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Cornell Law SchoolHENNING JACOBSON, Plff. in Err., v. COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.Supreme Court197 U.S. 1125 S.Ct. 35849 L.Ed. 643HENNING JACOBSON, Plff. in Err.,v.COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.No. 70.Argued December 6, 1904.Decided February 20, 1905.This case involves the validity, under the Constitution of the United States, of certain provisions in the statutes of Massachusetts relating to vaccination.The Revised Laws of that commonwealth, chap. 75, § 137, provide that 'the board of health of a city or town, if, in its opinion, it is necessary for the public health or safety, shall require and enforce the vaccination and revaccination of all the inhabitants thereof, and shall provide them with the means of free vaccination. Whoever, being over twenty-one years of age and not under guardianship, refuses or neglects to comply with such requirement shall forfeit $5.'An exception is made in favor of 'children who present a certificate, signed by a registered physician, that they are unfit subjects for vaccination.' § 139.Proceeding under the above statutes, the board of health of the city of Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 27th day of February, 1902, adopted the following regulation: 'Whereas, smallpox has been prevalent to some extent in the city of Cambridge, and still continues to increase; and whereas, it is necessary for the speedy extermination of the disease that all persons not protected by vaccination should be vaccinated; and whereas, in the opinion of the board, the public health and safety require the vaccination or revaccination of all the inhabitants of Cambridge; be it ordered, that all the inhabitants habitants of the city who have not been successfully vaccinated since March 1st, 1897, be vaccinated or revaccinated.'Subsequently, the board adopted an additional regulation empowering a named physician to enforce the vaccination of persons as directed by the board at its special meeting of February 27th.The above regulations being in force, the plaintiff in error, Jacobson, was proceeded against by a criminal complaint in one of the inferior courts of Massachusetts. The complaint charged that on the 17th day of July, 1902, the board of health of Cambridge, being of the opinion that it was necessary for the public health and safety, required the vaccination and revaccination of all the inhabitants thereof who had not been successfully vaccinated since the 1st day of March, 1897, and provided them with the means of free vaccination; and that the defendant, being over twenty-one years of age and not under guardianship, refused and neglected to comply with such requirement.The defendant, having been arraigned, pleaded not guilty. The government put in evidence the above regulations adopted by the board of health, and made proof tending to show that its chairman informed the defendant that, by refusing to be vaccinated, he would incur the penalty provided by the statute, and would be prosecuted therefor; that he offered to vaccinate the defendant without expense to him; and that the offer was declined, and defendant refused to be vaccinated.The prosecution having introduced no other evidence, the defendant made numerous offers of proof. But the trial court ruled that each and all of the facts offered to be proved by the defendant were immaterial, and excluded all proof of them.The defendant, standing upon his offers of proof, and introducing no evidence, asked numerous instructions to the jury, among which were the following:That § 137 of chapter 75 of the Revised Laws of Massachusetts was in derogation of the rights secured to the defendant by the preamble to the Constitution of the United States, and tended to subvert and defeat the purposes of the Constitution as declared in its preamble;That the section referred to was in derogation of the rights secured to the defendant by the 14th Amendment of the Constitution of the United States, and especially of the clauses of that amendment providing that no state shall make or enforce any law abridging the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws; andThat said section was opposed to the spirit of the Constitution.Each of defendant's prayers for instructions was rejected, and he duly excepted. The defendant requested the court, but the court refused, to instruct the jury to return a verdict of not guilty. And the court instructed structed the jury, in substance, that, if they believed the evidence introduced by the commonwealth, and were satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was guilty of the offense charged in the complaint, they would be warranted in finding a verdict of guilty. A verdict of guilty was thereupon returned.The case was then continued for the opinion of the supreme judicial court of Massachusetts. Santa F e Pacific Railroad Company, the exceptions, sustained the action of the trial court, and thereafter, pursuant to the verdict of the jury, he was sentenced by the court to pay a fine of $5. And the court ordered that he stand committed until the fine was paid.Messrs. George Fred Williams and James A. Halloran for plaintiff in error.HENNING JACOBSON, Plff. in Err., v. COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.Supreme Court197 U.S. 1125 S.Ct. 35849 L.Ed. 643HENNING JACOBSON, Plff. in Err.,v.COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.No. 70.Argued December 6, 1904.Decided February 20, 1905.This case involves the validity, under the Constitution of the United States, of certain provisions in the statutes of Massachusetts relating to vaccination.The Revised Laws of that commonwealth, chap. 75, § 137, provide that 'the board of health of a city or town, if, in its opinion, it is necessary for the public health or safety, shall require and enforce the vaccination and revaccination of all the inhabitants thereof, and shall provide them with the means of free vaccination. Whoever, being over twenty-one years of age and not under guardianship, refuses or neglects to comply with such requirement shall forfeit $5.'An exception is made in favor of 'children who present a certificate, signed by a registered physician, that they are unfit subjects for vaccination.' § 139.Proceeding under the above statutes, the board of health of the city of Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 27th day of February, 1902, adopted the following regulation: 'Whereas, smallpox has been prevalent to some extent in the city of Cambridge, and still continues to increase; and whereas, it is necessary for the speedy extermination of the disease that all persons not protected by vaccination should be vaccinated; and whereas, in the opinion of the board, the public health and safety require the vaccination or revaccination of all the inhabitants of Cambridge; be it ordered, that all the inhabitants habitants of the city who have not been successfully vaccinated since March 1st, 1897, be vaccinated or revaccinated.'Subsequently, the board adopted an additional regulation empowering a named physician to enforce the vaccination of persons as directed by the board at its special meeting of February 27th.The above regulations being in force, the plaintiff in error, Jacobson, was proceeded against by a criminal complaint in one of the inferior courts of Massachusetts. The complaint charged that on the 17th day of July, 1902, the board of health of Cambridge, being of the opinion that it was necessary for the public health and safety, required the vaccination and revaccination of all the inhabitants thereof who had not been successfully vaccinated since the 1st day of March, 1897, and provided them with the means of free vaccination; and that the defendant, being over twenty-one years of age and not under guardianship, refused and neglected to comply with such requirement.The defendant, having been arraigned, pleaded not guilty. The government put in evidence the above regulations adopted by the board of health, and