suddenly increased by 12% in 1971 and the increase has persisted ever since. Areas of Baffin Island in the Canadian Arctic, for example, were once totally free of any snow in summer; now they are covered year round.“Scientists have found other indications of global cooling. For one thing there has been a noticeable expansion of the great belt of dry, high-altitude polar winds —the so-called circumpolar vortex—that sweep from west to east around the top and bottom of the world. Indeed it is the widening of this cap of cold air that is the immediate cause of Africa's drought. By blocking moisture-bearing equatorial winds and preventing them from bringing rainfall to the parched sub-Sahara region, as well as other drought-ridden areas stretching all the way from Central America to the Middle East and India, the polar winds have in effect caused the Sahara and other deserts to reach farther to the south.“The changing weather is apparently connected with differences in the amount of energy that the earth's surface receives from the sun. Changes in the earth's tilt and distance from the sun could, for instance, significantly increase or decrease the amount of solar radiation falling on either hemisphere—thereby altering the earth's climate.“Man, too, may be somewhat responsible for the cooling trend. The University of Wisconsin's Reid A. Bryson and other climatologists suggest that dust and other particles released into the atmosphere as a result of farming and fuel burning may be blocking more and more sunlight from reaching and heating the surface of the earth.“Some scientists like Donald Oilman, chief of the National Weather Service's long-range-prediction group, think that the cooling trend may be only temporary.“Whatever the cause of the cooling trend, its effects could be extremely serious, if not catastrophic. Scientists figure that only a 1% decrease in the amount of sunlight hitting the earth's surface could tip the climatic balance, and cool the planet enough to send it sliding down the road to another ice age within only a few hundred years.“University of Toronto Climatologist Kenneth Hare, a former president of the Royal Meteorological Society, believes that the continuing drought and the recent failure of the Russian harvest gave the world a grim premonition of what might happen. Warns Hare: "I don't believe that the world's present population is sustainable if there are more than three years like 1972 in a row." -Time magazine, June 24,1974In 1978 the NYT published an article describing the results of an international team of climate scientists who confirmed that global cooling was still in progress, as outlined in a Dec, 1977 article in Nature shown here: New data on climatic trends GJ Kukla, JK Angell, J Korshover, H Dronia, M Hoshiai… - Nature, 1977 - Nature: Indicators of large-scale climate developments show that the oscillatory cooling observed in the past 30 yr in the Northern Hemisphere has not yet reversed. This conclusion was reached by updating our data on the month-to-month, season-to-season, and year-to-year variations of selected zonally averaged meteorological parameters.The NYT article provided this synopsis: International Team of Specialists Finds No End in Sight to 30‐Year Cooling Trend in Northern Hemisphere By Walter Sullivan Jan. 5, 1978:“An international team of specialists has concluded from eight indexes of climate that there is no end in sight to the cooling trend of the last 30 years, at least in the Northern Hemisphere. In some, but not all cases, the data extend through last winter. They include sea surface temperatures in the northcentral Pacific and north Atlantic, air temperatures at the surface and at various elevations as well as the extent of snow and ice cover at different seasons. In almost all cases it has been found that the year‐to‐year variations in climate are far more marked than the long‐term trend. The long‐term trend often becomes evident only when data from a number of years are displayed. The report, prepared by German, Japanese and American specialists, appears in the Dec. 15 issue of Nature, the British journal.“The findings indicate that from 1950 to 1975 the cooling, per decade, of most climate indexes in the Northern Hemisphere was from 0.1 to 0.2 degrees Celsius, roughly 0.2 to 0.4 degrees Fahrenheit. Data from the Southern Hemisphere, particularly south of latitude 30 south, are so meager that reliable conclusions are not possible, the report says. [This fact greatly discredits any report claiming GLOBAL temperature changes.]“The 30th parallel of south latitude passes through South Africa, Chile and southern Australia. The cooling trend seems to‐extend at least part way into the Southern Hemisphere…A general cooling is evident with ‘an intensive cooling episode’ from 1961 to 1964.