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A section of the Great Wall, in Yanqing County, contains mortar made with blood. (The Ming Great Wall of Nanjing)THE CITY WALL OF NANJING, built 600 years ago, was the first line of defense for the founding capital of the Ming dynasty. Originally 22 miles long, it was built with 350 million bricks, most of which have survived centuries of weathering.[1][1][1][1] In 2010, intrigued by the wall’s sturdy composition, a team of Chinese researchers analyzed mortar samples from one section.[2][2][2][2] The secret ingredient turned out to be simple sticky rice, a staple of Chinese cuisine.Many kinds of materials have been used over the years in masonry mortars, and the technology has gradually evolved from the single-component mortar of ancient times to hybrid versions containing several ingredients. Beginning in 2450 BCE, lime was used as masonry mortar in Europe.[3][3][3][3] In the Roman era, ground volcanic ash, brick powder, and ceramic chip were added to lime mortar, greatly improving performance.[4][4][4][4] Because of its superior properties, the use of this hydraulic (that is, capable of setting underwater) mortar spread, and it was adopted throughout Europe and western Asia.Sticky Rice (The Ming Great Wall of Nanjing)Perhaps because of the absence of natural materials such as volcanic ash, hydraulic mortar technology was not developed in ancient China.[5][5][5][5] However, a special inorganic−organic composite building material, sticky rice−lime mortar, was developed. For thousands of years, Chinese builders mixed sticky rice, or glutinous rice, with slaked lime, a limestone that has been calcined, or heated to a high temperature, and then exposed to water[6][6][6][6] , creating what might be considered the first composite mortar.[7][7][7][7] It may be the first widespread inorganic−organic composite mortar technology in China, or perhaps in the world.The earliest record of this technique can be found in an encyclopaedia, the Tian Gong Kai Wu ( The Exploitation of the Works of Nature) , which was compiled by Song Yingqing during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD).[8][8][8][8] According to the archaeological evidence, however, the sticky rice-lime mortar technique was developed at a much earlier date, no later than the South-North Dynasty (386-589 AD).[9][9][9][9]This use of gummy grains in Chinese concrete as an adhesive is not entirely surprising. Cooked rice was first boiled into a paste, then blended with sand and lime, a substance produced by heating limestone.[10][10][10][10] Because of its high adhesive strength, low porosity, and sturdiness, the mixture was highly durable, used in the construction of rammed earth structures, palaces, temples, walls and causeways and tombs throughout Ming China. [11][11][11][11] The mortar prevented weeds from growing, creating a seal between bricks that would rival modern cement in strength.[12][12][12][12]Scientists have long been fascinated with this unusual formula, and in recent years, different teams have conducted studies to better understand it. Researchers Jiajia Li and Bingjian Zhang spent six years collecting 378 samples of ancient mortar from 159 sites throughout China, dating from the Taosi phase (2300-1900 BC) all the way to the late Qing dynasty (1644-1911).[13][13][13][13] Numerous chemical analyses found that 219 mortars from 96 locations had “organic components”—that is, small traces of starch, protein, brown blood, and oil.[14][14][14][14]Parts of Nanjing’s city wall are held together with sticky rice mortar. (Why_Ancient_Chinese_People_Like_to_Use_Organic-Inorganic_Composite_Mortars)One notable sample, from a 2000-year-old tomb in Jiangsu province, turned up what the researchers say is the oldest known trace of sticky rice mortar.[15][15][15][15] A separate study identified an earlier use, dating to three thousand years ago.[16][16][16][16] While the origin's of the recipe remains elusive, by the Tang dynasty (816-907), rice was frequently used to improve construction.[17][17][17][17] The unique mortar became prevalent during Song and Ming dynasties, periods of intensive architectural activity.[18][18][18][18]Pyramid-shaped zongzi (Zongzi)Sticky rice is sweet, and augments savory dishes such as zongzi, pyramids of rice and fillings neatly wrapped in leaves[19][19][19][19] , or tang yuan, a sweet soup with rice dumplings.[20][20][20][20] It is also waxy—a texture that comes from the polysaccharide amylopectin, which gives the rice a denser, gelatinous microstructure.[21][21][21][21] Water insoluable, It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylose.[22][22][22][22]Mixed with lime mortar, the grains boost compressive strength, helping walls bear loads without fracturing.[23][23][23][23] They are also highly water resistant, which protects buildings against erosion. Sticky-rice mortars become stronger over the years, because the key chemical reactions in the mortar continue to occur, while controlling shrinkage.[24][24][24][24]Mortar samples from ancient constructions were analyzed by both chemical methods (including the iodine starch test and the acid attack experiment) and instrumental methods (including thermogravimetric differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared, and scanning electron microscopy).[25][25][25][25] These analytical results show that the ancient masonry mortar is a special organic−inorganic composite material. The inorganic component is calcium carbonate, and the organic component is amylopectin, which is presumably derived from the sticky rice soup added to the mortar.[26][26][26][26]Mortar samples from halls and the garden of the famed Forbidden City, built in the 15th century, tested positive for the starch.[27][27][27][27] So did sections of the Great Wall of China, which was largely restored during the Ming dynasty.[28][28][28][28] But one sample from the Wall, where it runs through Yanqing County, contained a less common ingredient: animal blood, which showed up in just five sites.[29][29][29][29]Animal blood might sound like a grisly substance for building walls, but it was a perfectly normal additive used by several cultures. Historical recipes written in French, Italian, and English have detailed ways to mix oxblood and lime mortars.[30][30][30][30] In China, builders used pig blood to improve the consistency of their mortar.[31][31][31][31] Results indicated that pig blood accelerates the formation of microstructure at early stage. A mechanism was suggested that biomineralization occurs during the carbonation of calcium hydroxide, where the pig blood functions as a template and controls the growth of calcium carbonate crystal.[32][32][32][32] Easily available, swine blood is characteristic of diverse regional dishes such as pork blood soup and pig blood curd.