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Thanks for the oppt’y to answer your question, Patrick!Building the Ranger was not so much about quantity vs quality, but, more a question of quantity vs size.The preceding three aircraft carriers were all conversions of ships designed for other purposes. The Langley was a converted coaling ship, and the Lexington & Saratoga were built on repurposed cruiser hulls. The Navy Department recognized that the Lexington & Saratoga were headaches to build, with a series of design compromises. The phrase, “the end justifies the means” seems appropriate for the fabrication of Lexington & Saratoga.After the First London Naval Treaty was signed in April 1930, the Navy Department set to work on planning the construction of new ships. When it came to available treaty tonnage for new build aircraft carriers, they had 90,000 tons to allocate. At the commencement of aircraft carrier planning, the only thing the Navy was sure of was avoiding the design & fabrication headaches of converting cruiser hulls into aircraft carriers. Aside from the Admirals of the “big gun” Navy, everyone else recognized that naval aviation would be a game changer in the next conflict, and would allow the United States to project airpower anywhere in the world.The biggest question about naval airpower came down to deciding what was its most important factor beyond mobility? The planners decided that arriving at the fight quickly, anywhere in the world, in the best, purpose built ship, would not do much good if you showed-up with a force that was inferior in size to the enemy’s. So, the Navy decided the number of airframes you could bring to the fight was of greatest importance. Navy planners looked at the alternatives of building two super-carriers, three large carriers, or five mid-sized carriers. Their calculations showed that five mid-sized carriers could bring far more airframes to the fight, with greater options for disbursement, than two or three larger carriers.The Navy planned to build five Ranger-class carriers that were designed from the keel, up, as aircraft carriers. The Ranger’s design was released to the shipyard in March 1931, and the keel was laid in late September at Newport News Shipbuilding, VA. Little did anyone know that Japan’s invasion of Manchuria a week earlier would ultimately lead to war with the United States 10 years later.Although the designing and building of an aircraft carrier from scratch was an important step that would bear fruit in building subsequent aircraft carriers in the run-up to World War II, it was nonetheless, as much of a headache in building as the Lexington & Saratoga. From the laying of it’s keel, to it’s launching 18 months later in February 1933, the Ranger was in a constant state of redesign and rework. The old engineering adage of, “it looked good on paper,” could never be more true than the effort to build the USS Ranger. It took another 16 months of redesign and rework, resulting from systems testing and sea trials to work the bugs out, before her commissioning in June 1934.When the Ranger’s initial design work was underway in 1930–31, the Naval Bureau of Construction and Repair had the presence of mind to get Ranger completed before laying anymore keels for the next four carriers in its class. Aside from Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Hitler came to power in January 1933. In 1933 the French Security Service had broken Italy’s military communication codes, and discovered Mussolini was planning to invade France and Yugoslavia that year. By time the Ranger was commissioned in June 1934, the global geopolitical landscape had changed quite a bit from three years earlier. In 1934 Italy abrogated her naval treaty obligations, and by the end of the year, Germany had renounced the Treaty of Versailles.In addition to the geopolitical intrigue present in 1934, the Navy had lost some enthusiasm about building four more Ranger-class aircraft carriers. The type of aircraft available for aircraft carrier deployment was rapidly changing from bi-planes to single wing planes, and with numerous military hotspots cropping up worldwide, naval planners began to rethink their strategy. One of the significant compromises made in the Ranger’s design was its engineering plant. Fully loaded, she wasn’t fast enough to respond to far flung brush fires, unless she was based overseas somewhere. If the Navy built four more Ranger-class carriers, rapidly changing world events would require them to be forward-deployed on a regular basis to reduce the time they could be brought to bear in a fight.All of the foregoing issues culminated in the Navy scrapping their plans by the end of 1934, to build more Ranger-class carriers. They quickly shifted gears to begin designing a large-hull aircraft carrier, the Yorktown-class. The Yorktown would be equipped with an engineering plant that enabled it to be the flagship of a fast-attack carrier battle group, and run at prolonged high speeds with its escorting destroyers and cruisers.Even though the USS Ranger became a class-of-one, she was an important stepping stone for the Navy to learn how to design and build aircraft carriers. It is interesting to note that, even though the Navy’s strategy moved away from smaller carriers, they still built USS Wasp when they only had 15,000 tons available under the