made proof tending to show that its chairman informed the defendant that, by refusing to be vaccinated, he would incur the penalty provided by the statute, and would be prosecuted therefor; that he offered to vaccinate the defendant without expense to him; and that the offer was declined, and defendant refused to be vaccinated.The prosecution having introduced no other evidence, the defendant made numerous offers of proof. But the trial court ruled that each and all of the facts offered to be proved by the defendant were immaterial, and excluded all proof of them.The defendant, standing upon his offers of proof, and introducing no evidence, asked numerous instructions to the jury, among which were the following:That § 137 of chapter 75 of the Revised Laws of Massachusetts was in derogation of the rights secured to the defendant by the preamble to the Constitution of the United States, and tended to subvert and defeat the purposes of the Constitution as declared in its preamble;That the section referred to was in derogation of the rights secured to the defendant by the 14th Amendment of the Constitution of the United States, and especially of the clauses of that amendment providing that no state shall make or enforce any law abridging the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws; andThat said section was opposed to the spirit of the Constitution.Each of defendant's prayers for instructions was rejected, and he duly excepted. The defendant requested the court, but the court refused, to instruct the jury to return a verdict of not guilty. And the court instructed structed the jury, in substance, that, if they believed the evidence introduced by the commonwealth, and were satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was guilty of the offense charged in the complaint, they would be warranted in finding a verdict of guilty. A verdict of guilty was thereupon returned.The case was then continued for the opinion of the supreme judicial court of Massachusetts. Santa F e Pacific Railroad Company, the exceptions, sustained the action of the trial court, and thereafter, pursuant to the verdict of the jury, he was sentenced by the court to pay a fine of $5. And the court ordered that he stand committed until the fine was paid.Messrs. George Fred Williams and James A. Halloran for plaintiff in error.[Argument of Counsel from pages 14-18 intentionally omitted] Messrs. Frederick H. Nash and Herbert Parker for defendant in error.[Argument of Counsel from pages 18-22 intentionally omitted]Mr. Justice Harlan delivered the opinion of the court:1We pass without extended discussion the suggestion that the particular section of the statute of Massachusetts now in question (§ 137, chap. 75) is in derogation of rights secured by the preamble of the Constitution of the United States. Although that preamble indicates the general purposes for which the people ordained and established the Constitution, it has never been regarded as the source of any substantive power conferred on the government of the United States, or on any of its departments. Such powers embrace only those expressly granted in the body of the Constitution, and such as may be implied from those so granted. Although, therefore, one of the declared objects of the Constitution was to secure the blessings of liberty to all under the sovereign jurisdiction and authority of the United States, no power can be exerted to that end by the United States, unless, apart from the preamble, it be found in some express delegation of power, or in some power to be properly implied therefrom. 1 Story, Const. § 462.2We also pass without discussion the suggestion that the above section of the statute is opposed to the spirit of the Constitution. Undoubtedly, as observed by Chief Justice Marshall, speaking for the court in Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 122, 202, 4 L. ed. 529, 550, 'the spirit of an instrument, especially of a constitution, is to be respected not less than its letter; yet the spirit is to be collected chiefly from its words.' We have no need in this case to go beyond the plain, obvious meaning of the words in those provisions of the Constitution which, it is contended, must control our decision.3What, according to the judgment of the state court, are the scope and effect of the statute? What results were intended to be accomplished by it? These questions must be answered.4The supreme judicial court of Massachusetts said in the present case: 'Let us consider the offer of evidence which was made by the defendant Jacobson. The ninth of the propositions which he offered to prove, as to what vaccination consists of, is nothing more than a fact of common knowledge, upon which the statute is founded, and proof of it was unnecessary and immaterial. The thirteenth and fourteenth involved matters depending upon his personal opinion, which could not be taken as correct, or given effect, merely because he made it a ground of refusal to comply with the requirement. Moreover, his views could not affect the validity of the statute, nor entitle him to be excepted from its provisions. Com. v. Connolly, 163 Mass. 539, 40 N. E. 862; Com. v. Has, 122 Mass. 40; Reynolds v. United States, 98 U. S. 145, 25 L. ed. 244; Reg. v. Downes, 13 Cox, C. C. 111. The other eleven propositions all relate to alleged injurious or dangerous effects of vaccination. The defendant 'offered to prove and show be competent evidence' these socalled facts. Each of them, in its nature, is such that it cannot be stated as a truth, otherwise than as a matter of opinion. The only 'competent evidence' that could be presented to the court to prove these propositions was the testimony of experts, giving their opinions. It would not have been competent to introduce the medical history of individual cases. Assuming that medical experts could have been found who would have testified in support of these propositions, and that it had become the duty of the judge, in accordance with the law as stated in Com. v. Anthes, 5 Gray, 185, to instruct the jury as to whether or not the statute is constitutional, he would have been obliged to consider the evidence in connection with facts of common knowledge, which the court will always regard in passing upon the constitutionality of a statute. He would have considered this testimony of experts in connection with the facts that for nearly a century most of the members of the medical profession have regarded vaccination, repeated after intervals, as a preventive of smallpox; that, while they have recognized the possibility of injury to an individual from carelessness in the performance of it, or even in a conceivable case without carelessness, they generally have considered the risk of such an injury too small to be seriously weighed as against the benefits coming from the discreet and proper use of the preventive; and that not only the medical profession and the people generally have for a long time entertained these opinions, but legislatures and courts have acted upon them with general unanimity. If the defendant had been permitted to introduce such expert testimony as he had in support of these several propositions, it could not have changed the result. It would not have justified the court in holding that the legislature had transcended its power in enacting this statute on their judgment of what the welfare of the people demands.' Com. v. Jacobson, 183 Mass. 242, 66 N. E. 719.5While the mere rejection of defendant's offers of proof does not strictly present a Federal question, we may properly regard the exclusion of evidence upon the ground of its incompetency or immateriality under the statute as showing what, in the opinion of the state court, are the scope and meaning of the statute. Taking the above observations of the state court as indicating the scope of the statute,—and such is our duty. Leffingwell v. Warren, 2 Black, 599, 603, 17 L. ed. 261. 