[33][33][33][33]Tiger Hill Pagoda - WikipediaConstruction workers were a disposable commodity when it came to building the wall. It’s estimated that as many as 400,000 people died building the wall, earning it the sobriquet “longest cemetery on Earth.” [34][34][34][34] Many of the workers who died during the wall’s construction were buried in its foundation. Peasants and soldiers forced into labor suffered under terrible conditions, with insufficient food, steep hillsides and brutal weather.[35][35][35][35] The wall had such a reputation for suffering that it was an indispensible reference in Chinese literature, like in the “Soldier’s Ballad” (200 A.D.) and popular novels of the Ming dynasty.[36][36][36][36]Many other organic additives favored by the Chinese helped repel water. Oil samples from 87 sites, contained tung oil, a common waterproof seal for wooden ships.[37][37][37][37] Another, egg white, is not only water resistant but also improves the viscosity of mortar. Eggs whites were also used as a paint binder to color the famous Terracotta Army.[38][38][38][38] Researchers have found that brown sugar, too, reduces water content in mortars, enhancing their strength.[39][39][39][39] According to ancient literature, sucrose was often used to build forts and homes in eastern and southeastern China. Other innovative mortars have similarly developed out of convenience, from a church in the Philippines made out of egg whites[40][40][40][40] to a Brazilian chapel held together by red wine.[41][41][41][41]Researchers found sugar in the mortar of Suzhou’s Tiger Hill Pagoda. (SIYUWJ/CC BY-SA 4.0)Great design is often the result of thinking beyond form and function. Philosophy, the researchers posit, might be one poetic inspiration for these fusion pastes:“Ancient Chinese people advocated a view of nature often termed ‘heaven-and-human oneness. The use of agricultural, forestry, and animal products in building materials reflected architectural aesthetics that sought to integrate architecture and nature.”[42][42][42][42]After the Song and Yuan dynasties, the recipe of sticky rice mortar matured, being utilized in the famous Forbidden City in Beijing, a stretch of Great Wall built during the Ming Dynasty, the Chengde Mountain Resort, the Eastern Qing tombs, and the Qiantang River wall built during the Ming and Qing dynasties..Fujian Tulou (“earthen buildings”).(China's Massive Earthen Fortresses Once Housed Up to 800 People)The Fujian Tulou (literally “earthen buildings”) are famous for their durability. Giant multistoried homes capable of housing close to 800 individuals and built with wood and fortified with mud walls were constructed between the 15th and 20th centuries.[43][43][43][43] These massive communal homes were sited with feng shui principles and are purposefully nestled amidst tea, tobacco, and rice fields and bountiful forests of pine and bamboo.[44][44][44][44] Some of these buildings were constructed using sticky rice mixed with lime, clay, sand, sugar, and other organic substances, making the walls as strong as cement.[45][45][45][45]Incredibly, structures built with sticky rice mortar have survived more than natural erosion. A Ming tomb, of the minister Xu Pu and his wife, was nearly damaged by a bulldozer when found in 1978, but it was “so firm [the vehicle] could do nothing about it.”[46][46][46][46] In 1604, when a 7.5-magnitude earthquake shook the port city of Quanzhou, many temples, stupas, and bridges were not destroyed.[47][47][47][47] Instead, sticky rice mortar kept their foundations firmly secured.Although clearly effective, these revolutionary adhesives fell out of fashion in the late Qing dynasty. China’s first cement factory opened in 1889 in Hebei province,[48][48][48][48] and this inorganic binder gradually filled the role of composite mortars.Shouchang Bridge (Construction: Don't Hold the Rice)But researchers still see potential in these ancient formulas, especially to stabilize historical sites. Due to high quantities of salt, cement is detrimental and incompatible (being too strong and rigid) with traditional lime-based mortars.[49][49][49][49] In China, restorers successfully used sticky rice-lime mortars to mend ancient structures, such as the single-arch Shouchang Bridge from the Song dynasty.[50][50][50][50]In Xichang, Sichuan Province, a restoration project is underway to rebuild the city’s ancient wall. Workers’ tasks include making bricks, laying brickd and boiling large bowls of rice to cement the bricks together.[51][51][51][51] Informed by a 21st century discovery regarding the ancient methods used to build the original wall, workers seek to stay true to the original Ming Dynasty builders’ techniques.Every day, the builders put 500 kilograms of glutinous rice on the boil, and then mix this starchy alternative with a few other ingredients, such as limestone, to form a mortar which will hold the wall together. It’s estimated that the entire project will require an impressive total of 50 tons of rice, in all. At the site of construction, five giant pots are heated over coal, and workers must keep stirring the rice inside these pots to prevent it sticking, as they haven’t invented non-stick crockery of these proportions yet.[52][52][52][52]Researchers and conservationists from the Getty Conservation Insitute have combined the ancient technology of sticky rice with relatively new nanotechnology to develop an innovative treatment for historical sites.[53][53][53][53] This is an original and ecologic application that can be used to repair any lime-based structure, such as limestone or a lime mortar. Testing the durability of their materials continues, but the capabilities of the ancient grain are evident. Soon, glutinous rice may glue together historical buildings around the world.[54][54][54][54]Footnotes[1] The Ming Great Wall of Nanjing[1] The Ming Great Wall of Nanjing[1] The Ming Great Wall of Nanjing[1] The Ming Great Wall of Nanjing[2] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[2] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[2] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[2] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[3] Package Pavement - Historic Lime Mortars for Restoration[3] Package Pavement - Historic Lime Mortars for Restoration[3] Package Pavement - Historic Lime Mortars for Restoration[3] Package Pavement - Historic Lime Mortars for Restoration[4] Why modern mortar crumbles, but Roman concrete lasts millennia[4] Why modern mortar crumbles, but Roman concrete lasts millennia[4] Why modern mortar crumbles, but Roman concrete lasts millennia[4] Why modern mortar crumbles, but Roman concrete lasts millennia[5] Lime and Lime Mortars[5] Lime and Lime Mortars[5] Lime and Lime Mortars[5] Lime and Lime Mortars[6] Calcium hydroxide | chemical compound[6] Calcium hydroxide | chemical compound[6] Calcium hydroxide | chemical compound[6] Calcium hydroxide | chemical compound[7] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar - American Chemical