prevailing naval treaties. Even a small-to-mid-sized carrier was better than no carrier at all. And then when World War II started, the Navy was already constructing the new USS Essex, a carrier class named after herself. But, Navy planners knew the Essex carriers would not be available until the end of 1942. So, they went back to a skill they could use to build aircraft carriers quickly: re-purpose keels already laid or in the pre-fabrication stage, to cut down on designing & fabricating something from scratch. The first re-purposing was the Independence-class light carrier built on a Cleveland-class light cruiser hull. Nine Independence-class light carriers were built. Five of the keels were laid in 1941, and all nine were in-service before the end of 1943.Although the Independence-class carriers shaved a year off of the normal construction time for a full-sized carrier, it still was not fast enough. This brought about several one-off, small escort carriers as a stop gap effort. Concurrently, with the Independence-class carriers, the Navy started building the Bogue-class escort carriers. The Navy built 45 of these escort carriers, and by the 15th ship, construction time from keel-laying to being in-service was less than a year. The greatest factor in reducing the fabrication time of Bogue carriers was re-purposing the hulls of other ships. Unlike the Independence-class, however, which used light cruiser hulls, the Bogues used C3 merchant ship hulls. The big advantage to using C3 merchant hulls was two-fold: 1.) They were being built by shipyards not already involved in building warships, and; 2.) The C3 hulls were built to commercial shipbuilding standards, not warship standards. These two factors cut production throughput time by over 18 months.By mid-1942 the Navy could see that even with the hurry-up efforts of the Independence light carriers and Bogue escort carriers, it was still not enough ships, nor were they being built fast enough. This led the Navy to devise the Casablanca-class escort carriers, of which, 50 were built. The Casablanca carriers shared a similar displacement in tonnage and speed of the Bogue-class, however, their flight deck was 20 feet longer, and 38 feet wider. Whereas, the Bogue carriers were built on repurposed C3 commercial merchant ship hulls, the Casablanca carriers were “clean sheet” designs using commercial shipbuilding specifications to minimize production time. The Casablancas were all built at a dedicated shipyard built by Henry Kaiser in Vancouver, WA. With only 20% of the Casablancas built, Kaiser’s Vancouver shipyard was producing a ship from keel laying to being in-service in eight months!By March of 1943, the Navy could see that the war’s progress would need a further infusion of new aircraft carriers. All of the shipyards building aircraft carriers, including Kaiser’s Vancouver facility, were at maximum capacity, operating 24/7. The Bureau of Construction & Repair cast about for a solution, and settled on the Todd Shipbuilding Yard in San Pedro Harbor, Los Angeles, CA. Todd’s yard had been building commercial T-3 Merchant Marine tankers. The Navy wanted to stick with commercially fabricated hulls to keep down costs and fabrication time. The T-3 hull was just the right size the Navy wanted for an additional escort carrier class, named the Commencement Bay-class. The Navy did not want a repurposed T-3 tanker hull. Instead they did a new design using some of the structural features of the T-3. Because T-3s hauled an extremely dense cargo, oil, it required larger structural supports than a similar-sized break-bulk cargo ship. By designing the Commencement Bay-class escort carriers in a similar fashion, it resulted in a flight deck that was over 30 feet longer than a Casablanca carrier. It could also carry an additional squadron of aircraft, and had twice the operating range of a Casablanca carrier, and could carry more aviation fuel and aircraft ordnance than a Casablanca. Fully loaded, a Commencement Bay escort carrier displaced more than twice the tonnage of a Casablanca carrier, with no sacrifice in speed. Although 35 ships were planned, only 19 were built before it became obvious that the other 16 ships would not be needed.In closing, although the Ranger was in a class of one, she played an important role in developing the Navy’s maturity in aircraft carrier design and construction.Ciao!

Seven people who hold the keys to worldwide internet security :-In a nondescript industrial estate in El Segundo, a boxy suburb in south-west Los Angeles just a mile or two from LAX international airport, 20 people wait in a windowless canteen for a ceremony to begin. Outside, the sun is shining on an unseasonably warm February day; inside, the only light comes from the glare of halogen bulbs.There is a strange mix of accents – predominantly American, but smatterings of Swedish, Russian, Spanish and Portuguese can be heard around the room, as men and women (but mostly men) chat over pepperoni pizza and 75-cent vending machine soda. In the corner, an Asteroids arcade machine blares out tinny music and flashing lights.It might be a fairly typical office scene, were it not for the extraordinary security procedures that everyone in this room has had to complete just to get here, the sort of measures normally reserved for nuclear launch codes or presidential visits. The reason