262; Morley v. Lake Shore & M. S. R. Co. 146 U. S. 162, 167, 36 L. ed. 925, 928, 13 Sup. Ct. Rep. 54; Tullis v. Lake Erie & W. R. Co. 175 U. S. 348, 44 L. ed. 192, 20 Sup. Ct. Rep. 136; W. W. Cargill Co. v. Minnesota, 180 U. S. 452, 466, 45 L. ed. 619, 625, 21 Sup. Ct. Rep. 423,—we assume, for the purposes of the present inquiry, that its provisions require, at least as a general rule, that adults not under the guardianship and remaining within the limits of the city of Cambridge must submit to the regulation adopted by the board of health. Is the statute, so construed, therefore, inconsistent with the liberty which the Constitution of the United States secures to every person against deprivation by the state?6The authority of the state to enact this statute is to be referred to what is commonly called the police power,—a power which the state did not surrender when becoming a member of the Union under the Constitution. Although this court has refrained frained from any attempt to define the limits of that power, yet it has distinctly recognized the authority of a state to enact quarantine laws and 'health laws of every description;' indeed, all laws that relate to matters completely within its territory and which do not by their necessary operation affect the people of other states. According to settled principles, the police power of a state must be held to embrace, at least, such reasonable regulations established directly by legislative enactment as will protect the public health and the public safety. Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 203, 6 L. ed. 23, 71; Hannibal & St. J. R. Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 465, 470, 24 L. ed. 527, 530; Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 U. S. 25, 24 L. ed. 989;New Orleans Gaslight Co. v. Louisiana Light & H. P. & Mfg. Co. 115 U. S. 650, 661, 29 L. ed. 516, 520, 6 Sup. Ct. Rep. 252; Lawson v. Stecle, 152 U. S. 133, 38 L. ed. 385, 14 Sup. Ct. Rep. 499. It is equally true that the state may invest local bodies called into existence for purposes of local administration with authority in some appropriate way to safeguard the public health and the public safety. The mode or manner in which those results are to be accomplished is within the discretion of the state, subject, of course, so far as Federal power is concerned, only to the condition that no rule prescribed by a state, nor any regulation adopted by a local governmental agency acting under the sanction of state legislation, shall contravene the Constitution of the United States, nor infringe any right granted or secured by that instrument. A local enactment or regulation, even if based on the acknowledged police powers of a state, must always yield in case of conflict with the exercise by the general government of any power it possesses under the Constitution, or with any right which that instrument gives or secures. Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 210, 6 L. ed. 23, 73; Sinnot v. Davenport, 22 How. 227, 243, 16 L. ed. 243, 247; Missouri, K. & T. R. Co. v. Haber, 169 U. S. 613, 626, 42 L. ed. 878, 882, 18 Sup. Ct. Rep. 488.7We come, then, to inquire whether any right given or secured by the Constitution is invaded by the statute as interpreted by the state court. The defendant insists that his liberty is invaded when the state subjects him to fine or imprisonment for neglecting or refusing to submit to vaccination; that a compulsory vaccination law is unreasonable, arbitrary, and oppressive, and, therefore, hostile to the inherent right of every freeman to care for his own body and health in such way as to him seems best; and that the execution of such a law against one who objects to vaccination, no matter for what reason, is nothing short of an assault upon his person. But the liberty secured by the Constitution of the United States to every person within its jurisdiction does not import an absolute right in each person to be, at all times and in all circumstances, wholly freed from restraint. There are manifold restraints to which every person is necessarily subject for the common good. On any other basis organized society could not exist with safety to its members. Society based on the rule that each one is a law unto himself would soon be confronted with disorder and anarchy. Real liberty for all could not exist under the operation of a principle which recognizes the right of each individual person to use his own, whether in respect of his person or his property, regardless of the injury that may be done to others. This court has more than once recognized it as a fundamental principle that 'persons and property are subjected to all kinds of restraints and burdens in order to secure the general comfort, health, and prosperity of the state; of the perfect right of the legislature to do which no question ever was, or upon acknowledged general principles ever can be, made, so far as natural persons are concerned.' Hannibal & St. J. R. Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 465, 471, 24 L. ed. 527, 530; Missouri, K. & T. R. Co. v. Haber, 169 U. S. 613, 628, 629, 42 L. ed. 878-883, 18 Sup. Ct. Rep. 488; Thorpe v. Rutland & B. R. Co. 27 Vt. 148, 62 Am. Dec. 625. In Crowley v. Christensen, 137 U. S. 86, 89, 34 L. ed. 620, 621, 11 Sup. Ct. Rep. 13, we said: 'The possession and enjoyment of all rights are subject to such reasonable conditions as may be deemed by the governing authority of the country essential to the safety, health, peace, good order, and morals of the community. Even liberty itself, the greatest of all rights, is not unrestricted license to act according to one's own will. It is only freedom from restraint under conditions essential to the equal enjoyment of the same right by others. It is, then, liberty regulated by law.' In the Constitution of Massachusetts adopted in 1780 it was laid down as a fundamental principle of the social compact that the whole people covenants with each citizen, and each citizen with the whole people, that all shall be governed by certain laws for 'the common good,' and that government is instituted 'for the common good, for the protection, safety, prosperity, and happiness of the people, and not for the profit, honor, or private interests of any one man, family, or class of men.' The good and welfare of the commonwealth, of which the legislature is primarily the judge, is the basis on which the police power rests in Massachusetts. Com. v. Alger, 7 Cush. 84.8Applying these principles to the present case, it is to be observed that the legislature of Massachusetts required the inhabitants of a city or town to be vaccinated only when, in the opinion of the board of health, that was necessary for the public health or the public safety. The authority to determine for all what ought to be done in such an emergency must have been lodged somewhere or in some body; and surely it was appropriate for the legislature to refer that question, in the first instance, to a board of health composed of persons residing in the locality affected, and appointed, presumably, because of their fitness to determine such questions. To invest such a body with authority over such matters was not an unusual, nor an unreasonable or arbitrary, requirement. Upon the principle of self-defense, of paramount necessity, a community has the right to protect itself against an epidemic of disease which threatens the safety of its members. It is to be observed that when the regulation in question was adopted smallpox, according to the recitals in the regulation adopted by the board of health, was prevalent to some extent in the city of Cambridge, and the disease was increasing. If such was the situation,—and nothing is asserted or appears in the record to the contrary,—if we are to attach, any value whatever to the knowledge which, it is safe to affirm, in common to all civilized peoples touching smallpox and the methods most usually employed to eradicate that disease, it cannot be adjudged that the present regulation of the board of health was not necessary in order to protect the public health and secure the public safety. Smallpox being prevalent and increasing at Cambridge, the court would usurp the functions of another branch of government if it adjudged, as matter of law, that the mode adopted under the sanction of the state, to protect the people at large was arbitrary, and not justified by the necessities of the case. We say necessities of the case, because it might be that an acknowledged power of a local community to protect itself against an epidemic threatening the safety of all might be exercised in particular circumstances and in reference to particular persons in such an arbitrary, unreasonable manner, or might go so far beyond what was reasonably required for the safety of the public, as to authorize or compel the courts to interfere for the protection of such persons. Wisconsin, M. & P. R. Co. v. Jacobson, 179 U. S. 287, 301, 45 L. ed. 194, 201, 21 Sup. Ct. Rep. 115; 1 Dill. Mun. Corp. 4th ed. §§ 319-325, and authorities in notes; Freurid, Police Power, §§ 63 et seq. In Hannibal & St. J. R. Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 465, 471-473, 24 L. ed. 527, 530, 531, this court recognized the right of a state to pass sanitary laws, laws for the protection of life, liberty, health, or property within its limits, laws to prevent persons and animals suffering under contagious or infectious diseases, or convicts, from coming within its borders. But, as the laws there involved went beyond the necessity of the case, and, under the guise of exerting a police power, invaded the domain of Federal authority, and violated rights secured by the Constitution, this court deemed it to be its duty to hold such laws invalid. If the mode adopted by the commonwealth of Massachusetts for the protection of its local communities against smallpox proved to be distressing, inconvenient, or objectionable to some,—if nothing more could be reasonably affirmed of the statute in question,—the answer is that it was the duty of the constituted authorities primarily to keep in view the welfare, comfort, and safety of the many, and not permit the interests of the many to be subordinated to the wishes or convenience of the few. There is, of course, a sphere within which the individual may assert the supremacy of his own will, and rightfully dispute the authority of any human government, especially of any free government existing under a written constitution, to interfere with the exercise of that will. But it is equally true that in every well-ordered society charged with the duty of conserving the safety of its members the rights of the individual in respect of his liberty may at times, under the pressure of great dangers, be subjected to such restraint, to be enforced by reasonable regulations, as the safety of the general public may demand. An American citizen arriving at an American port on a vessel in which, during the voyage, there had been cases of yellow fever or Asiatic cholera, he, although apparently free from disease himself, may yet, in some circumstances, be held in quarantine against his will on board of such vessel or in a quarantine station, until it be ascertained by inspection, conducted with due diligence, that the danger of the spread of the disease among the community at large has disappeared. The liberty secured by the 14th Amendment, this court has said, consists, in part, in the right of a person 'to live and work where he will' (Allgeyer v. Louisiana, 165 U. S. 578, 41 L. ed. 832, 17 Sup. Ct. Rep. 427); and yet he may be compelled, by force if need be, against his will and without regard to his personal wishes or his pecuniary interests, or even his religious or political convictions, to take his place in the ranks of the army of his country, and risk the chance of being shot down in its defense. It is not, therefore, true that the power of the public to guard itself against imminent danger depends in every case involving the control of one's body upon his willingness to submit to reasonable regulations established by the constituted authorities, under the sanction of the state, for the purpose of protecting the public collectively against such danger.9It is said, however, that the statute, as interpreted by the state court, although making an exception in favor of children certified by a registered physician to be unfit subjects for vaccination, makes no exception in case of adults in like condition. But this cannot be deemed a denial of the equal protection of the laws to adults; for the statute is applicable equally to all in like condition, and there are obviously reasons why regulations may be appropriate for adults which could not be safely applied to persons of tender years.10Looking at the propositions embodied in the defendant's rejected offers of proof, it is clear that they are more formidable by their number than by their inherent value. Those offers in the main seem to have had no purpose except to state the general theory of those of the medical profession who attach little or no value to vaccination as a means of preventing the spread of smallpox, or who think that vaccination causes other diseases of the body. What everybody knows the court must know, and therefore the state court judicially knew, as this court knows, that an opposite theory accords with the common belief, and is maintained by high medical authority. We must assume that, when the statute in question was passed, the legislature of Massachusetts was not unaware of these opposing theories, and was compelled, of necessity, to choose between them. It was not compelled to commit a matter involving the public health and safety to the final decision of a court or jury. It is no part of the function of a court or a jury to determine which one of two modes was likely to be the most effective for the protection of the public against disease. That was for the legislative department to determine in the light of all the information it had or could obtain. It could not properly abdicate its function to guard the public health and safety. The state legislature proceeded upon the theory which recognized vaccination as at least an effective, if not the best-known, way in which to meet and suppress the evils of a smallpox epidemic that imperiled an entire population. Upon what sound principles as to the relations existing between the different departments of government can the court review this action of the legislature? If there is any such power in the judiciary to review legislative action in respect of a matter affecting the general welfare, it can only be when that which the legislature has done comes within the rule that, if a statute purporting to have been enacted to protect the public health, the public morals, or the public safety, has no real or substantial relation to those objects, or is, beyond all question, a plain, palpable invasion of rights secured by the fundamental law, it is the duty of the courts to so adjudge, and thereby give effect to the Constitution. Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U. S. 623, 661, 31 L. ed. 205, 210, 8 Sup. Ct. Rep. 273; Minnesota v. Barber, 136 U. S. 313, 320, 34 L. ed. 455, 458, 3 Inters. Com. Rep. 185, 10 Sup. Ct. Rep. 862; Atkin v. Kansas, 191 U. S. 207, 223, 48 L. ed. 148, 158, 24 Sup. Ct. Rep. 124.11Whatever may be thought of the expediency of this statute, it cannot be affirmed to be, beyond question, in palpable conflict with the Constitution. Nor, in view of the methods employed to stamp out the disease of smallpox, can anyone confidently assert that the means prescribed by the state to that end has no real or substantial relation to the protection of the public health and the public safety. Such an assertion would not be consistent with the experience of this and other countries whose authorities have dealt with the disease of smallpox. And the principle of vaccination as a means to prevent the spread of smallpox has been enforced in many states by statutes making the vaccination of children a condition of their right to enter or remain in public schools. Blue v. Beach, 155 Ind. 121, 50 L. R. A. 64, 80 Am. St. Rep. 195, 56 N. E. 89; Morris v. Columbus, 102 Ga. 792, 42 L. R. A. 175, 66 Am. St. Rep. 243, 30 S. E. 850; State v. Hay, 126 N. C. 999, 49 L. R. A. 588, 78 Am. St. Rep. 691, 35 S. E. 459; Abeel v. Clark, 84 Cal. 226, 24 Pac. 383; Bissell v. Davison, 65 Conn. 183, 29 L. R. A. 251, 32 Atl. 348; Hazen v. Strong, 2 Vt. 427; Duffield v. Williamsport School District, 162 Pa. 476, 25 L. R. A. 152, 29 Atl. 742.12The latest case upon the subject of which we are aware is Viemester v. White, decided very recently by the court of appeals of New York. That case involved the validity of a statute excluding from the public schools all children who had not been vacinated. One contention was that the statute and the regulation adopted in exercise of its provisions was inconsistent with the rights, privileges, and liberties of the citizen. The contention was overruled, the court saying, among other things: 'Smallpox is known of all to be a dangerous and contagious disease. If vaccination strongly tends to prevent the transmission or spread of this disease, it logically follows that children may be refused admission to the public schools until they have been vaccinated. The appellant claims that vaccination does not tend to prevent smallpox, but tends to bring about other diseases, and that it does much harm, with no good. It must be conceded that some laymen, both learned and unlearned, and some physicians of great skill and repute, do not believe that vaccination is a preventive of smallpox. The common belief, however, is that it has a decided tendency to prevent the spread of this fearful disease, and to render it less dangerous to those who contract it. While not accepted by all, it is accepted by the mass of the people, as well as by most members of the medical profession. It has been general in our state, and in most civilized nations for generations. It is generally accepted in theory, and generally applied in practice, both by the voluntary action of the people, and in obedience to the command of law. Nearly every state in the Union has statutes to encourage, or directly or indirectly to require, vaccination; and this is true of most nations of Europe. . . . A common belief, like common knowledge, does not require evidence to establish its existence, but may be acted upon without proof by the legislature and the courts.. . . The fact that the belief is not universal is not controlling, for there is scarcely any belief that is accepted by everyone. The possibility that the belief may be wrong, and that science may yet show it to be wrong, is not conclusive; for the legislature has the right to pass laws which, according to the common belief of the people, are adapted to prevent the spread of contagious diseases. In a free country, where the government is by the people, through their chosen representatives, practical legislation admits of no other standard of action, for what the people believe is for the common welfare must be accepted as tending to promote the common welfare, whether it does in fact or not. Any other basis would conflict with the spirit of the Constitution, and would sanction measures opposed to a Republican form of government. While we do not decide, and cannot decide, that vaccination is a preventive of smallpox, we take judicial notice of the fact that this is the common belief of the people of the state, and, with this fact as a foundation, we hold that the statute in question is a health law, enacted in a reasonable and proper exercise of the police power.' 179 N. Y. 235, 72 N. E. 97.13Since, then, vaccination, as a means of protecting a community against smallpox, finds strong support in the experience of this and other countries, no court, much less a jury, is justified in disregarding the action of the legislature simply because in its or their opinion that particular method was perhaps, or possibly—not the best either for children or adults.14Did the offers of proof made by the defendant present a case which entitled him, while remaining in Cambridge, to claim exemption from the operation of the statute and of the regulation adopted by the board of health? We have already said that his rejected offers, in the main, only set forth the theory of those who had no faith in vaccination as a means of preventing the spread of smallpox, or who thought that vaccination, without benefiting the public, put in peril the health of the person vaccinated. But there were some offers which it is contended embodied distinct facts that might properly have been considered. Let us see how this is.15The defendant offered to prove that vaccination 'quite often' caused serious and permanent injury to the health of the person vaccinated; that the operation 'occasionally' resulted in death; that it was 'impossible' to tell 'in any particular case' what the results of vaccination would be, or whether it would injure the health or result in death; that 'quite often' one's blood is in a certain condition of impurity when it is not prudent or safe to vaccinate him; that there is no practical test by which to determine 'with any degree of certainty' whether one's blood is in such condition of impurity as to render vaccination necessarily unsafe or dangerous; that vaccine matter is 'quite often' impure and dangerous to be used, but whether impure or not cannot be ascertained by any known practical test; that the defendant refused to submit to vaccination for the reason that he had, 'when a child,' been caused great and extreme suffering for a long period by a disease produced by vaccination; and that he had witnessed a similar result of vaccination, not only in the case of his son, but in the cases of others.16These offers, in effect, invited the court and jury to go over the whole ground gone over by the legislature when it enacted the statute in question. The legislature assumed that some children, by reason of their condition at the time, might not be fit subjects of vaccination; and it is suggested—and we will not say without reason—that such is the case with some adults. But the defendant did not offer to prove that, by reason of his then condition, he was in fact not a fit subject of vaccination at the time he was informed of the requirement of the regulation adopted by the board of health. It is entirely consistent with his offer of proof that, after reaching full age, he had become, so far as medical skill could discover, and when informed of the regulation of the board of health was, a fit subject of vaccination, and that the vaccine matter to be used in his case was such as any medical practitioner of good standing would regard as proper to be used. The matured opinions of medical men everywhere, and the experience of mankind, as all must know, negative the suggestion that it is not possible in any case to determine whether vaccination is safe. Was defendant exempted from the operation of the statute simply because of his dread of the same evil results experienced by him when a child, and which he had observed in the cases of his son and other children? Could he reasonably claim such an exemption because 'quite often,' or 'occasionally,' injury had resulted from vaccination, or because it was impossible, in the opinion of some, by any practical test, to determine with absolute certainty whether a particular person could be safely vaccinated?17It seems to the court that an affirmative answer to these questions would practically strip the legislative department of its function to care for the public health and the public safety when endangered by epidemics of disease. Such an answer would mean that compulsory vaccination could not, in any conceivable case, be legally enforced in a community, even at the command of the legislature, however widespread the epidemic of smallpox, and however deep and universal was the belief of the community and of its medical advisers that a system of general vaccination was vital to the safety of all.18We are not prepared to hold that a minority, residing or remaining in any city or town where smallpox is prevalent, and enjoying the general