Society[7] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar - American Chemical Society[7] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar - American Chemical Society[7] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar - American Chemical Society[8] Recipe from Tian Gong Kai Wu, or The Exploitation of the Works of Nature[8] Recipe from Tian Gong Kai Wu, or The Exploitation of the Works of Nature[8] Recipe from Tian Gong Kai Wu, or The Exploitation of the Works of Nature[8] Recipe from Tian Gong Kai Wu, or The Exploitation of the Works of Nature[9] Ancient Chinese secret? Yes. Masons used sticky rice as mortar[9] Ancient Chinese secret? Yes. Masons used sticky rice as mortar[9] Ancient Chinese secret? Yes. Masons used sticky rice as mortar[9] Ancient Chinese secret? Yes. Masons used sticky rice as mortar[10] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[10] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[10] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[10] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[11] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[11] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[11] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[11] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[12] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar[12] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar[12] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar[12] Revealing the ancient Chinese secret of sticky rice mortar[13] Textual and Experimental Studies on The Compositions of Traditional Chinese Organic–Inorganic Mortars[13] Textual and Experimental Studies on The Compositions of Traditional Chinese Organic–Inorganic Mortars[13] Textual and Experimental Studies on The Compositions of Traditional Chinese Organic–Inorganic Mortars[13] Textual and Experimental Studies on The Compositions of Traditional Chinese Organic–Inorganic Mortars[14] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325430911_Why_Ancient_Chinese_People_Like_to_Use_Organic-Inorganic_Composite_Mortars-Application_History_and_Reasons_of_Organic-Inorganic_Mortars_in_Ancient_Chinese_Buildings[14] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325430911_Why_Ancient_Chinese_People_Like_to_Use_Organic-Inorganic_Composite_Mortars-Application_History_and_Reasons_of_Organic-Inorganic_Mortars_in_Ancient_Chinese_Buildings[14] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325430911_Why_Ancient_Chinese_People_Like_to_Use_Organic-Inorganic_Composite_Mortars-Application_History_and_Reasons_of_Organic-Inorganic_Mortars_in_Ancient_Chinese_Buildings[14] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325430911_Why_Ancient_Chinese_People_Like_to_Use_Organic-Inorganic_Composite_Mortars-Application_History_and_Reasons_of_Organic-Inorganic_Mortars_in_Ancient_Chinese_Buildings[15] Traditional mortar represented by sticky rice lime mortar—One of the great inventions in ancient China[15] Traditional mortar represented by sticky rice lime mortar—One of the great inventions in ancient China[15] Traditional mortar represented by sticky rice lime mortar—One of the great inventions in ancient China[15] Traditional mortar represented by sticky rice lime mortar—One of the great inventions in ancient China[16] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[16] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[16] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[16] Investigation of sticky-rice lime mortar of the Horse Stopped Wall in Jiange[17] Ancient Chinese Buildings Are Held Together With Rice, Sugar, and Blood[17] Ancient Chinese Buildings Are Held Together With Rice, Sugar, and Blood[17] Ancient Chinese Buildings Are Held Together With Rice, Sugar, and Blood[17] Ancient Chinese Buildings Are Held Together With Rice, Sugar, and Blood[18] Sticky Rice Keeps the Great Wall Standing - Vision Times[18] Sticky Rice Keeps the Great Wall Standing - Vision Times[18] Sticky Rice Keeps the Great Wall Standing - Vision Times[18] Sticky Rice Keeps the Great Wall Standing - Vision Times[19] Chinese Zongzi Introduction, How to Make Zongzi[19] Chinese Zongzi Introduction, How to Make Zongzi[19] Chinese Zongzi Introduction, How to Make Zongzi[19] Chinese Zongzi Introduction, How to Make Zongzi[20] Glutinous Rice Balls in Ginger Soup (Tang Yuan) | Asian Inspirations[20] Glutinous Rice Balls in Ginger Soup (Tang Yuan) | Asian Inspirations[20] Glutinous Rice Balls in Ginger Soup (Tang Yuan) | Asian Inspirations[20] Glutinous Rice Balls in Ginger Soup (Tang Yuan) | Asian Inspirations[21] What Makes Rice Sticky? | Rouxbe Online Culinary School[21] What Makes Rice Sticky? | Rouxbe Online Culinary School[21] What Makes Rice Sticky? | Rouxbe Online Culinary School[21] What Makes Rice Sticky? | Rouxbe Online Culinary School[22] Starch - Wikipedia[22] Starch - Wikipedia[22] Starch - Wikipedia[22] Starch - Wikipedia[23] Ingenious use of sticky rice mortar in Ancient China[23] Ingenious use of sticky rice mortar in Ancient China[23] Ingenious use of sticky rice mortar in Ancient China[23] Ingenious use of sticky rice mortar in Ancient China[24] Sticky Rice Holds Ancient Chinese Buildings Together[24] Sticky Rice Holds Ancient Chinese Buildings Together[24] Sticky Rice Holds Ancient Chinese Buildings Together[24] Sticky Rice Holds Ancient Chinese Buildings Together[25] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[25] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[25] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[25] Study of Sticky Rice−Lime Mortar Technology for the Restoration of Historical Masonry Construction[26] http://Durgadevagi Shanmugavel, Rachna Dubey, Ravi Ramadoss. Use of natural polymer from plant as admixture in hydraulic lime mortar masonry. Journal of Building Engineering 2020,[26] http://Durgadevagi Shanmugavel, Rachna Dubey, Ravi Ramadoss. Use of natural polymer from plant as admixture in hydraulic lime mortar masonry. Journal of Building Engineering 2020,[26] http://Durgadevagi Shanmugavel, Rachna Dubey, Ravi Ramadoss. Use of natural polymer from plant as admixture in hydraulic lime mortar masonry. Journal of Building Engineering 2020,[26] 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Tulou — Mysterious Earth Castles, Mulan's Home[43] Fujian Tulou — Mysterious Earth Castles, Mulan's Home[44] Fujian Tulou — Mysterious Earth Castles, Mulan's Home[44] Fujian Tulou — Mysterious Earth Castles, Mulan's Home[44] Fujian Tulou — Mysterious Earth Castles, Mulan's Home[44] Fujian Tulou — Mysterious Earth Castles, Mulan's Home[45] Fujian Tulou, Hakka Earth Buildings: Unique Residential Architecture[45] Fujian Tulou, Hakka Earth Buildings: Unique Residential Architecture[45] Fujian Tulou, Hakka Earth Buildings: Unique Residential Architecture[45] Fujian Tulou, Hakka Earth Buildings: Unique Residential Architecture[46] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/194596/Jin_umn_0130E_18889.