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8 major Google algorithm updates, explainedYour ultimate cheat sheet to Google’s algorithmic changes and penalties, available in a free PDF.Sponsored Content: SEO PowerSuite on September 19, 2017 at 7:30Almost every day, Google introduces changes to its ranking algorithm. Some are tiny tweaks; others seriously shake up the SERPs. This cheat sheet will help you make sense of the most important algo changes and penalties rolled out in the recent years, with a brief overview and SEO advice on each. Read on or get the cheat sheet in a free PDF.But before we start, let’s do something fun. What if you could see which of the updates impacted your organic traffic, and in what way? Surprise surprise, you can, with a tool called Rank Tracker. All you need to do is launch Rank Tracker and create a project for your site. Then, click the Update Traffic button in Rank Tracker’s top menu, and enter your Google Analytics credentials to sync your account with the tool. In the lower part of your Rank Tracker dashboard, switch to Organic Traffic:Did any of your traffic changes correlate with Google’s updates? Let’s find out what each of the updates was about and how to adjust.1. PandaLaunch date: February 24, 2011Hazards: Duplicate, plagiarized or thin content; user-generated spam; keyword stuffingHow it works: Panda assigns a so-called “quality score” to web pages; this score is then used as a ranking factor. Initially, Panda was a filter rather than part of Google’s ranking algo, but in January 2016, it was officially incorporated into the core algorithm. Panda rollouts have become more frequent, so both penalties and recoveries now happen faster.How to adjust: Run regular site checks for content duplication, thin content and keyword stuffing. To do that, you’ll need a site crawler, like SEO PowerSuite’s Website Auditor.To check for instances of external content duplication, use a plagiarism checker like Copyscape.If you have an e-commerce site and cannot afford to have 100 percent unique content, try to use original images where you can, and utilize user reviews to make product descriptions stand out from the crowd. For more tips on content auditing, jump to this six-step guide.2. PenguinLaunch date: April 24, 2012Hazards: Spammy or irrelevant links; links with over-optimized anchor textHow it works: Google Penguin’s objective is to down-rank sites whose links it deems manipulative. Since late 2016, Penguin has been part of Google’s core algorithm; unlike Panda, it works in real time.How to adjust: Monitor your link profile’s growth and run regular audits with a backlink checker like SEO SpyGlass. In the tool’s Summary dashboard, you’ll find a progress graph for your link profile’s growth. Look out for any unusual spikes: those are reason enough to look into the backlinks you’ve unexpectedly gained.The stats that we know Penguin takes into account are incorporated into SEO SpyGlass’s Penalty Risk formula. To check for penalty risks, go to the Linking Domains dashboard, navigate to the Link Penalty Risks tab, select your links, and click Update Penalty Risk. When the check is complete, check with the Penalty Risk column, and make sure to look into every link with a score over 50 percent.For a more detailed guide on link auditing, jump here.3. HummingbirdLaunch date: August 22, 2013Hazards: Keyword stuffing; low-quality contentHow it works: Hummingbird helps Google better interpret search queries and provide results that match searcher intent (as opposed to the individual terms within the query). While keywords continue to be important, Hummingbird makes it possible for a page to rank for a query even if it doesn’t contain the exact words the searcher entered. This is achieved with the help of natural language processing that relies on latent semantic indexing, co-occurring terms and synonyms.How to adjust: Expand your keyword research and focus on concepts, not keywords. Carefully research related searches, synonyms and co-occurring terms. Great sources of such ideas are Google Related Searches and Google Autocomplete. You’ll find all of them incorporated into Rank Tracker’s Keyword Research module.Use these insights to understand your audience’s language better and diversify your content. By creating comprehensive content that satisfies searcher intent, you’ll win both in terms of engagement and SEO. We’ll look at comprehensiveness in more detail later in this post when we discuss RankBrain.4. PigeonLaunch date: July 24, 2014 (US); December 22, 2014 (UK, Canada, Australia)Hazards: Poor on- and off-page SEOHow it works: Pigeon affects those searches in which the user’s location plays an important part. The update created closer ties between the local algorithm and the core algorithm: traditional SEO factors are now used to rank local results.How to adjust: Invest effort into on- and off-page SEO. A good starting point is running an on-page analysis with WebSite Auditor. The tool’s Content Analysis dashboard will give you a good idea about the aspects of on-page optimization you need to focus on.A good way to start with off-page SEO is getting listed in relevant business directories. Not only do those act like backlinks, helping your site rank; they rank well in Google themselves. You can easily find quality directories and reach out to webmasters asking to get listed with LinkAssistant.Just click Look for Prospects, select Directories, and