we are all here sounds like the stuff of science fiction, or the plot of a new Tom Cruise franchise: the ceremony we are about to witness sees the coming together of a group of people, from all over the world, who each hold a key to the internet. Together, their keys create a master key, which in turn controls one of the central security measures at the core of the web. Rumours about the power of these keyholders abound: could their key switch off the internet? Or, if someone somehow managed to bring the whole system down, could they turn it on again?The keyholders have been meeting four times a year, twice on the east coast of the US and twice here on the west, since 2010. Gaining access to their inner sanctum isn't easy, but last month I was invited along to watch the ceremony and meet some of the keyholders – a select group of security experts from around the world. All have long backgrounds in internet security and work for various international institutions. They were chosen for their geographical spread as well as their experience – no one country is allowed to have too many keyholders. They travel to the ceremony at their own, or their employer's, expense.What these men and women control is the system at the heart of the web: the domain name system, or DNS. This is the internet's version of a telephone directory – a series of registers linking web addresses to a series of numbers, called IP addresses. Without these addresses, you would need to know a long sequence of numbers for every site you wanted to visit. To get to the Guardian, for instance, you'd have to enter "77.91.251.10" instead of theguardian.com.'Each of the 14 primary keyholders owns a traditional metal key to a safety deposit box, which in turn contains a smartcard, which in turn activates a machine that creates a new master key.' Photograph: Laurence Mathieu for the GuardianThe master key is part of a new global effort to make the whole domain name system secure and the internet safer: every time the keyholders meet, they are verifying that each entry in these online "phone books" is authentic. This prevents a proliferation of fake web addresses which could lead people to malicious sites, used to hack computers or steal credit card details.The east and west coast ceremonies each have seven keyholders, with a further seven people around the world who could access a last-resort measure to reconstruct the system if something calamitous were to happen. Each of the 14 primary keyholders owns a traditional metal key to a safety deposit box, which in turn contains a smartcard, which in turn activates a machine that creates a new master key. The backup keyholders have something a bit different: smartcards that contain a fragment of code needed to build a replacement key-generating machine. Once a year, these shadow holders send the organisation that runs the system – the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (Icann) – a photograph of themselves with that day's newspaper and their key, to verify that all is well.The fact that the US-based, not-for-profit organisation Icann – rather than a government or an international body – has one of the biggest jobs in maintaining global internet security has inevitably come in for criticism. Today's occasionally over-the-top ceremony (streamed live on Icann's website) is intended to prove how seriously they are taking this responsibility. It's one part The Matrix (the tech and security stuff) to two parts The Office (pretty much everything else).For starters: to get to the canteen, you have to walk through a door that requires a pin code, a smartcard and a biometric hand scan. This takes you into a "mantrap", a small room in which only one door at a time can ever be open. Another sequence of smartcards, handprints and codes opens the exit. Now you're in the break room.Already, not everything has gone entirely to plan. Leaning next to the Atari arcade machine, ex-state department official Rick Lamb, smartly suited and wearing black-rimmed glasses (he admits he's dressed up for the occasion), is telling someone that one of the on-site guards had asked him out loud, "And your security pin is 9925, yes?" "Well, it was…" he says, with an eye-roll. Looking in our direction, he says it's already been changed.'Rumours about the power of these keyholders abound: could their key switch off the internet? Or, if someone somehow managed to bring the whole system down, could they turn it on again?' Illustration: Aaron Tilley Photograph: Aaron Tilley for the GuardianLamb is now a senior programme manager for Icann, helping to roll out the new, secure system for verifying the web. This is happening fast, but it is not yet fully in play. If the master key were lost or stolen today, the consequences might not be calamitous: some users would receive security warnings, some networks would have problems, but not much more. But once everyone has moved to the new, more secure system (this is expected in the next three to five years), the effects of losing or damaging the key would be far graver. While every server would still be there, nothing would connect: it would all register as untrustworthy. The whole system, the backbone of the internet, would need to be rebuilt over weeks or months. What would happen if an intelligence agency or hacker – the NSA orSyrian Electronic Army, say – got hold of a