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&ved=2ahUKEwi2np7IzIboAhXCF80KHd3zBWMQFjAMegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw0v0MN-zTfljVQ-iUK7i10B[46] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/194596/Jin_umn_0130E_18889.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&ved=2ahUKEwi2np7IzIboAhXCF80KHd3zBWMQFjAMegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw0v0MN-zTfljVQ-iUK7i10B[46] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/194596/Jin_umn_0130E_18889.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&ved=2ahUKEwi2np7IzIboAhXCF80KHd3zBWMQFjAMegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw0v0MN-zTfljVQ-iUK7i10B[46] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/194596/Jin_umn_0130E_18889.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&ved=2ahUKEwi2np7IzIboAhXCF80KHd3zBWMQFjAMegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw0v0MN-zTfljVQ-iUK7i10B[47] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293209678_The_ancient_great_earthquake_and_earthquake-resistance_of_the_ancient_buildings_towers_temples_bridges_in_Quanzhou_city[47] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293209678_The_ancient_great_earthquake_and_earthquake-resistance_of_the_ancient_buildings_towers_temples_bridges_in_Quanzhou_city[47] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293209678_The_ancient_great_earthquake_and_earthquake-resistance_of_the_ancient_buildings_towers_temples_bridges_in_Quanzhou_city[47] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293209678_The_ancient_great_earthquake_and_earthquake-resistance_of_the_ancient_buildings_towers_temples_bridges_in_Quanzhou_city[48] China: First in cement[48] China: First in cement[48] China: First in cement[48] China: First in cement[49] Threats and Challenges to the Archaeological Heritage in the Mediterranean[49] Threats and Challenges to the Archaeological Heritage in the Mediterranean[49] Threats and Challenges to the Archaeological Heritage in the Mediterranean[49] Threats and Challenges to the Archaeological Heritage in the Mediterranean[50] Construction: Don't Hold the Rice[50] Construction: Don't Hold the Rice[50] Construction: Don't Hold the Rice[50] Construction: Don't Hold the Rice[51] When Cuisine and Construction Merge | The World of Chinese[51] When Cuisine and Construction Merge | The World of Chinese[51] When Cuisine and Construction Merge | The World of Chinese[51] When Cuisine and Construction Merge | The World of Chinese[52] http://n.yibada.com/articles/140045/20160711/builders-in-xinchang-use-glutinous-rice-to-restore-ancient-city-walls.htm[52] http://n.yibada.com/articles/140045/20160711/builders-in-xinchang-use-glutinous-rice-to-restore-ancient-city-walls.htm[52] http://n.yibada.com/articles/140045/20160711/builders-in-xinchang-use-glutinous-rice-to-restore-ancient-city-walls.htm[52] http://n.yibada.com/articles/140045/20160711/builders-in-xinchang-use-glutinous-rice-to-restore-ancient-city-walls.htm[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332490476_Sticky_rice-nanolime_as_a_consolidation_treatment_for_lime_mortars&ved=2ahUKEwjg5_yLrYboAhXUaM0KHY33BbYQFjAAegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw2U1quSqn6UW-xPvEJ4ARWL[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332490476_Sticky_rice-nanolime_as_a_consolidation_treatment_for_lime_mortars&ved=2ahUKEwjg5_yLrYboAhXUaM0KHY33BbYQFjAAegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw2U1quSqn6UW-xPvEJ4ARWL[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332490476_Sticky_rice-nanolime_as_a_consolidation_treatment_for_lime_mortars&ved=2ahUKEwjg5_yLrYboAhXUaM0KHY33BbYQFjAAegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw2U1quSqn6UW-xPvEJ4ARWL[53] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332490476_Sticky_rice-nanolime_as_a_consolidation_treatment_for_lime_mortars&ved=2ahUKEwjg5_yLrYboAhXUaM0KHY33BbYQFjAAegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw2U1quSqn6UW-xPvEJ4ARWL[54] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/19/5169/pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjxibbby4boAhVXVs0KHQ-MDoEQFjAcegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw1AoPiaNwrNvUMLqNfpZVjw&cshid=1583523276318[54] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/19/5169/pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjxibbby4boAhVXVs0KHQ-MDoEQFjAcegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw1AoPiaNwrNvUMLqNfpZVjw&cshid=1583523276318[54] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/19/5169/pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjxibbby4boAhVXVs0KHQ-MDoEQFjAcegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw1AoPiaNwrNvUMLqNfpZVjw&cshid=1583523276318[54] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/19/5169/pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjxibbby4boAhVXVs0KHQ-MDoEQFjAcegQIAxAB&usg=AOvVaw1AoPiaNwrNvUMLqNfpZVjw&cshid=1583523276318

The model of the solar system is not a vortex, or if it is, I missed that class and someone failed to tell me.However, there was a model that suggested the vortex as a kind of mechanical explanation of things. Well, I guess it was really a theory aiming at explaining gravitation, but it’s at least a theory astronomically applicable, on the solar system, and it’s vortex-based.I won’t rephrase this into my own words but shall give you the relevant section from the relevant Wikipedia article without further ado.Well, almost without further ado, but first, just let us have a look at an illustration of it, shall we? [Theory presented below the image.]Descartes' vortex theoryBecause of his philosophical beliefs, René Descartes proposed in 1644 that no empty space can exist and that space must consequently be filled with matter. The parts of this matter tend to move in straight paths, but because they lie close together, they can not move freely, which according to Descartes implies that every motion is circular, so the aether is filled with vortices. Descartes also distinguishes between different forms and sizes of matter in which rough matter resists the circular movement more strongly than fine matter. Due to centrifugal force, matter tends towards the outer edges of the vortex, which causes a condensation of this matter there. The rough matter cannot follow this movement due to its greater inertia—so due to the pressure of the condensed outer matter those parts will be pushed into the center of the vortex. According to Descartes, this inward pressure is nothing else than gravity. He compared this mechanism with the fact that if a rotating, liquid filled vessel is stopped, the liquid goes on to rotate. Now, if one drops small pieces of light matter (e.g. wood) into the vessel, the pieces move to the middle of the vessel.Following the basic premises of Descartes, Christiaan Huygens between 1669 and 1690 designed a much more exact vortex model. This model was the first theory of gravitation which