enter your keywords. It’s a good idea to specify category keywords plus your location (e.g., “dentist Denver”). In a moment, the tools will return a list of relevant directories in your niche, along with the site owner’s email addresses.For more tips on local SEO, jump to this guide.5. MobileLaunch date: April 21, 2015Hazards: Lack of a mobile version of the page; poor mobile usabilityHow it works: Google’s Mobile Update (aka Mobilegeddon) ensures that mobile-friendly pages rank at the top of mobile search, while pages not optimized for mobile are filtered out from the SERPs or seriously down-ranked.How to adjust: Go mobile and focus on speed and usability. Google’s mobile-friendly test will help you see which aspects of your page’s mobile version need to be improved. The test in integrated into WebSite Auditor so you can check your pages’ mobile friendliness quickly. You’ll find it in Content Analysis > Page Audit, under the Technical factors tab.6. RankBrainLaunch date: October 26, 2015Hazards: Lack of query-specific relevance features; shallow content; poor UXHow it works: RankBrain is part of Google’s Hummingbird algorithm. It is a machine learning system that helps Google understand the meaning behind queries, and serve best-matching search results in response to those queries. Google calls RankBrain the third most important ranking factor. While we don’t know the ins and outs of RankBrain, the general opinion is that it identifies relevance features for web pages ranking for a given query, which are basically query-specific ranking factors.How to adjust: Optimize content for relevance and comprehensiveness with the help of competitive analysis. With the help of WebSite Auditor‘s TF-IDF tool, you can discover relevant terms and concepts used by a large number of your top-ranking competitors: those are a brilliant way to diversify your content.7. PossumLaunch date: September 1, 2016Hazards: Tense competition in your target locationHow it works: The Possum update ensured that local results vary more depending on the searcher’s location: the closer you are to a business’s address, the more likely you are to see it among local results. Possum also resulted in greater variety among results ranking for very similar queries, like “dentist denver” and “dentist denver co.” Interestingly, Possum also gave a boost to businesses located outside the physical city area.How to adjust: Expand your keyword list and do location-specific rank tracking. Local businesses now need to be targeting more keywords than they used to, due to the volatility Possum brought into the local SERPs. As you check your rankings, make sure you’re doing this from your target location (or, better yet, a bunch of them). You can do this in Rank Tracker under Preferences > Preferred Search Engines. Click Add Custom next to Google. Next, specify your preferred location — you can make it as specific as a street address.8. FredLaunch date: March 8, 2017Hazards: Thin, affiliate-heavy or ad-centered contentHow it works: The latest of Google’s confirmed updates, Fred targets websites that violate Google’s webmaster guidelines. The majority of affected sites are blogs with low-quality posts that appear to be created mostly for the purpose of generating ad revenue.How to adjust: Review Google Search Quality Guidelines and watch out for thin content. If you show ads, make sure the pages they are found on are high-quality and offer relevant, ample information. This is basically it: Don’t try to trick Google into thinking your page is about something when it really is a gateway page full of affiliate links. Most publishers make money off ads, and that’s totally legit as long as you are not cheating.About The AuthorSponsored Content: SEO PowerSuiteSEO PowerSuite is a one-stop SEO toolkit that combines pro-level functionality with minimized costs, making full-scale SEO affordable for businesses of any size. The toolkit lets webmasters, marketers, and professional SEOs run full-cycle SEO campaigns and grow rankings, traffic, and sales. The toolkit is always on top of the latest search trends with continuous improvements and feature updates, including the recently added SERP history, rendered site crawling, and in-depth backlink analysis. Since 2005, over 2 million users have grown their business online with SEO PowerSuite. SEO PowerSuite is available for free download on the official website.

The majority of “Berbers” ( as you call them) were brought to N. Africa as SLAVES.Europeans were taken off English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and American ships and were brought to Africa’s “Barbary coastal states’ such as Tunisia, Algeria, Libya , Egypt and Morocco as SLAVES by Indigenous African Muslim Tribesman (“Moors”) and Arab Muslim Tribesman!Now, I realise that our resident hard core white supremacist will not this find this answer sexy, but it's what it is so suck it up!White SlaveryA Meccan merchant (right) and his Circassian slave. Entitled, ‘Vornehmner Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven’ [Distinguished merchant and his circassian slave] by Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, ca. 1888.For other uses, see White slavery (disambiguation).See also: Slavery in medieval Europe, Slavery in Africa, and Slave narrative § North African slave narrativesPart of a series onSlaveryWhite slavery, white slave trade, and white slave traffic refer to the chattel slavery