copy of the master key? It's possible they could redirect specific targets to fake websites designed to exploit their computers – although Icann and the keyholders say this is unlikely.Standing in the break room next to Lamb is Dmitry Burkov, one of the keyholders, a brusque and heavy-set Russian security expert on the boards of several internet NGOs, who has flown in from Moscow for the ceremony. "The key issue with internet governance is always trust," he says. "No matter what the forum, it always comes down to trust." Given the tensions between Russia and the US, and Russia's calls for new organisations to be put in charge of the internet, does he have faith in this current system? He gestures to the room at large: "They're the best part of Icann." I take it he means he likes these people, and not the wider organisation, but he won't be drawn further.It's time to move to the ceremony room itself, which has been cleared for the most sensitive classified information. No electrical signals can come in or out. Building security guards are barred, as are cleaners. To make sure the room looks decent for visitors, an east coast keyholder, Anne-Marie Eklund Löwinder of Sweden, has been in the day before to vacuum with a $20 dustbuster.We're about to begin a detailed, tightly scripted series of more than 100 actions, all recorded to the minute using the GMT time zone for consistency. These steps are a strange mix of high-security measures lifted straight from a thriller (keycards, safe combinations, secure cages), coupled with more mundane technical details – a bit of trouble setting up a printer – and occasional bouts of farce. In short, much like the internet itself.Lynn Lipinski, PR for Icann, signs the official register of the key ceremony. Photograph: Laurence Mathieu for the GuardianAs we step into the ceremony room, 16 men and four women, it is just after lunchtime in LA and 21.14 GMT. As well as the keyholders, there are several witnesses here to make sure no one can find some sneaky back door into the internet. Some are security experts, others are laypeople, two are auditors from PricewaterhouseCoopers (with global online trade currently well in excess of $1tn, the key has a serious role to play in business security). Lamb uses an advanced iris scanner to let us all in."Please centre your eyes," the tinny automated voice tells him. "Please come a little closer to the camera… Sorry, we cannot confirm your identity."Lamb sighs and tries again."Thank you, your identity has been verified."We file into a space that resembles a doctor's waiting room: two rows of bolted-down metal seats facing a desk. Less like a doctor's waiting room are the networks of cameras live-streaming to Icann's website. At one side of the room is a cage containing two high-security safes.Francisco Arias, Icann's director of technical services, acts as today's administrator. It is his first time, and his eyes regularly flick to the script. To start with, things go according to plan. Arias and the four keyholders (the ceremony requires a minimum of three, not all seven) enter the secure cage to retrieve their smartcards, held in tamper-evident bags. Middle-aged men wearing checked shirts and jeans, they are Portuguese keyholder João Damas, based in Spain; American Edward Lewis, who works for an internet and security analytics firm; and Uruguayan Carlos Martinez, who works for Lacnic, the internet registry for Latin America and the Caribbean.All but one of the 21 keyholders has been with the organisation since the very first ceremony. The initial selection process was surprisingly low-key: there was an advertisement on Icann's site, which generated just 40 applications for 21 positions. Since then, only one keyholder has resigned: Vint Cerf, one of the fathers of the internet, now in his 70s and employed as "chief internet evangelist" by Google. At the very first key ceremony, in Culpeper, Virginia, Cerf told the room that the principle of one master key lying at the core of networks was a major milestone. "More has happened here today than meets the eye," he said then. "I would predict that… in the long run this hierarchical structure of trust will be applied to a number of other functions that require strong authentication." But Cerf struggled with the travel commitment and dropped his keyholder duties.At 21.29, things go awry. A security controller slams the door of the safe shut, triggering a seismic sensor, which in turn triggers automatic door locks. The ceremony administrator and the keyholders are all locked in an 8ft square cage. Six minutes of quiet panic go by before they hit on a solution: trigger an alarm and an evacuation. Sirens blare and everyone piles out to mill around in the corridor until we can get back to the 100-point script. Every deviation has to be noted on an official record, which everyone present must read and sign off at a later point. Meanwhile, we use the downtime to snack: people rip open a few bags of Oreo biscuits and Cheez-Its.'At 21.29, things go awry. A security controller slams the safe door shut, triggering a seismic sensor, which in turn triggers door locks. The keyholders are locked in an 8ft square cage.' Photograph: Laurence Mathieu for the GuardianBoth the US commerce department and the Department of Homeland Security take a close interest, to differing degrees, in Icann's operations. In