was worked out mathematically. He assumed that the aether particles are moving in every direction, but were thrown back at the outer borders of the vortex and this causes (as in the case of Descartes) a greater concentration of fine matter at the outer borders. So also in his model the fine matter presses the rough matter into the center of the vortex. Huygens also found out that the centrifugal force is equal to the force, which acts in the direction of the center of the vortex (centripetal force). He also posited that bodies must consist mostly of empty space so that the aether can penetrate the bodies easily, which is necessary for mass proportionality. He further concluded that the aether moves much faster than the falling bodies. At this time, Newton developed his theory of gravitation which is based on attraction, and although Huygens agreed with the mathematical formalism, he said the model was insufficient due to the lack of a mechanical explanation of the force law. Newton's discovery that gravity obeys the inverse square law surprised Huygens and he tried to take this into account by assuming that the speed of the aether is smaller in greater distance.Criticism: Newton objected to the theory because drag must lead to noticeable deviations of the orbits which were not observed.Another problem was that moons often move in different directions, against the direction of the vortex motion. Also, Huygens' explanation of the inverse square law is circular, because this means that the aether obeys Kepler's third law. But a theory of gravitation has to explain those laws and must not presuppose them.Source: Descartes' vortex theory - Wikipedia [1][1][1][1]____________Footnotes[1] Creative Commons - Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported - CC BY-SA 3.0[1] Creative Commons - Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported - CC BY-SA 3.0[1] Creative Commons - Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported - CC BY-SA 3.0[1] Creative Commons - Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported - CC BY-SA 3.0

WELLCOME COLLECTION // CC BY 4.0When James VI of Scotland took the English crown in 1603, it was heralded as a blessed return to normality. For the previous forty-one years, the natural order had been put on its head by the reign of Elizabeth I, a woman performing the ultimate male duty. Elizabeth’s reign had necessarily been an act of political transvestism. She presented herself as the Virgin Queen, the chaste goddess, but also as the guardian of divinely ordained power; she wore dresses from the neck down, but the crown upon her head remained inherently male. “I have the body of a woman,” she famously reminded her people, “but the heart and stomach of a king.”[1][1][1][1]Elizabeth’s accession sparked a preoccupation with masculine women in England.[2][2][2][2] Within twenty years of the beginning of her reign, there were reports that females had been seen strutting along the streets of London wearing men’s breeches and doublets, in brazen contravention of the law. When the writer William Harrison encountered some of these imposters in the capital he swore that it “passed my skill to discern whether they were men or women.”[3][3][3][3]One of early modern Britain's most memorable underworld characters, Mary Frith flouted convention at every turn. Far from being the weak, timid woman who stayed at home taking care of children as Elizabethan ideals demanded,[4][4][4][4] she took to the streets and stage, making a spectacle of herself that earned both official opprobrium and not a little public admiration.Mary was making a name for herself while she was barely out of her teens. Born circa 1584 near St. Paul's Cathedral in London as the only child of a shoemaker and a housewife,[5][5][5][5] she acquired a reputation as a tomrig(tomboy) or hoyden (boisterous girl) in her neighborhood. The Newgate Calendar—a series of 18th- and 19th-century criminal biographies named for Newgate prison in London—would later relate:"She was above all breeding and instruction. She was a very tomrig or hoyden, and delighted only in boys' play and pastime, not minding or companying with the girls. Many a bang and blow this hoyting procured her, but she was not so to be tamed, or taken off from her rude inclinations. She could not endure that sedentary life of sewing or stitching; a sampler was as grievous to her as a winding sheet [burial shroud]; and on her needle, bodkin and thimble she could not think quietly, wishing them changed into sword and dagger for a bout at cudgels."[6][6][6][6]At age 16, Mary was arrested on August 26, 1600, suspected of having 'borrowed' a purse (2s 11d) at Clerkenwell in central London.[7][7][7][7] Two other girls were arrested for the crime as well, suggesting the three were working as a gang. Though Mary confessed at the subsequent trial, she was found not guilty, and it wasn't long before she was busted again for theft: In March of 1602, she was prosecuted for having taken "a purse with XXVs [25 shillings] of Richard Ingles."[8][8][8][8]Mary's father's brother was a minister and, noticing his niece's penchant for trouble, reportedly arranged a spot for her on board a ship headed for the New World.[9][9][9][9] But Mary refused to make the trip: It's said that she jumped overboard while the ship was still in the harbor and swam back to shore. After that, she resolved to never go near her uncle again, and began hanging out in the seedier areas of London. She made a decent living there as a pickpocket, and over the course of her career, reportedly had her hand burned at least four times—a then-common punishment for theft.[10][10][10][10]. She was frequently a guest at The Old Bridewell, the Compters and Newgate for her irregular practices.[11][11][11][11]Soon, Mary's occupation led her to acquire a nickname: She was known on the streets as Moll Cutpurse, for the purse strings she slashed. [12][12][12][12] Moll was a double entendre: Not only was it a nickname for Mary, it also was a term for a disreputable young woman, e.g., a gangster's moll.[13][13][13][13]Top 3 Cross-Dressing Characters in Shakespeare PlaysIt was around this time that Mary started wearing men's clothing, a practice she continued for the rest of her life. Although doing so was unusual, Mary wasn't the only woman of her day who wore men's garb;[14][14][14][14] it was something of a fad among young, lower-class women who frequented London's theaters and brothels in the 1600s[15][15][15][15] These ladies, colloquially called Roaring Girls—a play on roaring boys, males who would holler at and bully passers-by—were also known to crop their hair and carry swords, as Mary did.