of White Europeans by non-Europeans (such as indigenous North Africans (“Moors”) and the Muslim world), as well as by Europeans themselves, such as the Viking thralls or European Galley slaves. From Antiquity, European slaves were common during the reign of Ancient Rome and were prominent during the Ottoman Empire into the early modern period. In Feudalism, there were various forms of status below the Freeman that is known as Serfdom (such as the bordar, villein, vagabond and slave) which could be bought and sold as property and were subject to labor and branding by their owners or demesne. Under Muslim rule, the African slave traders that included Caucasian captives were often fueled by raids into European territories or were taken as children in the form of a blood tax by the families of citizens of conquered territories to serve the empire for a variety of functions. In the mid 1800s, the term 'white slavery' was used to describe the Christian slaves that were sold into the Barbary slave trade.Modern use of the term can also include sexual slavery, forced prostitution and human trafficking.The phrase "white slavery" was used by Charles Sumner in 1847 to describe the chattel slavery of Christians throughout the Barbary States and primarily in the Algiers, the capitol of Ottoman Algeria. It also encompassed many forms of slavery, including the European concubines often found in Turkish harems.The term was also used from the beginning of the twentieth century when most of the countries of Europe signed in Paris in 1904 an International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic aimed at combating the sale of women who were forced into prostitution in the countries of continental Europe. In the early twentieth century, the term was used against the forced prostitution and sexual slavery of girls who worked in Chicago brothels.White Slave Trade Slavic SlavesMain articles: Volga trade route and Trade route from the Varangians to the GreeksThe Rus trading slaves with the Khazars: Trade in the East Slavic Camp by Sergei Ivanov (1913)The Volga trade route was established by the Varangians (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Russia in the early 9th century. About 10 km (6 mi) south of the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga, they established a settlement called Ladoga (Old Norse: Aldeigjuborg).It connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as Baghdad. The route functioned concurrently with the Dnieper trade route, better known as the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and lost its importance in the 11th century.Saqaliba refers to Slavic slaves, kidnapped from the coasts of Europe or in wars, as well as white mercenaries in the medieval Muslim world, in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily and Al-Andalus. Saqaliba served, or were forced to serve, in a multitude of ways: servants, harem concubines, eunuchs, craftsmen, soldiers, and as Caliph's guards. In Iberia, Morocco, Damascus and Sicily, their military role may be compared with that of mamluks in the Ottoman Empire. In Spain, Slavic eunuchs were so popular and widely distributed that they became synonymous with Saqāliba.Crimean KhanateMain articles: History of slavery in Asia and Crimean KhanateSee also: Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic landsIn the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the Danubian principalities, Poland-Lithuania, and Muscovy. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10 percent or 20 percent. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and çapuls, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Caffa was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.Tatar raiders enslaved between 1 and 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland-Lithuania over the period 1500–1700. Caffa (city on Crimean peninsula) was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.Barbary Slave TradeMain articles: Barbary slave trade and Barbary corsairsThe Barbary CoastGiulio Rosati, Inspection of New Arrivals, 1858–1917, Circassian beauties.The purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in the Barbary states.Slave markets flourished on the Barbary Coast of North Africa, in what is modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and western Libya, between the 15th and middle of the 18th century.These markets prospered while the states were nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, though, in reality, they were mostly autonomous. The North African slave markets traded in European slaves which were acquired by Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Netherlands, and as far afield as the Turkish Abductions in Iceland. Men, women, and children were captured to such a devastating extent that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned.1815 illustration of a British Captain horrified by seeing Christians worked as slaves in Algiers.According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 19th centuries. However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers - about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."Davis' numbers have been challenged by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe and black people from west Africa.In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.Such observations, across the late 1500s and early 1600s observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.From bases on the Barbary coast, North Africa, the Barbary pirates raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa, plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured. From at least 1500, the pirates also conducted raids along seaside towns of Italy, Spain, France, England, the Netherlands and as far away as Iceland, capturing men, women and children. On some occasions, settlements such as Baltimore, Ireland were abandoned following the raid, only being resettled many years later. Between 1609 and 1616, England alone had 466 merchant ships lost to Barbary pirates.While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured, their primary goal was to capture people for sale as slaves or for ransom. Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive, but not obliged to work; the most famous of these was the author Miguel de Cervantes, who was held for almost five years. Others were sold into various types of servitude. Attractive women or boys could be used as sex slaves. Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed, since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited; but this meant that they could never return to their native countries.16th- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.The markets declined after the loss of the Barbary Warsand ended in the 1830s, when the region was conquered by France.Christian Slavery in Muslim SpainMain article: Slavery in SpainAbraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the Bombardment of Algiers (1683).During the Al-Andalus (also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia), the Moors controlled much of the peninsula. They imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the Reconquista in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe, sparking significant reaction from many in Christian Spain and many Christians still living in Muslim Spain. Soon after, Muslims were successful, taking Christian captives of 30,000 from Spain. In the eighth century slavery lasted longer due to "frequent cross-border skirmishes, interspersed between periods of major campaigns". By the tenth century, in the eastern Mediterranean Byzantine Christian's were captured by Muslims. Many of the raids designed by Muslims were created for a fast captive of prisoners. Therefore, Muslims restricted the control in order to keep captives from fleeing. The Iberian peninsula served as a base for further exports of slaves into other Muslim regions in Northern Africa.Ottoman Slave TradeMain article: Ottoman slave tradeSlavery was a legal and a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society.The main sources of slaves were war captives and organized enslavement expeditions in Africa, Eastern Europe and Circassia in the Caucasus. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves fell after large military operations Enslavement of Europeans was banned in the early 19th century, while slaves from other groups were allowed.Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Sexual slavery was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.European SlaverySee also: Slavery in Ireland, Slavery in Britain, Slavery in Spain, and Slavery in RussiaRelief from Smyrna (present-day Izmir, Turkey) depicting a Roman soldier leading captives in chainsSlavery in Ancient RomeMain article: Slavery in ancient RomeFurther information: Slavery in the Byzantine EmpireThe Slave Market, by Gustave Boulanger(1882)In the Roman Republic and later Roman Empire, slaves accounted for most of the means of industrial output in Roman commerce. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germania, Britannia, the Balkans, and Greece. Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest, at its peak.Slaves numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to work in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. Damnati in metallum ("those condemned to the mine") were convicts who lost their freedom as citizens (libertas), forfeited their property (bona) to the state, and became servi poenae, slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law was different from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and die in the mines.Imperial slaves and freedmen (the familia Caesaris) worked in mine administration and management. In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers.Successful gladiators were occasionally rewarded with freedom. However, gladiators being trained warriors and having access to weapons, were potentially the most dangerous slaves. At an earlier time, many gladiators had been soldiers taken captive in war. Spartacus, who led the great slave rebellion of 73-71 BCE, was a rebel gladiator.The slaves imported in Italy were native Europeans, and very few of them were from outside Europe. This has been confirmed by biochemical analysis of 166 skeletons from three imperial-era cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome (where the bulk of the slaves lived), which shows that only one individual came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another two possibly did, but results are inconclusive. In the rest of the Italian peninsula, the fraction of non European slaves was much lower than that.Slavery Under Islamic RuleHistory of the Ottoman EmpireSocial structureCourt and aristocracyOttoman courtSlaveryDevshirmeMilletsMuslimsChristians ArmeniansBulgariansGreeksJewsGreat Fire of 1660Main