“Generally similar trends are evident in temperatures of the lower 18,000 feet of the atmosphere as charted by Dr. Horst Dronia of the Weather Office in Hannover, West Germany…A decrease, for example, of 20 meters (66 feet) was taken to mean atmospheric shrinking, indicating a cooling in that case of I degree Celsius (almost 2 degrees Fahrenheit). Observations extending higher into the atmosphere confirmed the trend. The authors were Drs. J. K. Angell and. 1. Korshover of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Laboratories. in Silver Spring, Md.“A similar study based on data from weather ships in the North Atlantic has been done by Dr. Martin Rodewald, former head of the Oceanic Division of the German Weather Service. Since the seven American weather ships were withdrawn in 1973 only two have remained, but observations of a cooling trend have continued. A gradual increase in area of the northern circumpolar vortex, the massive flow of frigid air around the Arctic, has been recorded by Drs. Angell and Korshover. In 1976 its southern’ extent was the greatest in 10 years and last winter it was 1 percent larger than in any previous winter observed.“Snow and ice cover in the Northern Hemisphere have varied greatly but there has been a net increase according to a satellite photograph analysis by Dr George J. Kukla of Columbia University's Lamont‐Doherty Geological Observatory.” International Team of Specialists Finds No End in Sight to 30‐Year Cooling Trend in Northern HemisphereIn 1979 NOAA agreed the world had cooled by 1 degree F since WWII:Lawrence Journal-World – Google News Archive SearchAnd, as stated previously, lots of people, including climatologists, formerly claimed that global cooling was causing all of the extreme weather events many now fallaciously blame on global warming! (Note that they were blaming global cooling as recently as 1981.):The presence of a global cooling consensus was even verified by a climatologist writing for Quora:“When I finished studies in geophysics in 1982 at the University I started as a junior climatologist and, yes, definitely, we believed that, based on the theory of Milankovics, we were heading to a new (ice) age at that time. That's what the general consensus between climatologists was.” - Luc Debontridder, Senior Climatologist, Royal Meteorological Institute, Belgium: Luc Debontridder's answer to What happened to the New York Times team of specialists who predicted in 1978 that a never ending cooling trend in the northern hemisphere would take place?But there are many, many more similar predictions and actions published by climate scientists from the 1970s. Most individuals probably have not seen many or any of them because, 1. they weren’t looking for them, and 2. many have been removed from various internet sites because, as I said above, alarmists do not want the public to know about the global cooling consensus in the 70s as it discredits their alarmism about CAGW.Here are just a few more references:A Non-Equilibrium Model of Hemispheric Mean Surface Temperature - Reid A. Bryson and Gerald J. Dittberner Center for Climatic Research, Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1976: “A simple mean hemispheric temperature model has been constructed in the form of a differential equation which is a function of three independent variables: carbon dioxide content of the air, volcanic ejecta and anthropogenic particulate pollution…By more completely accounting for those anthropogenic processes which produce both lower tropospheric aerosols and carbon dioxide, such as fossil fuel burning and agricultural burning, we calculate an expected slight decrease in surface temperature with an increase in CO2 content.”https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-046...<2094:ANEMOH>[[http://2.0.co;2]http://2.0.co;2]A climatic model of solar radiation and temperature change- CH Reitan - Quaternary Research, 1974 - “Mean monthly temperatures for the Northern Hemisphere were determined for the years 1955 through 1968 following the same procedures used by HC Willett and JM Mitchell, Jr., in their studies of long-term trends. It was found that the downward trend they reported starting in the 1940s continued, though interrupted, into the 1960s.”Climate modification by atmospheric aerosols- RA McCormick, JH Ludwig - Science, 1967 - Science 156, 1358–1359 “Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence indicate that atmospheric turbidity, a function of aerosol loading, is an important factor in the heat balance of the earth-atmosphere system. Turbidity increase over the past few decades may be primarily responsible for the decrease in worldwide air temperatures since the 1940s.”Increased Surface Albedo in the Northern Hemisphere- George J. Kukla, Helena J. Kukla Science 22 Feb 1974: Vol. 183, Issue 4126, pp. 709-714 DOI: 10.1126/science.183.4126.709 Abstract: “Routine mapping of snow and ice fields in the northern hemisphere was started by NOAA in 1967. Large year-to-year variations of the snow and pack-ice covers were observed. The annual mean coverage increased by 12 percent during 1971 and has remained high.”As I mentioned