the wake of the ongoing revelations of NSA spying, and of undermined internet security, this does not sit well with many of Icann's overseas partners. Some, including Russia and Brazil – whose president has made such demands very public – are calling for a complete overhaul of how the internet is run, suggesting it should be put under UN auspices.The question of who put Icann in charge is hotly contested. Lamb argues that "it's the online community; it's the people who've put Icann in charge". Eklund Löwinder, the Swedish keyholder who vacuumed the day before, puts it more bluntly. "Well, mainly, it was the US Department of Commerce," she says. The European Commission wants changes to this system, though it still expresses its faith in Icann; the EU recently called for a "clear timeline for the globalisation of Icann".Eklund Löwinder explains that while the security might occasionally seem ridiculous, every step is very important when it comes to maintaining trust. "It's a system based on backups of backups, layers and layers of security," she says, her dangly cat earrings swinging. "Of course it is a bit romantic and thrilling to be a part of this, because I am a romantic by heart. I have to admit I love the internet. It's a piece of engineering art you have to admire. And to be able to contribute to make this a safer place makes me feel good."Where does she keep her key? She admits she has two copies, in case she loses one; one of them never leaves a bank deposit box. The other, which she uses twice a year in the ceremonies on the east coast, is attached to a long metal chain. Most of the time it sits in a wooden puzzle box, with a hidden lock, created by her furniture designer son.By 22.09 (we are all sticking to GMT) the ceremony is back on and everyone's returning to the script. The high-security machine that will generate the master key is set up. Once activated by the smartcards, this will produce a lengthy cryptographic code. If dropped, or even knocked too hard, the machine will self-destruct.Now that everything has been removed from the safes, we move to act two of the ceremony: the key signing. The first step would be familiar to anyone – getting the laptop plugged in and booting it up – but some witnesses watch like hawks, logging and initialising each step. Others are beginning to flag, checking their watches or having whispered conversations with their neighbours.At 22.40, a series of USB drives is set up, one of which will be used to load the signed key on to the live internet at the end of the ceremony: this is when the code is uploaded to the servers that dictate who controls .com, .net, .http://co.uk and more.The output of the previous ceremony is checked, to make sure people are working off the same key – a process that requires Arias to read aloud a 64-character code. Everyone nods as they verify it against their sheets.'A web security expert steps forward to read out a nonsense sequence of words generated by the previous key: "Flatfoot warranty brickyard Camelot blackjack vagabond…"’ Photograph: Laurence Mathieu for the GuardianAt 22.48 the high-security machine – a small, plain grey box with a keypad and card slot in front – is wired up. Each keyholder hands over his individual smartcard. Then, at 22.59, nearly two hours after the ceremony began, it's show time. Alejandro Bolivar, an American expert from Verisign, the security company that administers the "root zone" of the domain name system, steps forward to read out a nonsense sequence of words generated by the previous key. He begins: "Flatfoot warranty brickyard Camelot…" and continues for nearly a minute before concluding, "blackjack vagabond." The sequence corresponds with the witnesses' notes, so they nod and sign their script. A short line of code is typed into the laptop at 23.02, and seconds later the new key is signed, to a smattering of applause.After a 20-minute sequence of disconnecting secure machines and powering down the laptop, a USB stick is handed to Tomofumi Okubo, another Icann staffer. Deliberately or otherwise, Okubo makes a slight bow as he is passed the stick holding the "signed" digital key. Later Okubo will transmit the key on a secure channel to Verisign and this signed key will be made live across the internet. It will take effect for three months, from 1 April (yes, really). After that, the key will expire and error messages will start to appear across the internet.Given how high the stakes are, and the number of possible targets, does Okubo think the system is trustworthy? "I think so," he says. "You'd have to compromise a lot of people…" He trails off.Does this often slightly bizarre ceremony work? Are the security precautions integral, or just for show? Bruce Schneier, an American cryptologist and security expert who worked with Glenn Greenwald and the Guardian to analyse some of the files leaked by Edward Snowden, suggests it's a little of both. "A lot of it is necessary, and some of it is necessary theatre," he concedes. "This process is both technical and political, which makes it extra complicated… I think the system is well designed." As to whether the system will survive in the aftermath of the NSA revelations, Schneier thinks the jury is still out: "That, we don't know."Back in the ceremony room, the four keyholders are once again locked in a cage with the safes holding their