[16][16][16][16]But Mary's choice of clothing carried consequences—King James was incensed by the cross-dressing fad—and on Christmas Day of 1611, she was arrested and sent to Bridewell Prison. She was tried for "wearing indecent and manly apparel." [17][17][17][17] After her sentence was served, she was made to wear a white sheet at the open-air pulpit of St. Paul's Cross during the Sunday sermon, which was meant to humiliate her. Mary wasn't the least bit ashamed, though, as recorded in her claimed autobiography (although the extent to which she wrote these words herself is debated by historians):"They might as soon have shamed a Black Dog as Me, with any kind of such punishment; for saving the reverence due to those who enjoined it, for a half-penny I would have Traveled to all the Market Towns in England with it, and been as proud of it as that Citizen who rode down to his Friends in his Livery-Gown and Hood."[18][18][18][18]A depiction of the Fortune in a stained glass memorial to Edward Alleyn (Fortune Playhouse - Wikipedia)By then Mary had become a figure of local notoriety. In fact, two plays at the Fortune Theater[19][19][19][19] had already been written with her as the protagonist: John Day's The Madde Pranckes of Mery Mall of the Bankside[20][20][20][20] in 1610 and The Roaring Girl or Moll Cutpurse by Thomas Middleton and Thomas Dekker the following year[21][21][21][21] (a theatrical hit in which she made a cameo, possibly becoming the first English woman to perform in a public theater).[22][22][22][22] Of the public penance at St. Paul's in 1612, the writer John Chamberlain penned to Dudley Carlton: "She wept bitterly and seemed very penitent, but it is since doubted she was maudlin drunk, being discovered to have tippled of three-quarts of sack [white fortified wine].”[23][23][23][23]1611 Drawings | Fine Art AmericaHowever, Mary gleefully points out that as she was not ashamed or repentant the punishment was pointless:“They might as soon have shamed a Black Dog as Me, with any kind of such punishment; for saving the reverence due to those who enjoined it, for a half-penny I would have Traveled to all the Market Towns in England with it, and been as proud of it as that Citizen who rode down to his Friends in his Livery-Gown and Hood.”[24][24][24][24]So generally unashamed was Mary that—according to legend—when her friend the showman William Banks dared her to ride about three miles from Charing Cross to Shoreditch dressed as a man on his famous dancing horse, Marocco, the most famous performing animal in London.[25][25][25][25] Shod in silver, it could dance, play dice and count money. Its most famous trick was climbing the hundreds of narrow steps to the top of old St Paul’s and dancing on the roof.Marocco and William Bankesperforming in an arena (Bankes's Horse - Wikipedia)She accepted the bet of 20 pounds—but not before she got herself a trumpet and a banner, just to make sure no one missed her.[26][26][26][26] Mary later said that as she rode, she pretended to be "Squiresse to Dulcinea of Tobosso," and that the journey was a lark until she reached Bishopsgate, with a mile left to go, whereupon:" … passing under the Gate a plaguey Orange Wench knew me, and no sooner let me pass her, but she cried out! Mal Cutpurse on Horseback, which set the people that were passing by, and the Folks in their Shops a hooting and hollowing as if they had been mad; winding their cries to this deep note, 'Come down thou shame of Women or we will pull thee down.'"I knew not well what to doe, but remembering a Friend I had, that kept a Victualling House a little further, I spurred my Horse on and recovered the place, but was hastily followed by the rabble, who never ceased cursing of me, the more soberer of them laughing and merrily chatting of the Adventure …"So came late into Shoreditch, where I paced the same way back again to the winning of my Wager, and my great Content, to see my self thus out of danger, which I would never tempt again in that nature.”[27][27][27][27]Woodcut of Mary Frith smoking a pipe and holding a sword (WIKIMEDIA COMMONS)Part of Mary's fame also came from the fact that she smoked a pipe, which was considered exclusively a man's pursuit in the 1600s. It became her signature, and today she's thought of as England's first female smoker.[28][28][28][28] Hanging around tobacco shops seems to have inspired another of her salacious-for-the-era hobbies: playing the lute in public. In 1611, she even debuted on the lute at the Fortune Theater playing bawdy songs.[29][29][29][29]Around the age of 30, Mary seems to have made a move toward settling down. She married Lewknor Markham (possibly a son of Gervase Markham, a noted author of poetry and cookbooks) in 1614.[30][30][30][30] But historians think it was probably a ruse, set up to give her a means of defending herself in court when she was defamed as a spinster. Although it was often said that women who dressed in men's clothing were "sexually riotous," according to later biographies Mary herself purportedly had no interest in sex, be it with men or women.[31][31][31][31]By the 1620’s, Moll lived within two doors of the Globe tavern in Fleet Street, over against the Conduit, almost facing Shoe Lane and Salisbury Court, where she turned to fencing.[32][32][32][32] She set up a pawn shop of sorts in her house, where she’d store her purchases, then sell them back to their original owners at a profit. Victims of pickpockets would come first to Moll and offer her compensation in exchange for the retrieval of their stolen goods. [33][33][33][33] The thieves, having obtained adequate ransom for their booty, handed them over. This arrangement kept both sides happy and alleviated the need for ‘the hue and cry’ as the authorities always knew where to look for stolen property.She also supposedly acted as a pimp, finding young women for men as well as male lovers for married women, sometimes using her own house as a brothel.[34][34][34][34] In one case where a wife confessed on her deathbed to infidelity with lovers provided by Mary, she convinced the woman's lovers to send money for the maintenance of the children that were probably theirs.[35][35][35][35]From these gigs, she amassed a healthy income and invested it in her home, which has been described as “surprisingly feminine”[36][36][36][36] and was decked with mirrors all over, to stroke her vanity. She employed three full-time maids and kept mastiffs and parrots, doting especially on the dogs—each one had its own bed with sheets and blankets, like a human's.But working as a fence may have grown boring for Mary, because during the early 1640s she supposedly made another career switch, becoming a highway-woman who held up travelers at gunpoint.[37][37][37][37] Despite her decades-long criminal lifestyle, she also supposedly became a Royalist, siding with the king and against the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. In her purported autobiography, she claims to have genuflected before the king when other "Saucy Rogues" wanted him dead, and brags that she was the "onely declared person in our street against the Parliament." [38][38][38][38] Whether she truly supported the monarchy is a subject of debate—some historians believe the story is nothing more than posthumous myth-making, while others argue it's largely accurate, and that she may have supported the monarchy because they "were not as inclined to legislate morality."