earlier, promoters of the theory of CAGW have tried to convince the public that there was no such global cooling scare in the 1970s. Obviously that effort has worked on quite a few people. Left of center sites such as Snopes and FactCheck.org make similar fallacious claims, as does the section about climate change in Wikipedia, which has been commandeered and edited by climate alarmists.Here’s another published example of the alarmist lie: Fake “global cooling” news persists and propagates.It’s quite astonishing how fallacious and mendacious these sources are- or they are incredibly ignorant of the facts and have no interest in searching for them. Either way, it is absolutely pathetic and disgusting that supposedly honest and responsible people would publish such garbage. It’s even worse if they are intentionally trying to fool the public in order to promote their spurious ideology.But diligent search reveals the truth. Alarmists try to discredit newspaper articles from the past like the ones I presented above by stating they are not “scientific articles”. But all include direct quotes from the climate scientists who were predicting catastrophic global cooling and possible ice age.And the following article presents a literature search of 1970s papers about climate change, revealing a majority were predicting global cooling, not warming as CAGW alarmists fallaciously claim:The 1970s Global Cooling Consensus was not a Myth -The author performs a literature review and finds 86 journal articles predicting ominous global cooling (including 30 which suggest the possibility of a coming ice age!) versus only 46 supporting global warming.So, it is indisputable that, not only the media, but large numbers of climate scientists believed the earth was in a prolonged global cooling period that could possibly lead to serious/existential problems and even a new ice age. Some scientists thought it was due to natural solar cycles. Others were blaming human-produced aerosol pollutants.Alarmists may argue about semantics, that it was not an “official” consensus in the sense that no official organization (like the IPCC, which didn’t exist at the time) claimed it was so. But when dozens of US and international climate scientists (including prominent scientists from NASA, NOAA, NCAR and the CRU) announce their serious concerns about global cooling, the President is notified by climate scientists of a possible coming ice age, the military and the CIA get involved and claim there is a “growing consensus among leading climatologists”, and policy-makers at the National Science Foundation are concerned that global cooling is going to continue to cause African drought severe enough to evacuate 6 million people, that’s plenty to be labeled a consensus.The 1970's Global Cooling Compilation – looks much like today“The world has been chilling sharply for about twenty years. If present trends continue, the world will be about four degrees colder for the global mean temperature in 1990, but eleven degrees colder in the year 2000. This is about twice what it would take to put us into an ice age.” -Kenneth Watt, 1970, (UC Davis) Ecologist on air pollution and global cooling. This and other quotes and articles about 1970s catastrophic global cooling scare can be found here: http://personal.psu.edu/lxv1/climate3.htmlMany of the above images come from: Fifty Years Of Failed Apocalyptic Forecasts

This answer may contain sensitive images. Click on an image to unblur it.Catherine of Aragon Queen(1485–1536)(Catherine of Aragon)It’s difficult to extricate Catherine the living woman from the stereotype she’s inspired about martyred, neglected, rejected wives in historical fiction. For that reason, it’s even more ironic that Catherine’s life was the most documented, by contemporaries, of all Henry’s queens (43 Tragic Facts About Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII’s First Wife).Throughout her life, Catherine of Aragon knew many tragedies. She lost her first husband after just five months of marriage and lost five of her children due to or stillbirth. Her second husband, and love of her life, divorced her to marry a much younger woman who he thought could provide him a male heir. She was unable to see her only surviving child the last years of her life and died alone in a palace a virtual prisoner.Portrait by Juan de Flandes thought to be of 11-year-old Catherine. (Catherine of Aragon - Wikipedia).Catherine of Aragon had anything but a typical childhood. Catherine was born on December 16, 1485 in Alcala de Henares, Spain. She was the daughter of Queen Isabella of Castile and mighty King Ferdinand of Aragon. The youngest of five children, the others being Isabella, Juan, Juana, and Maria, Catherine's childhood experiences were quite fascinating. She witnessed the surrender of the Moors in Granada and Columbus' first voyage to the New World (Catherine of Aragon). Also Catherine was able to choose her own badge, which consisted of a