smartcards, this time returning them for future use. It is 23.32 on the clock and each is solemnly holding up their keycard, in a new tamper-evident bag, for the cameras to witness before returning it to the safe. Not everyone present is entirely gripped. "It's like a combination of church and a baseball game and I don't know what else," says Icann PR Lynn Lipinski. "I'm getting sleepy."At 00.06, five hours after we all arrived, it's time to shut off the live-streaming cameras. Lamb checks in to see how many people have been following the ceremony.The system admin calls back: "We peaked at 12."We file out, job done."Wait," Okubo says. "One question before we go… Can I ask who's coming for dinner?"There's a show of hands and, with the web secure for another three months, the keyholders to the internet file out into the LA sunshine.

Some of the most famous scandals in the world=======================The word scandal or scandal smells of something forbidden. The curious mind then wants to go inside it with great enthusiasm. Addiction to listening to other people's scandals, he is a great addict. How many scandals have happened or happened in the world at different times or how many we remember or know. So let me tell you about some of the most controversial events in history that will survive the scandal of 'scandal' for generations to come. Let's get started.Russiagate scandal================Donald Trump won the 56th US election in 2016 and became the 45th president on January 20, 2016. In the 2016 election campaign, Trump said that if I was elected, US relations with Russia would run smoothly in the interests of Russia, but that was no longer possible because Russian diplomats and Democrats, including Hillary-Obama, alleged that Democrats were involved in hacking US election booths.Readers must know that just as Richard Nixon's name is associated with the Watergate scandal, so is Trump's name associated with the Russiagate scandal. During the 2016 US presidential election, Russia hacked Hillary Clinton's hundreds of e-mails, revealing that the image of Democrats, including Hillary, had been severely tarnished, benefiting Trump's campaign. Trump's eldest son Trump Jr. and his daughter's son-in-law Kushner met with a Russian lawyer before the election and formed a committee of inquiry in the US Congress to investigate the matter. The jury also summoned Trump's son and son-in-law. By However, Trump and Putin have denied the allegations. In recent history, the incident has been known as the Russiagate scandal. In the wake of the incident, Obama expelled a Russian diplomat from the United States on June 29, 2016, and on June 35, 2016Watergate scandal=================The Watergate scandal is a scandalous chapter in the US election. Richard Nixon was President of the United States from 1979 to 1982. Since the US presidential election was held four years later, Richard Nixon was re-elected from the Republican Party for a second term in the 1982 presidential election. Nixon took this step to steal the electoral strategy of the Democrats.The Water Gate Complex (WGC), a commercial building in Washington, D.C., was the headquarters of the Democrats. Before the election, each political party had its office in celebration and many important election strategies were discussed and decided.On June 16, 1982, five of Richard Nixon's accomplices secretly left several Democratic devices in the Democrat office to record conversations. Two journalists from the Washington Post, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, got into trouble. They were able to recover Richard Nixon's misdeeds and continue to campaign at the behest of Benjamin Bradley, then the Washington Post's executive editor. When the final stage of the impeachment, Richard Nixon thought that many US presidents have faced impeachment so far, but in the end they have been acquitted. But I may be the only president who will not be acquitted. So with all this in mind, Richard Nixon was forced to resign from the presidency on August 9, 1984. This is the Watergate scandal in history.Later a movie called 'All the Presidents Man' was made on this incident.Iran-Contra scandal================In September 1968, a US-armed aircraft landed at an Iranian airport via Israel. The whole incident was carried out in a very confidential manner through an arms deal. The entire proceeds from the sale of the weapons were donated to the Contra rebel group, which was formed to overthrow Nicaragua's communist government. But when a Lebanese newspaper leaked the whole deal, including the deal, it turned out to be an Iran-Contra scandal. As a result, some high-ranking US government officials resigned. In February 1976, the John Tower Commission examined 300,000 documents, interviewed about 105 people, and collected testimonies from 26 witnesses. Dismissed security assistant Oliver North is believed to be the mastermind behind it. In addition to President Reagan, then-Vice President George Sr. Bush was also convicted. Later, however, Reagan admitted all responsibility for the scandal and apologized.Bofors scandal==============During the Rajiv Gandhi-led Congress government, in 1967, the Indian government signed an arms deal worth Rs 1,500 crore with Bofors, a Swedish arms manufacturer. It was then reported in the Swedish media that Bofors had paid a large bribe to India's