articles: History of slavery in the Muslim world and Slavery in the Ottoman EmpireThe "pençik" or "penç-yek" tax, meaning "one fifth", was a taxation based on a verse of the Quran; whereby one fifth of the spoils of war belonged to God, to Muhammad and his family, to orphans, to those in need and to travelers. This eventually included slaves and war captives were given to soldiers and officers to help motivate their participation in wars.Main articles: Dhimmi, Dhimmitude, and JizyaChristians and Jews, known as People of the Book in Islam, were considered dhimmis in territories under Muslim rule, a status of second-class citizens that were afforded limited freedoms, legal protections, personal safety, and were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy". In order to keep these protections and rights, dhimmis were required to pay the Jizya and Kharaj taxes as an acknowledgement of Muslim rule. According to Abu Yusuf, Failure to pay this tax should render the dhemmi's life and property void and subject the dhemmi to forced conversion, enslavement, imprisonment or death. If anyone had agreed to pay the jizya, leaving Muslim territory for enemy land was punishable by enslavement if captured.Failure to pay the jizya was commonly punished by house arrest and some legal authorities allowed enslavement of dhimmis for non-payment of taxes.In South Asia, for example, seizure of dhimmi families upon their failure to pay annual jizya was one of the two significant sources of slaves sold in the slave markets of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal era. Main article: DevshirmeSee also: Kapi Agha, Ghilman, Mamluk, and SaqalibaThe Devshirme was a blood tax largely imposed in the Balkans and Anatoliain which the Ottoman Empire sent military to collect Christian boys between the ages of 8 to 18 that were taken from their families and raised to serve the empire.The tax was imposed by Murad I in the mid 1300s and lasted until the reign of Ahmet III in the early 1700s. From the mid to late 14th, through early 18th centuries, the devşirme–janissary system enslaved an estimated 500,000 to one million non–Muslim adolescent males.These boys would attain a great education and high social standing after their training and forced conversion to Islam.Basilike Papoulia wrote that "...the devsirme was the 'forcible removal', in the form of a tribute, of children of the Christian subjects from their ethnic, religious and cultural environment and their transportation into the Turkish-Islamic environment with the aim of employing them in the service of the Palace, the army, and the state, whereby they were on the one hand to serve the Sultan as slaves and freedmen and on the other to form the ruling class of the State."Indentured ServitudeMain articles: Indentured servitude and Irish indentured servantsIn the modern era, many whites in England, Ireland and British North America were indentured servants, a form of slavery now banned by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.Between 50 and 67 percent of white immigrants to the American colonies, from the 1630s and American Revolution, had traveled under indenture.White Slave TrafficMain article: International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave TrafficThe International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic is a series of anti–human trafficking treaties, the first of which was first negotiated in Paris in 1904. It was one of the first multilateral treaties to address issues of slavery and human trafficking. The Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions and Practices Convention of 1926 and the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age of 1933 are similar documents.White Slave Traffic Act of 1910Main article: Mann ActTo battle sex trafficking in the United States, in 1910 the US Congress passed the White Slave Traffic Act (better known as the Mann Act), which made it a felony to transport women across state borders for the purpose of "prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose." As more women were being trafficked from foreign countries, the US began passing immigration acts to curtail aliens from entering the country such as the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924. Following the banning of immigrants during the 1920s, human trafficking was not considered a major issue until the 1990s.Criminal Law Amendment (White Slave Traffic) BillAn attempt was made to introduce a similar law into the UK between 1910 and 1913 as the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1912. Arthur Lee would state in the House of Commons: "the United Kingdom, and particularly England, is increasingly becoming a clearing-house and depot and dispatch centre of the white slave traffic, and the headquarters of the foreign agents engaged in the most expensive and lucrative phase of the business."South America was stated as the main destination for the trafficked girls. The Spectator commented that "the Bill has been blocked by a member [alluding to Frederick Booth ] or members who, for various reasons consider that it is not a measure which ought to be placed upon the statute book" as it would affect the liberty of the individual.See alsoTurkish AbductionsMamlukGuðríður SímonardóttirJan JanszoonÓlafur EgilssonRumeliaRumelia EyaletSeljuk Empire1926 Slavery ConventionSlavery in antiquityWhite slave propagandaWhite-Slave Traffic ActIrish