pomegranate. This ends up being quite appropriate, because the fruit is hard on the outside, which symbolized Catherine's tough attitude and was soft on the inside, which symbolized fertility, something sadly Catherine was never able to manifest.Catherine received an education typical of women in the fifteenth century. She was taught religion, housewife skills, and literacy in Spanish and Latin. She was a well-read child who observed her parents deal with complex diplomatic and militaristic issues.Contemporaries describe Catherine with fair skin, blue eyes, and reddish hair. Nevertheless, the imagining of Henry VIII’s first bride as a dark, gloomy, rejected foreign wife looms large over the ginger reality.Burchett, Richard; Preparatory Sketches of Prince Arthur and Katherine of Aragon; Parliamentary Art Collection.Tragedy struck the family in 1498 when Catherine's sister, Isabella, Queen of Portugal, died in childbirth (Catherine of Aragon). Although this tragedy hurt the royal family of Spain, in 1501, Catherine left Spain for England to marry Prince Arthur. They were married on November 14, 1501. The marriage was short because Arthur had died on April 2, 1502 (Catherine of Aragon - Facts, Information & Biography).Her parents had used her as a bargaining chip to cement an alliance with the new Tudor dynasty of England. Henry VII, the first of that line, had successfully negotiated for her betrothal to Prince Arthur, his eldest son and heir, and although such an arrangement lacked the spontaneity and passion a girl of 15 might crave, it was certainly nothing new to her, raised as she had been in the power-politics atmosphere of the Alahambra and conditioned from the nursery to consider herself an instrument of state.Catherine expected to be well treated (she travelled with an extensive dowry and the promise of more), and hoped to at least like her intended husband. The two teenagers, communicating through the halting schoolroom Latin that was their only common language, perhaps got along well during the preliminaries to their marriage.For years, Catherine and Arthur, Prince of Wales wrote letters to each other in Latin. Unfortunately, when they finally met in 1501, the young couple discovered they could not actually speak to each other (Arthur, Catherine and Henry: a story of early Tudor triumph and tragedy). They had been taught different models of pronunciations.Cold reality intervened almost immediately. In the 16th century, as in most centuries, there was no concept of connubial privacy where royalty was concerned, and although Arthur indulged in a boastful jest the next morning (calling for beer and saying he was thirsty because he'd "been in Spain" the previous evening), attendants who were watching for tell-tale virginal blood on the sheets found none (Arthur, Catherine and Henry: a story of early Tudor triumph and tragedy). Stories circulated, saying that Arthur had been seen leaving Catherine's bed chamber very soon after entering it, and that Catherine herself was heard the next day lamenting that her bridegroom wasn't made of sterner stuff. Even so, it might not have been important: Arthur and Catherine were both 15, after all, with plenty of time to grow comfortable with each other.Sir Anthony Willoughby, a servant of Arthur’s, claimed that on the morning after the wedding night Arthur had said to him “Willoughby, bring me a cup of ale, for I have been this night in the midst of Spain” and he later said to his attendants “Master, it is good pastime to have a wife”, but was he simply boasting? Was it bravado? (Arthur, Catherine and Henry: a story of early Tudor triumph and tragedy). We just don’t know for sure, but it was taken for granted at the time that Catherine and Arthur had done the deed. However, Doña Elvira, Catherine’s First Lady of the Bedchamber, wrote to Catherine’s parents after Arthur’s death, telling them that their daughter was still a virgin (Elvira Manuel - Wikipedia).The marriage was short because Arthur had died on April 2, 1502, and Catherine found herself thrown upon the mercy of Henry VII, who notoriously lacked that virtue. Henry lodged her in a dismal country manor, allowing her finances to fall into disarray while he bargained with her father. Henry had not yet been paid her whole dowry; he was reluctant to send her back to Spain without receiving it. Ferdinand was reluctant to pay anything more without knowing Henry's intentions.Henry VII holding a rose and wearing the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece, by unknown artist, 1505 (Henry VII of England - Wikipedia).Less than 5 months after her wedding, Catherine found herself a 16-year-old widow. However, her father-in-law, Henry VII, wasn’t going to refund that huge 200,000 crown dowry without a fight! (Catherine of Aragon Timeline - History). When he was freshly widowed himself, Henry VII briefly considered marrying his late son’s wife in order to keep her ample dowry. The comforts that Catherine had enjoyed as