protection afforded by an organized local government, may thus defy the will of its constituted authorities, acting in good faith for all, under the legislative sanction of the state. If such be the privilege of a minority, then a like privilege would belong to each individual of the community, and the spectacle would be presented of the welfare and safety of an entire population being subordinated to the notions of a single individual who chooses to remain a part of that population. We are unwilling to hold it to be an element in the liberty secured by the Constitution of the United States that one person, or a minority of persons, residing in any community and enjoying the benefits of its local government, should have the power thus to dominate the majority when supported in their action by the authority of the state. While this court should guard with firmness every right appertaining to life, liberty, or property as secured to the individual by the supreme law of the land, it is of the last importance that it should not invade the domain of local authority except when it is plainly necessary to do so in order to enforce that law. The safety and the health of the people of Massachusetts are, in the first instance, for that commonwealth to guard and protect. They are matters that do not ordinarily concern the national government. So far as they can be reached by any government, they depend, primarily, upon such action as the state, in its wisdom, may take; and we do not perceive that this legislation has invaded any right secured by the Federal Constitution.19Before closing this opinion we deem it appropriate, in order to prevent misapprehension as to our views, to observe—perhaps to repeat a thought already sufficiently expressed, namely—that the police power of a state, whether exercised directly by the legislature, or by a local body acting under its authority, may be exerted in such circumstances, or by regulations so arbitrary and oppressive in particular cases, as to justify the interference of the courts to prevent wrong and oppression. Extreme cases can be readily suggested. Ordinarily such cases are not safe guides in the administration of the law. It is easy, for instance, to suppose the case of an adult who is embraced by the mere words of the act, but yet to subject whom to vaccination in a particular condition of his health or body would be cruel and inhuman in the last degree. We are not to be understood as holding that the statute was intended to be applied to such a case, or, if it was so intended, that the judiciary would not be competent to interfere and protect the health and life of the individual concerned. 'All laws,' this court has said, 'should receive a sensible construction. General terms should be so limited in their application as not to lead to injustice, oppression, or an absurd consequence. It will always, therefore, be presumed that the legislature intended exceptions to its language which would avoid results of this character. The reason of the law in such cases should prevail over its letter.' United States v. Kirby, 7 Wall. 482, 19 L. ed. 278; Lau Ow Bew v. United States, 144 U. S. 47, 58, 36 L. ed. 340, 344, 12 Sup. Ct. Rep. 517. Until otherwise informed by the highest court of Massachusetts, we are not inclined to hold that the statute establishes the absolute rule that an adult must be vaccinated if it be apparent or can be shown with reasonable certainty that he is not at the time a fit subject of vaccination, or that vaccination, by reason of his then condition, would seriously impair his health, or probably cause his death. No such case is here presented. It is the cause of an adult who, for aught that appears, was himself in perfect health and a fit subject of vaccination, and yet, while remaining in the community, refused to obey the statute and the regulation adopted in execution of its provisions for the protection of the public health and the public safety, confessedly endangered by the presence of a dangerous disease.20We now decide only that the statute covers the present case, and that nothing clearly appears that would justify this court in holding it to be unconstitutional and inoperative in its application to the plaintiff in error.21The judgment of the court below must be affirmed.22It is so ordered.

Here's what I found. I know this might be more than you were asking, but I figured if anyone else is interested this is good information to share.Universities Offering Inmate College CoursesALABAMAAlabama Prison Arts and Education Project (APEAP)http://www.auburn.edu/apaepAuburn UniversityKyes Stevens, Founder/[email protected];[email protected] Served: Incarcerated students in Alabama state prisonsProgram Description: The Alabama Prison Arts + Education Project is a program dedicated to providing access to sustained and quality educational experiences in the arts and humanities to incarcerated students in Alabama.The program believes that it is important for incarcerated people to gain a quality education, and also to build a relationship with learning that will continue to grow for the rest of their lives. The goals of APAEP have always been to place rich creative and intellectual opportunities into Alabama’s prisons.ARIZONARio Salado CollegeIncarcerated Re-Entry2323 West 14th StreetTempe, AZ 85281Phone: 480-517-8345Toll-free: [email protected] Served: Rio Salado College has partnered with the Arizona Department of Corrections (ADC) to teach the incarcerated population the skills necessary for integration into society upon release.Program Description: Rio Salado College offers many distance learning classes that provide the incarcerated population an opportunity for college credit that lead to certificates and degrees. Rio offers more than 90 classes in printbase and/or mixed media format. There are classes that meet General Education requirements such as English Composition, Social and Behavioral Sciences, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Humanities.CALIFORNIAPrison University Project (PUP)Prison University ProjectPost Office Box 492San Quentin, CA 94964Jody Lewen, Executive [email protected], ext 3Population Served: Any San Quentin State Prison inmate who is classified as general population and holds either a GED or high school diploma is eligible to enroll in the College Program.Program Description: Program offers courses in the humanities, social sciences, math, and science, leading to an Associate’s degree, as well as math, science, and foreign language courses required for transfer to UC and Cal State schools. All instructors work as volunteers. Prison University Project has five paid staff people. The degree is offered through Patten University, a small independent university in Oakland, CA.UC Santa Cruz Project for Inmate Education (UCSC PIE)Mark [email protected] Served: Incarcerated students in the Santa Cruz county jailProgram Description: UCSC PIE is an organization founded by members of the UCSC astronomy and physics departments that are dedicated to providing free education to incarcerated people in local jails. UCSC PIE started operating in spring 2009 with an algebra class for students at the Santa Cruz County Jail.COLORADOAdams State College Prison College ProgramJames Bullington (Coordinator), Prison College [email protected]@yahoo.com303-241-0550Population Served: Incarcerated students throughout Colorado and the United StatesProgram Description: At Adams State College we know how important education is to all individuals, especially for those who happen to be incarcerated. For over nine years Adams State College has worked extensively inside Colorado prisons offering on-site face-to face courses. During this time we have also worked with thousands of prisoners throughout the United States by helping them obtain their dream of a college education. ASC is committed to addressing the specific needs of incarcerated students by offering the following benefits:GEORGIAThe Certificate in Theological Studies at Lee Arrendale State for Women (CTS)Dr. Liz