slave mythReferences[edit]Jump up^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 4. I propose to consider the subject of White Slavery in Algiers, or perhaps is might be more appropriately called, White Slavery in the Barbary States. As Algiers was its chief seat, it seems to have acquired a current name for the place. This I shall not disturb; though I shall speak of white slavery, or the slavery of Christians, throughout the Barbary States.Jump up^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 54. Among the concubines of a prince of Morocco were two slaves of the age of fifteen, one of English, and the other of French extraction. - Lampiere's Tour, p. 147. There is an account of "One Mrs. Shaw, an Irishwoman," in words hardly polite enough to be quoted. She was swept into the harem of Muley Shmael, who "forced her to turn moor";"but soon after, having taken a dislike to her, he gave her to a soldier." - Braithwaite's Morocco, p. 191.Jump up^ Brøndsted (1965), pp. 64–65Jump up^ The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery: A-K ; Vol. II, L-Z, by Junius P. RodriguezJump up^ Historical survey > Slave societiesJump up^ Galina I. Yermolenko (15 July 2010). Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7546-6761-2. Retrieved 31 May 2012.Jump up^ Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov (2007). "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate". The Journal of Jewish Studies. p. 2.Jump up^ Historical survey > Slave societiesJump up^ CaffaJump up^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800.[1]Jump up^ "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed", Research News, Ohio State University^ Jump up to:a b Carroll, Rory; correspondent, Africa (2004-03-11). "New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-12-11.Jump up^ Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". Routledge.Jump up^ Davis, Robert (17 Feb 2011). "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.Jump up^ Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003Jump up^ Diego de Haedo, Topografía e historia general de Argel, 3 vols., Madrid, 1927-29.Jump up^ Daniel Eisenberg, "¿Por qué volvió Cervantes de Argel?", in Ingeniosa invención: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of his Eighty-Fifth Birthday, Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, 1999, ISBN 9780936388830, pp. 241-253, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/por-qu-volvi-cervantes-de-argel-0/, retrieved 11/20/2014.Jump up^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804Jump up^ Trade and traders in Muslim Spain, Fourth Series, Cambridge University Press, 1996.Jump up^ Supply of Slaves^ Jump up to:a b Spyropoulos Yannis, Slaves and freedmen in 17th- and early 18th-century Ottoman Crete, Turcica, 46, 2015, p. 181, 182.Jump up^ Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery).Jump up^ Eric Dursteler (2006). Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean. JHU Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8018-8324-8.Jump up^ Wolf Von Schierbrand (28 March 1886). "Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars--in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011.Jump up^ Madeline C. Zilfi Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire Cambridge University Press, 2010Jump up^ Santosuosso, Antonio (2001). Storming the Heavens. Westview Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8133-3523-0.Jump up^ Alfred Michael Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235 (Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3.Jump up^ Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries, sect. 4.2.1.Jump up^ Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Blackwell, 2006), p. 124.Jump up^ Prowse, Tracy L.; Schwarcz, Henry P.; Garnsey, Peter; Knyf, Martin; MacChiarelli, Roberto; Bondioli, Luca (2007). "Isotopic evidence for age-related immigration to imperial Rome". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (4): 510–519. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20541. 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[...] those who remained faithful to their old religions and lived as protected persons (dhimmis) under Muslim rule could not, if free, be legally enslaved unless they had violated the terms of the dhimma, the contract governing their status, as for example by rebelling against Muslim rule or helping the enemies of the Muslim state or, according to some authorities, by withholding payment of the Kharaj or the Jizya, the taxes due from dhimmis to the Muslim state.Jump up^ Mark R. Cohen (2005), Poverty and Charity in the Jewish Community of Medieval Egypt, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691092720, pp. 120–3; 130–8, Quotes: "Family members were held responsible for individual's poll tax (mahbus min al-jizya)"; "Imprisonment for failure to pay (poll tax) debt was very common"; "This imprisonment often meant house arrest... which was known as tarsim"Jump up^ I. P. Petrushevsky (1995), Islam in Iran, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-88706-070-0, pp 155, Quote - "The law does not contemplate slavery for debt in the case of Muslims, but it allows the enslavement of Dhimmis for non-payment of jizya and kharaj.(...) "Jump up^ Scott C. Levi (2002), "Hindu Beyond Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 12, Part 3 (November 2002): p. 282Jump up^ Perry Anderson (1979). Lineages of the Absolutist State. Verso. pp. 366–. ISBN 978-0-86091-710-6.Jump up^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together Worlds Apart. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 395. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.Jump up^ A. E. Vacalopoulos. The Greek Nation, 1453–1669, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1976, p. 41; Vasiliki Papoulia, The Impact of Devshirme on Greek Society, in War and Society in East Central Europe, Editor—in—Chief, Bela K. 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HC Deb 10 June 1912 vol 39 cc571-627Jump up^ The Spectator 11 May 1912Categories:Greek slaves of the Ottoman EmpireSlaves of the Ottoman EmpireEthnic and racial stereotypesArabian slaves and freedmenSexual slaverySlavery lawSlavery by typeSearchMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia storeInteractionHelpCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this pagePrint/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesFrançais日本語РусскийTürkç

The citizen’s charter is a document that outlines the service commitment of organisations or service providers towards providing quality, high-standard services, including mechanisms for grievance redressal.This is an important topic for Indian polity and governance segments of the IAS exam. In this article, you can read all about the citizen’s charter – its importance, principles, features, components, criticisms, etc.Citizen’s Charter – IntroductionThe Citizen’s Charter is a voluntary and written document that spells out the service provider’s efforts taken to focus on their commitment towards fulfilling the needs of the citizens/customers.It also includes the ways in which citizens can redress any grievances.It includes what the citizens can expect out of the service provider.The concept is that the charter preserves the trust between the service provider and the citizens/users.The concept of a citizen’s charter was initiated by former British Prime Minister John Major in the year 1991. It was started as a national programme intended to improve the quality of public services. In 1998, in the UK, the concept was renamed ‘Services First’.Principles of Citizen’s Charter (As originally framed)Quality – Improving service quality.Choice – Wherever possible.Standards – Specifically mention what to expect and how to go about if standards are not met.Value – For taxpayers’ money.Accountability – At the level of the individual and the organisation.Transparency – Transparency in rules/schemes/procedures/grievances.After the adoption by the UK, several other countries adopted a citizen’s charter under different names and forms. The basic idea was the same, however, to enhance the quality of services offered to the public, and have transparency and accountability in public services.The 6 principles as laid out by the government in the UK, were later elaborated in 1998. The Labour government, then, brought out the following nine principles of Service Delivery:Set standards of serviceBe open and provide full informationConsult and involveEncourage access and the promotion of choiceTreat all fairlyPut things right when they go wrongUse resources effectivelyInnovate and improveWork with other providersCitizen’s Charter in IndiaIn India, the concept of citizen’s charter was first adopted at a ‘Conference of Chief Ministers of various States and Union Territories’ held in May 1997 in the national capital.A major outcome of the conference was a decision to formulate Citizen’s Charters by the central and state governments, beginning with sectors with a large public interface such as the railways, telecom, posts, PDS, etc.The charters were mandated to include service standards, the time limit that the people can expect to be served, mechanisms for redressing grievances and a provision for unbiased scrutiny by consumer/citizen groups.The task of coordination, formulation and operationalisation of citizen’s charters are done by the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG).In India, in this context, citizens can mean not only citizens but also all stakeholders such as customers, clients, beneficiaries, ministries/departments/organisations, state/UT governments, etc.The Indian model of citizen’s charter is an adaptation from the UK model. One additional component of the charter in the Indian version is the inclusion of the point ‘expectation from clients’.The DARPG website lists more than 700 charters adopted by various government agencies across India.The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011 (Citizens Charter) was introduced in the Lok Sabha in December 2011. It was referred to a Standing Committee which submitted its report in 2012. The bill, however, lapsed due to the dissolution of the Lok Sabha in 2014.Citizen’s charters are not legally enforceable documents. They are just guidelines to enhance service delivery to citizens.Citizen’s Charter ComponentsA good citizen’s charter should include the following details:Organisation’s vision and mission statements.Business carried out and other such details of the organisation.Explain who are citizens and clients.Statement of services including quality, time-frame, etc. offered to citizens and how to get those services.Grievance redressal mechanisms.Expectations from citizens/clients.Additional commitments like the amount of compensation in case of service delivery failure.Other Elements of