a new bride were soon stripped as King Henry VII refused to support her household because her complete dowry had never been paid (Catherine Of Aragon | Encyclopedia.com). In humiliation she was forced to live meagerly at court. She worried about her women in waiting who had accompanied her from Spain and for her own future as well. For seven years she continued in a state of limbo as the Princess Dowager (widow) of Wales, no longer under the care of her father and refused care by her father-in-law.Years dragged on, during which the widowed Henry VII briefly entertained marrying Catherine's sister Juana, the hereditary queen of Castile (Henry VII: Search For a New Queen - Tudors Dynasty). Ferdinand told Henry that he had placed him on top of the long list of those who wanted to marry her. The list, however, was just that. It had no purpose beyond keeping Henry quiet. Ferdinand had no intention of marrying his daughter off. While she remained a widow, and one obsessed by her dead husband, Castile was his to rule.Catherine endured 7 years of aristocratic poverty between her marriages. Soon after her engagement to Henry, Catherine’s powerful mother died. Isabella of Castile’s death lowered Catherine’s value on the marriage market, with Ferdinand defaulting on the remainder of her dowry. As a result, Henry VII held Catherine as his unofficial prisoner London, as she struggled to feed her own servants (Catherine of Aragon - From Queen to Dowager Princess of Wales - The Anne Boleyn Files).Her first marriage created much debate on whether or not it was consummated, because Catherine agreed to a second marriage to Arthur's brother, Henry VIII. Financial matters dealing with Catherine's dowry and King Henry VII kept the two from marrying until the king's death on April 21, 1509 (A right Royal romp). Catherine and Henry VIII were married on June 11th, 1509. Henry was then crowned on June 24th, which made Catherine, Queen of England.As Henry would come to do often, he followed his heart at someone else’s expense. To marry his first wife, Henry broke off his engagement to Eleanor of Austria, whose aunt happened to be Catherine herself (43 Tragic Facts About Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII’s First Wife).Katherine of Aragon by Unknown artistoil on oak panel, circa 1528In a few short weeks, the reversal of Catherine's misfortunes could not have been more complete. In the few weeks it took to renegotiate the marriage after Henry VII's death, the whole sorry episode of her lonely, bitter, frantic wait disappeared into a suddenly remote past. There followed happy years full of courts, dances, politics, warfare (Henry left Catherine as regent while he fought in France, and she presided over a significant victory over the Scots in his absence). Catherine became beloved of the English court and people, and even such caustic visitors as the Dutch humanist Erasmus could find nothing but good things to say about her. Henry played affectionate pranks on her and showed every sign of being a high-spirited man in love.Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1537–1547 (Henry VIII of England - Wikipedia).Catherine was very much an ideal queen. She was supportive of her husband, and like him, she enjoyed music and dance. As queen, Catherine managed the royal household, cared for Henry's linen and wardrobe, ran her own estates, and often supervised in royal business. She also took time and effort to provide the poor with money, clothes, food, and fuel in the winter. She was the only person Henry could confide to in the first few years of their marriage. For the first five years of their marriage, Catherine acted as the Spanish ambassador to England quite successfully on her own (Through foreign eyes: the forgotten ambassadors to the Tudor court). She held off a Scottish rebellion in England while King Henry was off to war in France.There was only one problem, but under the circumstances it was a gigantic one: Catherine couldn't provide Henry with a son and heir. Princess Mary (later England's "Bloody Mary") was the only one of their children to survive the nursery - all the others were either born dead or died in weeks or days. The birth of her daughter, was a time of joy for Catherine, but her father, King Ferdinand of Spain had passed soon after.Catherine had gotten pregnant many times in her marriage to Henry (many of which ended in miscarriage or stillbirth). Why did so many of Catherine’s pregnancies fail? In recent years, some thinkers have put forth a theory that Catherine suffered from anorexia (Was Henry Vlll's first wife anorexic? Catherine of Aragon's secret problem).During her young widowhood, uncertainty and poverty made Catherine frequently ill and depressed. This physical trauma may have led to future fertility problems. Recent theories have also addressed the issue that many of the symptoms that Henry VIII exhibited later in life may have been the result of syphilis, which he unknowingly transferred