military and political leaders for the arms deal. This sparked a heated debate abroad. When Gandhi's finance minister Pratap leaked the information, Gandhi was accused. However, according to Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, Bofors is not a scandal and no Indian court has been able to prove it as a scandal. He claimed that the incident was caused by the media.Hawala scandal==============Narasimha Rao, the twelfth Prime Minister of India, who was called the Chanakya of modern India, was also involved in a scandal. The scandal is known in history as the Hawala scandal. It is called hawala because black money is associated with it. Apart from Narasimha Rao, BJP's VC was also involved in the incident. Evidence of involvement of Shukla, Sharad Yadav, Madan Lala was found. They were accused of accepting a bribe of Rs 18 million. Though there has been a lot of criticism against it all over India, it has not been practiced.Clinton Lewinsky scandal====================Former US President Bill Clinton was a very handsome and famous chocolate boy. One of his unique characteristics was his special weakness towards women. Clinton's love affair was not less talked about in the world media. Bill Clinton sat down to be almost everything in the White House because of his relationship with Monica Lewinsky. He was accused of having sex with Monica once in November 1995 and in March 1997. Clinton later admitted to having sex after Lewinsky testified. In the end, Bill Clinton was acquitted of impeachment.Commonwealth Games scandal======================The 2010 Commonwealth Games in India were marred by financial scandals worth about Rs 60,000 crore. According to the CAG report, only half of the allocated amount was spent on Indian players. The Central Vigilance Commission's investigation into the Commonwealth Games project has uncovered a variety of information, including money laundering, misappropriation of funds, extortion, and so on. The investigation reveals that all this happened as a result of the craftsmanship of the government bureaucrats in charge of the Games. The names of Congress bureaucrat and Kamal Wealth Organizing Committee chief Suresh Kalmadi and other bureaucrats have come to light. Section 120B of the Indian Penal CodeLehman Brothers scandal===================Lehman Brothers is a global financial services company. Lehman Brothers is well known all over the world. The company's chief executive and the company's auditor officer were accused of embezzling large sums of money. It said the chief executive and some officials hid information on more than বেশি 5 trillion in debt in the name of the company. Lehman Brothers was later accused of selling risky assets to the bank without specifying the exact time, and later became a defaulter. But despite all this, there was no criminal case due to lack of necessary information. Interestingly, Lehman Brothers was at the top of the list of "Most Admired Securities Firm" made by Fortune Magazine in 2006.Enron scandal=============When Enron's name came up, it was as if the sky was in their hands in the nineties when Forbes Magazine was the best company for six years in a row. The company, which employs 22,000 people, had a revenue of ১ 101 billion in 2000! But the name of this huge business is used in the United States as a synonym for words like fraud and scandal. Ordinary people did not know that the company was brainwashing them day after day. The company, which started in 1985, was joined a few years later by Jeffrey Skilling and Fasto. As a result of their corruption and fraud, the company went bankrupt on December 2, 2001. The misrepresentation and excessive over-valuation of the company's controlled assets to investors was all fabricated and planned. And so the world's sixth largest energy company ended up in the hands of a few fraudsters.Refco scandal==============Refco Firm is a New York-based financial institution based in the United States. It was commonly known as a brokerage firm. The company was founded in 1969 by Raymond Earl Friedman. Although the overall activities were going well, they had to wrap up everything in August 2005. The firm owned about four billion dollars. There were about 2 lakh customers. It was even the largest brokerage house on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. When all the activities of Refco were completed due to fraud, at least ৭ 75 billion discrepancy was found in its balance sheet. Philip Bennett, the company's CEO and chairman, went missing after the news broke. After that, however, the firm sold 26.5 million shares of the firm and formed a public company with only ২ 22. However, the financial value of this company was বিল 3.5 billion.Waste management scandal====================In 1894, Larry Beck started a privately owned company called Waste Management Inc. Later in 1981 and 1982 the company was re-established as a government agency. The Houston-based company was accused of illegally earning ৭ 1.6 billion. The company's chief executive himself was involved in the scandal. Arthur Anderson, the company's audit officer, was involved in the huge scandal. Evidence of huge amount of fraud was also found by making numerous false balance sheets. Finally the new CEO and Board of Directors brought all the scandals back to the public and the shareholders resorted to the law against the accused.