[39][39][39][39]The Bethlem Hospital by Hogarth (Bethlem Royal Hospital - Wikipedia)Mary was an ardent Royalist, and was approaching sixty when she turned highwaywoman during the Civil War. Like her highwaymen friend, Captain James Hind,[40][40][40][40] gained satisfaction by robbing Parliamentarians, her most memorable exploit was when she robbed General Sir Thomas Fairfax. She held up his carriage on Hounslow Heath and relieved him of two hundred and fifty ‘jacobuses’. [41][41][41][41] She shot Fairfax in the arm and then killed two horses of his escort to prevent pursuit.She was captured at Turnham Green when her horse went lame and sent to Newgate, tried and sentenced to death. However, she avoided her date with the hangman, by paying a 2000 pound bribe, and released on 21 June 1644 from Bethlem Hospital after being cured of insanity.[42][42][42][42]She died of dropsy (now known as edema) on July 26, 1659. The Newgate Calendar said of her death: "Moll being grown crazy in her body, and discontented in mind, she yielded to the next distemper that approached her, which was the dropsy; a disease which had such strange and terrible symptoms that she thought she was possessed, and that the devil had got within her doublet."[43][43][43][43]According to The Newgate Calendar: "This she took to from her first entrance into a competency of age, and to her dying day she would not leave it off... She was a great libertine, she lived too much in common to be enclosed in the limits of a private domestic life."[44][44][44][44]In her will she expressed a desire to be buried 'with her breech upwards, that she might be as preposterous in her death as she had been all along in her infamous life.'[45][45][45][45]Her will, written as Mary Markham, lists several benefactors, none of which were her husband (he may have died earlier). She also adopted a practice that was common for widows and spinsters of the time, naming a woman to execute her will—in this case, her niece Frances Edmonds[46][46][46][46] . She was buried in the churchyard of St. Bride's on Fleet Street, having instructed Edmonds to pay extra for her to be interred among the rich and prestigious.[47][47][47][47] Although it was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, her marble headstone reportedly bore an epitaph by the poet John Milton, who was a fan of hers:"Here lies, under this same marble,Dust, for Time's last sieve to garble;Dust, to perplex a Sadducee,Whether it rise a He or She,Or two in one, a single pair,Nature's sport, and now her care.For how she'll clothe it at last day,Unless she sighs it all away;Or where she'll place it, none can tell:Some middle place 'twixt Heaven and HellAnd well 'tis Purgatory's found,Else she must hide her under ground.These reliques do deserve the doom,Of that cheat Mahomet's fine tombFor no communion she had,Nor sorted with the good or bad;That when the world shall be calcin'd,And the mixd' mass of human kindShall sep'rate by that melting fire,She'll stand alone, and none come nigh her.Reader, here she lies till then,When, truly, you'll see her again."[48][48][48][48]Footnotes[1] Elizabeth I Quotes (Author of Collected Works)[1] Elizabeth I Quotes (Author of Collected Works)[1] Elizabeth I Quotes (Author of Collected Works)[1] Elizabeth I Quotes (Author of Collected Works)[2] Feminists in Elizabethan England[2] Feminists in Elizabethan England[2] Feminists in Elizabethan England[2] Feminists in Elizabethan England[3] A Protestant Vision: William Harrison and the Reformation of Elizabethan England[3] A Protestant Vision: William Harrison and the Reformation of Elizabethan England[3] A Protestant Vision: William Harrison and the Reformation of Elizabethan England[3] A Protestant Vision: William Harrison and the Reformation of Elizabethan England[4] Elizabethan Women[4] Elizabethan Women[4] Elizabethan Women[4] Elizabethan Women[5] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[5] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[5] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[5] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[6] The Newgate Calendar - Wikipedia[6] The Newgate Calendar - Wikipedia[6] The Newgate Calendar - Wikipedia[6] The Newgate Calendar - Wikipedia[7] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[7] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[7] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[7] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[8] The Roaring Girl[8] The Roaring Girl[8] The Roaring Girl[8] The Roaring Girl[9] Roaring Girl: London’s Sharp-Elbowed, Loudmouthed Mary Frith[9] Roaring Girl: London’s Sharp-Elbowed, Loudmouthed Mary Frith[9] Roaring Girl: London’s Sharp-Elbowed, Loudmouthed Mary Frith[9] Roaring Girl: London’s Sharp-Elbowed, Loudmouthed Mary Frith[10] Q&A: What was the punishment of being ‘burnt in the hand’?[10] Q&A: What was the punishment of being ‘burnt in the hand’?[10] Q&A: What was the punishment of being ‘burnt in the hand’?[10] Q&A: What was the punishment of being ‘burnt in the hand’?[11] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[11] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[11] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[11] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[12] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[12] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[12] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[12] Mary Frith - Wikipedia[13] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[13] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[13] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[13] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[14] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[14] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[14] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[14] Moll Cutpurse: London's Queen of Thieves[15] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[15] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[15] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[15] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[16] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [16] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [16] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [16] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [17] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [17] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [17] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [17] The Roaring Girls of Queer London [18] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[18] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[18] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[18] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[19] Fortune Playhouse - Wikipedia[19] Fortune Playhouse - Wikipedia[19] Fortune Playhouse - Wikipedia[19] Fortune Playhouse - Wikipedia[20] Gentlemen Rogues & Wicked Ladies[20] Gentlemen Rogues & Wicked Ladies[20] Gentlemen Rogues & Wicked Ladies[20] Gentlemen Rogues & Wicked Ladies[21] The Roaring Girl[21] The Roaring Girl[21] The Roaring Girl[21] The Roaring Girl[22] Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works[22] Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works[22] Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works[22] Thomas Middleton: The Collected Works[23] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[23] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[23] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[23] http://Ackroyd, Peter (2015). Civil War: The History of England, Vol. III. London: Pan Books. p. 36[24] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature[24] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature[24] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature[24] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature[25] Bankes's Horse - Wikipedia[25] Bankes's Horse - Wikipedia[25] Bankes's Horse - Wikipedia[25] Bankes's Horse - Wikipedia[26] The Feejee Mermaid and Other Essays in Natural and Unnatural History[26] The Feejee Mermaid and Other Essays in Natural and Unnatural History[26] The Feejee Mermaid and Other Essays in Natural and Unnatural History[26] The Feejee Mermaid and Other Essays in Natural and Unnatural History[27] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[27] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[27] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[27] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[28] Stubbed out: the rise and fall(?) of smoking in Britain[28] Stubbed out: the rise and fall(?) of smoking in Britain[28] Stubbed out: the rise and fall(?) of smoking in Britain[28] Stubbed out: the rise and fall(?) of smoking in Britain[29] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[29] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[29] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[29] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[30] Gervase Markham | English poet and author[30] Gervase Markham | English poet and author[30] Gervase Markham | English poet and author[30] Gervase Markham | English poet and author[31] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[31] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[31] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[31] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[32] Mary Frith aka Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl - HeadStuff[32] Mary Frith aka Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl - HeadStuff[32] Mary Frith aka Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl - HeadStuff[32] Mary Frith aka Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl - HeadStuff[33] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[33] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[33] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[33] Mary Frith, Alias Moll Cutpurse, in Life and Literature.[34] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[34] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[34] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[34] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[35] Mary Frith or Moll Cutpurse: the threatening and fascinating body of the masculinely trousered whore.[35] Mary Frith or Moll Cutpurse: the threatening and fascinating body of the masculinely trousered whore.[35] Mary Frith or Moll Cutpurse: the threatening and fascinating body of the masculinely trousered whore.[35] Mary Frith or Moll Cutpurse: the threatening and fascinating body of the masculinely trousered whore.[36] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[36] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[36] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[36] The Man-Woman and Womanish Man, Cross-Dressing in Jacobean London[37] http://Life and Death of Mrs. Mary Frith: Commonly Called Mal Cutpurse[37] http://Life and Death of Mrs. Mary Frith: Commonly Called Mal Cutpurse[37] http://Life and Death of Mrs. Mary Frith: Commonly Called Mal Cutpurse[37] http://Life and Death of Mrs. Mary Frith: Commonly Called Mal Cutpurse[38] Transversal Enterprises in the Drama of Shakespeare and his Contemporaries[38] Transversal Enterprises in the Drama of Shakespeare and his Contemporaries[38] Transversal Enterprises in the Drama of Shakespeare and his Contemporaries[38] Transversal Enterprises in the Drama of Shakespeare and his Contemporaries[39] Musical Voices of Early Modern Women[39] Musical Voices of Early Modern Women[39] Musical Voices of Early Modern Women[39] Musical Voices of Early Modern Women[40] Captain James Hind (1616-1652): The Royalist Highwayman[40] Captain James Hind (1616-1652): The Royalist Highwayman[40] Captain James Hind (1616-1652): The Royalist Highwayman[40] Captain James Hind (1616-1652): The Royalist Highwayman[41] Black Tom: Sir Thomas Fairfax and the English Revolution[41] Black Tom: Sir Thomas Fairfax and the English Revolution[41] Black Tom: Sir Thomas Fairfax and the English Revolution[41] Black Tom: Sir Thomas Fairfax and the English Revolution[42] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[42] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[42] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[42] Mary Frith 17th Century Highwaywoman[43] The Roaring Girl[43] The Roaring Girl[43] The Roaring Girl[43] The Roaring Girl[44] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[44] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[44] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[44] MARY FRITH OTHERWISE MOLL CUTPURSE[45] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[45] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[45] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[45] https://www.crimeculture.com/earlyunderworlds/Contents/Cutpurse.html[46] Mary Frith, or Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl[46] Mary Frith, or Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl[46] Mary Frith, or Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl[46] Mary Frith, or Moll Cutpurse, the Roaring Girl[47] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[47] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[47] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[47] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[48] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[48] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[48] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith[48] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12085444/mary-frith