to Catherine (Henry VIII’s Succession Problem: Syphilis or Bad Luck? - History in an Hour).There are four known children that survived birth. Only one, Mary, survived until adulthood. Her first born child was an unnamed baby girl who died two days after birth. Her second born was a boy named Henry, Duke of Cornwall, who was born on January 1, 1511 and died on February 25, 1511 (aged 53 days). Her third born was another boy, also named Henry, Duke of Cornwall, who was born and died in December 1514 (aged 1 month). Her fourth and last surviving child was her only child to survive into adult hood, was Mary I of England, who was born on July 19,1533and died on November 17, 1588 (http://royalcentral.co.uk/historic/catherine-of-aragon-tragic-queen-62731).After losing so many children Henry grew tired with Catherine and the love he once had for her faded. Like her husband, Catherine did not age well. In her youth, Catherine was regarded as a great beauty. Thomas More once said “there were few women who could compete with the Queen [Catherine] in her prime” and her confessor called her “the most beautiful creature in the world.” By her 30s, however, Catherine had understandably gained weight and visible markers of stress from endless failed pregnancies; a Venetian ambassador courteously described her as “somewhat stout.” (Henry VIII’s Succession Problem: Syphilis or Bad Luck? - History in an Hour). Less kindly, King Francis I of France outright called his rival’s wife “old and deformed” compared to her “young and handsome” husband, who was only 5 years her junior.Catherine of Aragon (Janet Wertman)Henry needed a male heir to solidify his reign and he began to realize Catherine could no longer bear him the heir he so desperately needed. This had two effects on Henry: it made him urgent about his succession, and it made his already lusty nature impatient. He had always been inclined to amorous intrigues, but by the 1520s he was seeking more than simple release. In 1523 he loaded his illegitimate son Henry Fitzroy with impressive titles (among other things, the six-year-old boy was made Admiral of England), inciting the normally placid Catherine to rage, Henry was trampling on his own daughter and Catherine let him know it (Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset - Wikipedia). He was shocked by the sudden display of Castilian temper." But of course, the worst was still to come.Henry's infatuation with Anne Boleyn is the crucible of Catherine's life. Anne was unwilling to be yet another mistress producing yet more bastard children: she wanted to be queen, and Henry could deny her nothing (Anne Boleyn The Tudors Facts & Biography Of Information). And here is where those pristine wedding-night sheets from 20 years before became important: Henry sought a papal annulment of his marriage to Catherine on the grounds that it was sinful for a man to marry his brother's wife (Did Arthur, Prince of Wales, consummate his marriage to Catherine of Aragon?). The Church had already granted Henry a dispensation in order to let him marry Catherine, a dispensation based in large part on the widespread belief that Arthur and Catherine had never actually been man and wife to each other - that the marriage had never been consummated.Late Elizabethan portrait, possibly derived from a lost original of 1533–36 (Anne Boleyn - Wikipedia).She chose to fight it out in the courts, which ruled against her. Had Catherine acted differently, the religious reformation would have been delayed or might not have come to England at all. The pope would not agree to the annulment so Henry decided to resolve his dilemma by having the archbishop of Canterbury declare his marriage with Catherine null and void on March 30, 1534 (Catherine of Aragon). Henry then took Anne Boleyn as his new queen. Henry VIII had split away from the Catholic Church and formed the Church of England, and put himself as the head of the church.Henry tried to annul his marriage to Catherine based on Leviticus 20:21 (Tudor Minute May 23: Annulment of Henry VIII’s Marriage to Catherine of Aragon). This Bible passage outlaws the marriage of oneself to one’s brother’s widow and condemns the couple to childlessness. Catherine had been briefly, previously married to Henry’s brother Arthur 20-odd years before at that point. Although Henry and Catherine weren’t literally childless, the lack of sons was proof enough, for Henry at least, of their marriage’s invalidity.All at once, English history turned on the question of what occurred between Catherine & Arthur on their wedding night. The Queen swore she had come to Henry a virgin. The truth about Catherine's virginity will never be known. Whatever the case, Catherine understood that one way or another, no one remained to testify what happened that night. Henry savage when his will was crossed, banished Catherine from his sight and his court and declared his daughter Mary a bastard. When the Church (perhaps cowed by Catherine's