Bounds, Program [email protected] Zappa, Program [email protected] Bishop, Chaplain at Arrendale PrisonPopulation Served: Incarcerated women at Lee Arrendale State Prison with high-school diploma or equivalentProgram Description: CTS is designed to offer selected incarcerated students academic theological instruction that is ecumenical in scope and to train them to serve as lay religious leaders both in prison and after their release. The program’s other major goal is to provide unique teaching opportunities to seminary and doctoral students from the participating institutions as well as formative experience for congregational leadership for M.Div. studentsUniversity of GeorgiaOffice of Academic ProgramsIndependent and Distance Learning ProgramGeorgia Center for Continuing Education, Suite 193Athens, GA 30602-3603Phone: 706-542-3243Toll-free: 800-877-3243http://www.distance.uga.edu/Mercer [email protected] Justice Projecthttp://www.educationjustice.net/Population Served: Incarcerated men at Danville Correctional Center who have completed a minimum of 60 hours of coursework in the lower-level courses.Program Description: The Education Justice Project of the University of Illinois offers advanced undergraduate courses to qualified men incarcerated at Danville Correctional Center, a men’s medium-high security prison about forty miles from the Urbana-Champaign campus. EJP’s mission is to create a model university-in-prison program that demonstrates the transformative impacts of higher education upon incarcerated people, their families, the communities from which they come, and society as a whole. The Illinois Department of Corrections makes GED courses available at Danville and other state prisons. Danville Area Community College(DACC) has offered lower-division courses. The University of Illinois’s program picks up upon where DACC leaves off; offering upper-division courses to ones who seek to continue their education past the Associates’ level.INDIANAPurdue University North Central at Westville Correctional FacilityDavid CrumDirector, Correctional Education Programs(219) [email protected] BorawskiPost-Secondary Education Coordinator(219) [email protected] Served: Incarcerated students at Westville Correctional FacilityProgram Description: Academic Program leading to Associate Degree in Organizational Leadership & Supervision; Bachelor’s Degree in Liberal StudiesOakland City University Prison Ministries ProjectsContacts:Dr. Bernard Marley: [email protected] Served: Incarcerated students in Indiana correctional facilitiesBranchville Correctional FacilityMadison Correctional FacilityMiami Correctional FacilityRockville Correctional FacilityNewcastle Correctional FacilityIndiana Women’s PrisonProgram Description: Preparing people to serve others — OCU’s motto is: Enter to Learn, Go forth to ServeInside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Plainfield & Indianapolis)Steve HinnefeldIUB University [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Facilities Served: Plainfield Re-Entry Educational Facility and Indiana’s Women’s Prison - Incarcerated students and IUPUI studentsProgram Description: UPUI faculty members Hyatt and Roger Jarjoura completed Inside-Out instructor training in the summer of 2006. Hyatt is an associate professor of anthropology in the School of Liberal Arts. Jarjoura is an associate professor of criminal justice in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs. The first Inside-Out class in Indiana took place at the Plainfield Re-Entry Educational Facility in 2007.Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Bloomington)Instructor [email protected] Served: Incarcerated students at Putnamville Correctional FacilityProgram Description: Micol Seigel, IU Bloomington assistant professor of African American and African Diaspora Studies, completed Inside-Out Instructor Training in the summer of 2009 and launched the first IU Bloomington Inside-Out course this spring with the help of Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis faculty members Susan Hyatt and Roger Jarjoura. The course is the first involving IU Bloomington in the Inside-Out program, which brings together students and incarcerated people — “outside” students and “inside” students — for a college-level course in which people from different backgrounds learn together as peers.Grace College Prison Extension ProgramJohn Teevan, [email protected] Krynock, [email protected] Ramsey, [email protected] Green, [email protected] Served: Incarcerated maximum-security individuals within the Indiana Department of CorrectionsProgram Description: The Prison Extension Program is part of the institution’s School of Adult and Community Education and operates as a contractor with the State of Indiana’s Department of Corrections (DOC) to provide post-secondary education to qualifying incarcerated people.Corrections Education Program (CEP)Indiana State UniversityKathleen WhiteInterim Director and Coordinator (Putnamville)Phone: [email protected] Served: Incarcerated individuals within the Indiana Department of Correction’s Putnamville Correctional Facility, Plainfield Correctional Facility, Rockville Correctional Facility, Wabash Valley Correctional Facility, and the Terre Haute Federal Correctional ComplexProgram Description: The mission of the Correction Education Program is to extend the programs and services of the University to support individuals in Indiana’s Correctional Facilities. The ISU mission applies to two specific student groups, benefiting both correctional staff and approved incarcerated populations as identified by the Department of Corrections.Ball State University Correctional Education ProgramOnline and Distance EducationCarmichael Hall, Room 200Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306Ted WardDirector, Correctional Education [email protected]: 765-285-1593Fax: 765-285-7161Population Served:Incarcerated men from Pendleton Correctional FacilityIOWAGrinnell Liberal Arts in Prison ProgramA private liberal arts college in IowaEmily Guenther, Program [email protected] Served: Incarcerated students in the Newton Correctional FacilityProgram Description: “As a teaching and learning community, the College holds that knowledge is a good to be pursued both for its own sake and for the intellectual, moral, and physical well-being of individuals and of society at large.” — Grinnell College Mission StatementThe Liberal Arts in Prison Program extends these convictions to incarcerated students at local prisons in order to engage them in experiences of new knowledge, respectful exchange of ideas, and progressive levels of achievement. The college believes this program supports the work of corrections staff to protect communities and transform lives, making the prisons safer, and preparing incarcerated people to return renewed to their families and communities.KANSASLansing Correctional Facility Program at Donnelly CollegeDonnelly [email protected] (Assistant to President’s Office)Population Served: Students of any category – Lansing Correctional Facility;minimum, medium or maximum security are eligible, as long as they have a record of good behavior.Program Description: Donnelly College offers an on-site Associate Degree program to incarcerated students of the Lansing Correctional Facility in Lansing, Kansas. As a Catholic institution, it believes that the program has a Christian aim to assist prisoners and directly complements the school’s founding mission “to provide education and community services with personal concern for the needs and abilities of each student, especially those who might not otherwise be served.”After earning accreditation for a second, satellite campus in 2001, Donnelly began offering classes at Lansing Correctional Facility. Since then, more than 325 students have taken courses: 14 have earned associate degrees and 155 (or 48% of former students) have been released from prison.LOUISIANALouisiana State UniversityIndependent & Distance Learning1225 Pleasant HallBaton Rouge, LA 70803Phone: 225-578-2500Toll