a Good Citizen’s CharterShould be in simple languageFocus should be on the requirements of the customersThere should be periodic reviewReliability should be imbibed – that is, consistency in performance/deliveryObjectives of Citizen’s ChartersThe basic objective of the citizen’s charters is to empower citizens with respect to the delivery of public services.Improve the quality of public servicesEnsuring transparency and right to informationSave the time of both the customer and the service providerHave clear targets for all levels of servicesFeatures of Citizen’s ChartersThe salient features of a citizen’s charter are given below:Lays down clear standards for the delivery of services. The standards should be measurable, time-bound, relevant, specific and accurate.Gives full information about the services, in simple language, as to what services are available, level of quality to expect, grievance mechanism, etc.Wherever possible, the charter should offer a choice of services to the clients.It should also be made with regular consultation with all stakeholders including customers, to ascertain the quality standards.It should encourage a culture of courtesy and helpfulness among the personnel of the service provider.Significance of Citizen’s ChartersCitizen’s charters are significant in that they empower citizens when it comes to public services.It boosts accountability in the delivery of public services.It enhances good governance. It improves the effectiveness of organisations by having measurable standards.It augments the quality of services delivered by incorporating an internal and external monitoring entity.Being citizen-centric, it creates a professional and customer-oriented environment for the delivery of services.It also helps boost the morale of the staff.It enhances transparency and openness.However, there are some drawbacks also associated with these charters. They are mentioned in the below section.Challenges faced in implementing Citizen’s Charters in IndiaA general perception is that these are seen as a mere formality. There is no involvement from the personnel and citizens and the whole exercise is carried out because it was a command from the top.It can overburden organisations and government agencies. It might also divert the attention of the personnel from their work.Improper training of the staff leads to the charter being merely drafted and not implemented properly.In certain cases, unrealistic charters are drafted. This can lead to expectations not being met.The citizen’s charter is not legally enforceable. This has made them ineffective in a real sense.Generally, the charters are drafted unilaterally by the service provider without taking into consideration the opinions and feedback of the customers. NGOs are also not consulted.There is also a lack of infrastructure in the country to go side-by-side with this initiative.There is a need for a team effort to implement the charter in its true spirit. There is a hierarchy gap between officers and field staff, which leads to a lack of coordination and motivation.The charters are not periodically revised.It is also seen that the needs of the disabled and senior citizens are not taken into account while framing.Sometimes, the rules and procedures are found to be excessively complicated.There is a lack of awareness among the public about citizen’s charters.Standards defined are generally not measurable making the whole exercise ineffective.It is seen that organisations themselves are not keen to implement and adhere to their charters.There is a tendency to have a uniform citizen’s charter for all agencies, departments, etc. under the same parent organisation. The charter should be customised as per the needs and functioning of the particular office/agency.There are only a little more than 700 charters adopted in the country. It is still a long way to go in terms of universal charter adoption.2nd ARC RecommendationsThe Second Administrative Reforms Commission (AC) had made recommendations to improve the effectiveness of citizen’s charters. Some of the recommendations are:They should specify the remedy/compensation in the case of any default in meeting the standards mentioned in the charters.Charters should restrict to a few promises that can be kept rather than have a long unfulfilled list.Before making a charter, the organisation should restructure its set-up and processes.There should not be a uniform charter across organisations. They should be local and customised.All stakeholders must be kept on board while drafting the charters.Commitments made should be firm and there should be a citizen-friendly redressal mechanism.Officers should be held accountable if commitments made are not fulfilled.The citizen’s charters should be reviewed and revised regularly.Kickstart your UPSC 2020 Preparation today!Citizen’s Charter- Indian Polity:-Download PDF HereUPSC Questions related to Citizen’s CharterWhen was Citizen Charter introduced in India?It was introduced in India in 1997.Why is a Citizen Charter important?It is an important tool in public administration that can enhance the quality of service offered to citizens, improve transparency and foster trust in the system.What is Citizen Charter Act?The Citizen’s Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011 is also known as the Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011. This was introduced in Parliament in 2011 but the bill has now lapsed.