nephew the Holy Roman Emperor, (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor - Wikipedia), or perhaps insufficiently bribed, or perhaps just unconvinced) refused to grant him his annulment, he broke with the Church itself, declaring himself Supreme Head of the Faith in England and touching off four centuries of religious strife - all because one woman, Catherine of Aragon, refused to be pushed aside (Henry VIII and the Break with Rome Timeline - History). As Garrett Mattingly put it in his own 1941 biography of Catherine: "Surely Catherine's decisions influenced English history - and therefore the history of the whole world - as vitally, and unexpectedly, as the decisions of her husband Henry VIII."By November 1528, Henry realized he could not shake Catherine's resolve, and assured everyone he was only divorcing Catherine out of biblical conscience. When Henry began his quest of an annulment in earnest, Catherine was 43, compared to her husband’s age of 37. Catherine was old for Tudor times and had also gone through the menopause (Catherine of Aragon - The Boring One? - The Anne Boleyn Files);Her figure may have become ‘stouter’ in later years, after her pregnancies, but whose body doesn’t change after at least six pregnancies? She certainly was not dowdy when Henry married her in 1509. Or as he declared, “if I were to marry again if the marriage might be good I would surely chose [Catherine] above all other women.” This was after he temporarily sent his queen-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn, to the country as the divorce was still being judged by the Papal legate.The main question at the time, was Catherine’s resistance to divorce Henry out of complete love and selflessness? She acted at least a bit for her own sense of status. In 1528, the Pope and his envoy Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio offered Catherine a dignified “out.” They suggested that Catherine enter a nunnery, which was a comfortable form of retirement for infertile or inconvenient noblewomen (Katherine of Aragon: Part Two: The Abandoned Queen | Ann Foster). In such an arrangement, her daughter Mary would still be a legitimate heir to the throne while Henry could be free to take another wife and have more children . Obviously, staying Queen meant a little more to Catherine than just defending her daughter’s rights because she did respond, “God never called me to a nunnery. I am the King’s true wife (June 18, 1529: Might Catherine of Aragon have Lied?, and on a hunting trip to Woodstock and never came back. Overnight, he moved the court with him, leaving Queen Catherine and Princess Mary behind in Windsor. In a letter, Catherine complained that he didn’t even wake her up to say goodbye. She would never see him again (43 Tragic Facts About Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII’s First Wife).All he could do was make her miserable, which he set about doing with all the spite of a thwarted eight-year-old. He deprived her of most guests, all court correspondence, and most cruelly, all contact with her daughter. As Shakespeare has his Anne Boleyn say: "It is a pity/Would move a monster," but Henry was not moved. He married Anne Boleyn in defiance of the Church and the will of his own people.Catherine fought every one of his attempts to rewrite her history, utterly refusing titles such as "Dowager Princess" and insisting to the end that she was Henry's rightful queen, and that Mary was his only rightful heir. Upon her annulment, Catherine was demoted to the title of “Princess Dowager of Wales,” which referred to her “real” status as widow to Henry’s brother, Arthur. To the end of her life, she would refuse this title and insist her servants refer to her as the Queen.Catherine testified on oath that she had not slept with her first husband, saying that when she married Henry, “I was a true maid, without touch of a man” and she had also told Henry VII that she was still a virgin when he was first thinking of marrying her off to his second son (Catherine of Aragon divorce letter to be auctioned in Paris).She chose to fight it out in the courts. Another court in Zaragoza, Spain, in 1531, heard from witnesses who had travelled to England with Catherine on her initial voyage, and who argued that Arthur was a sickly young man “overwhelmed by his failure to fulfil the mighty, sexual and dynastic obligations present in that big, formal, wedding-night bed”- it had all been too much for him.Had Catherine acted differently, the religious reformation would have been delayed or might not have come to England at all. The pope would not agree to the annulment so Henry decided to resolve his dilemma by having the archbishop of Canterbury declare his marriage with Catherine null and void on March 30, 1534. Henry then took Anne Boleyn as his new queen. Henry VIII had split away from the Catholic Church and formed the Church of England, and put himself as the head of the church.Portrait by Antonis Mor, 1554 (Mary I of England - Wikipedia).After Henry’s divorce from Catherine, their daughter Mary was labeled a bastard and was considered null and void. Mary remained so until after Henry’s marriage to his fifth wife, Catherine Howard when she was restored to the line of succession (Mary I| queen of England).Years into their estrangement, Catherine continued to sewing Henry’s shirts for him, even though he was basically living with Anne Boleyn. When Anne found out, she was understandably upset (30 November 1529 - Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn get cross with Henry VIII - The Anne Boleyn Files). Henry, however, considered the issue trivial, because Catherine had always made his shirts.Kimbolton Castle (Kimbolton Castle - Wikipedia)In her last months, the ex-queen was isolated in Kimbolton Castle, where she fasted constantly and wore nothing but a hair shirt from the Order of St. Francis (http://onthetudortrail.com/Blog/2011/01/07/the-death-of-catherine-of-aragon/). It was prickly living but demonstrated Catherine’s commitment to arguably the last thing she could count on, that being her Catholic faith.During Christmas 1535, Maria de Salinas, Catherine’s lifelong friend from Spain, travelled to England. She was there for Catherine’s wedding and braved winter storms—and potential imprisonment—to comfort Catherine until her eventual death. Maria refused to let her die alone. Despite the king’s orders to stay away from Catherine, Maria spent her New Year’s 1536 traveling nearly 60 miles on horseback from London to see her friend. Upon entering the castle, Maria lied and told guards she had “lost” the paperwork which gave her the king’s permission to enter (Maria de Salinas, the Loyal Lady Willoughby). Finally, Maria barracaded herself in Catherine's chamberlocked it, and easing her lifelong friend into the next life.Catherine lived out her life at Kimbolton, secluded from Henry and her daughter, Mary. Catherine died on January 7, 1536, at the age of fifty. Although it was rumoured that Catherine of Aragon had been poisoned by Anne Boleyn, or even Henry, because of a black patch on her heart, it is now thought that she died of cancer, a disease that was not understood at the time. Another theory is that she died of depression and a broken heart. Catherine was aged 50 at her death (What did Catherine of Aragon die of? - The Anne Boleyn Files).Until the day she died Catherine insisted that she was the one true wife of Henry, and on her death bed wrote him saying how much she still loved him. In celebration of Catherine’s death Henry & Anne threw extravagent parties.Catherine died in 1536 "her mind still troubled by whether she had been good to a country that in the end had been bad to her". Henry continued his famous procession through the rest of his six wives. Only one of them, Jane Seymour, produced his much-desired male heir, but Edward VI was as sickly as Arthur had been and soon died. The future of the Tudor dynasty belonged to Mary - and to Anne Boleyn's daughter Elizabeth.Catherine's embalmer noted her corpse was in perfect health—save for her heart, which had turned black. That led some to conjecture about poison. Today, historians agree generally agree that Catherine died of heart cancer, which—considering the circumstances of her life—appears too poetic to be true. Others have suggested that Catherine's black heart was the result of a saccular syphilitic aneurysm low in the aorta. (Henry VIII’s Succession Problem: Syphilis or Bad Luck? - History in an Hour).According to the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), today 40% of births to syphilitic mothers are stillborn, 40-70% of the survivors will be infected, and 12% of these will subsequently die in infancy. Now, compare these figures to Catherine: 50% were stillborn, 33% died as infants, and 17% (Mary) lived (Syphilis | 2018 Case Definition).Catherine was buried in Peterborough Cathedral with the ceremony due to a Dowager Princess of Wales, not a queen ( Catherine of Aragon - Wikipedia). Henry did not attend the funeral and forbade Mary to attend. The ghost of Catherine of Aragon is said to haunt Castle Lodge, Ludlow, where the young bride stayed in her first, brief marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales. Visitors report seeing an apparition of a teenaged girl in Tudor-era clothing. She floats through both the halls and the nursery that she never got to fill, perhaps longing for more hopeful times.Catherine of Aragon was born into a family of kings and queens and was destined to become one herself. She was betrothed since she was about four years old to the future king of England. She fulfilled this destiny, but became victim of Henry VIII's inability to produce a male heir. For this reason, she was removed from her throne and her marriage annulled. Although, maybe not the most memorable of Henry VIII's wives, she certainly had left a mark on history.

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