Free: 800-234-5046Population Served: IncarceratedStudents of any federal correctional of state detention facility nationwide; as long as they have a record of good behavior.Dr. Norri Grubbs, John RobsonPopulation Served: Incarcerated students AT Angola Prison who scored satisfactorily on a pre-college exam given by NOBTS staff, and additionally hold a high school diploma or a GED.Program Description: New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary (NOBTS), Judson Baptist Association, and the Louisiana State Penitentiary planned and organized a program of theological training for church leaders at the Louisiana State Penitentiary at Angola during the summer of 1995 and was established in August of that same year.MAINEMaine State PrisonGary Upham, Principal807 Cushing RoadWarren, ME 04864Phone: [email protected] Served:Incarcerated individuals within Maine State PrisonProgram Description:The Maine State Prison Education Department offers a wide variety of academic and life skill programs. Two professional certified teachers oversee the academic programs and two days a week a computer lab is available. Available services included GED tutoring in math and English, high school completion courses through PLATO, art, music, and ABE tutoring on a weekly basis. We also have outside programs and tutors who work with small groups and individuals. A full time college program and vocational options are also part of the education department.MASSACHUSETTSBoston University Prison Education ProgramPrison Education Program | Boston UniversityJenifer Drew, Ph.D., DirectorBoston University Prison Education Programc/o Undergraduate Student ServicesDepartment of Applied Social Science808 Commonwealth AvenueBoston, MA617-353-2000, direct: [email protected] Served: Incarcerated men and women in BU program at MCI/Norfolk; MCI/Framingham; MCI/Bay State and a few Harvard sociology studentsProgram Description: The Boston University Prison Education Program was founded by labor organizer, tenant activist, and poet Elizabeth Barker. Together with BU President John Silber, Barker worked to have the Boston University Prison Education Program offer its first credit-bearing college courses at MCI/Norfolk, in 1972. In 1989, the Prison Education Program expanded to a second medium-security prison for men (MCI/Bay State), and by 1991 included MCI/Framingham Massachusetts’ only penal institution for women. BU continues to be a nationally recognized leader for its contribution to the lives of prisoners in the Program, and by extension, its contribution to the prisons they inhabit, the families they left behind, and the communities to which they will return.Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Northampton & Ludlow)International Headquarters of The Inside-Out Prison Exchange ProgramSimone Davis, Kristin Bumiller, and Martha Saxton (current professors in the program)Program Description: Amherst College and Mount Holyoke college professors Kristin Bumiller and Simone Davis adopted the Inside-Out model developed by Lori Pompa, who began the program to try to remove the boundaries created by classism, racism, and the stigma attached to incarceration. Under the Inside-Out model, college students and incarcerated students with all varying levels of prior education can enroll in courses at local jails. There are equal numbers of inside and outside students.Population Served: People who are incarcerated at Hampden County Correctional System and Hampshire County House of Corrections (also currently exploring expanding the program to other county facilities in the region)MICHIGANPrison Creative Arts Project (PCAP)Prison Creative Arts ProjectThe Prison Creative Arts ProjectUniversity of Michigan3187 Angell HallAnn Arbor, MI [email protected] Alexander, Founder4210 Eastgate DriveAnn Arbor, MI 48103734-426-4819Program Description: Founded in 1990, The Prison Creative Arts Project (PCAP) is committed to original work in the arts in Michigan correctional facilities, juvenile facilities, urban high schools, and communities across the state. PCAP’s process is guided by respect and a spirit of collaboration in which vulnerability, risk and improvisation lead to discovery. PCAP make possible the spaces in which the voices and visions of the incarcerated can be expressed. The program is housed in the Department of English language and Literature, and supported by English and the School of Art and Design at the University of Michigan. The following is taken from the program’s mission statement, “we believe that everyone has the capacity to create art. Art is necessary for individual and societal growth, connection and survival. It should be accessible to everyone. The values that guide on process are respect, collaboration in which vulnerability, risk, and improvisation lead to discovery and resilience, persistence, patience, love, and laughter.”Correctional Facilities Served: individuals incarcerated in Michigan (Michigan prisons and juvenile facilities), and the formerly incarceratedMINNESOTAInside-Out Prison Exchange Program (St. Paul)Jennifer J WingrenAssociate ProfessorSchool of Law Enforcement & Criminal Justice763-657-3760LECJECSt. Paul, [email protected] Served: The incarcerated at Dakota County JailProgram Description: The School of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice has held two successful classes at the Dakota County Law Enforcement Center. The Inside-Out program brings college students and incarcerated people together in a seminar setting to study criminal justice issues.The Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program is a dynamic partnership between institutions of higher learning and correctional systems. It is designed to deepen the conversation about and transform approaches to understanding crime, justice, freedom, inequality and other issues of social concern.Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Owatonna)Steele County Human ServicesKelly Harder, director507-444-7510kelly.harder@[email protected] Served: The incarcerated at Steele County Detention CenterProgram Description: Kristin Klamm-Doneen, an ethics professor at Riverland, adapted Lori Pompa’s Inside-Out national program to fit the needs of the county facility. She presented the concept to county officials who were receptive to the idea. The program was approved in fall 2008 and had its first offering in January, with a for-credit course called Philosophy of Social Justice.Minnesota Correctional Education Foundation (MCEF)1450 Energy Park Drive, Suite 200St. Paul, MN 55108651- 361-7200School Improvement and AccountabilityGoal 1: Create a learner-focused education system designed to close the achievement gap and produce mastery learning for all DOC offenders.Quality Program and ServicesGoal 2: Develop and deliver all DOC programs at the highest quality level. Transition SuccessGoal 3: Prepare each student for a successful transition to school, the workplace and life in their community.Leveraging TechnologyGoal 4: Integrate technology into the education program and improve operations, delivery of programs and support services.Correctional Education PresenceGoal 5: Advance correctional education’s presence through active collaboration, beneficial partnerships and enhanced public awareness.Facility LocationsMCF-Faribault, 1101 Linden Lane, Fraribault, MN 55021, 507-334-0700MCF-Lino Lakes, 7525 Fourth Avenue, Lino Lakes, MN 55014, 651-717-6100MCF-Oak Park Heights, 5329 Osgood Avenue North, Stillwater, MN 55082, 651-779-1400MCF-Rush City, 7600 525th Street, Rush City, MN 55069, 320-358-0400MCF-Saint Cloud, 2305 Minnesota Blvd SE, St. Cloud, MN 55379, 320-240-3000MCF-Shakopee (Women), 1010 West 6th Avenue, Shakopee, MN 55379, 952-496-4440MCF-Stillwater, 970 Pickett Street, Bayport, MN 55003, 651-779-2700MCF-Willow River/Moose Lake, 1000 Lake Shore Drive, Moose Lake, MN 55767, 218-485-5000MISSISSIPPIUniversity of Mississippi – “Ole Miss”Mailing Address:Ole Miss OnlineP.O. Box 1848University, MS 38677Physical Address:617 All-American Drive371 Martindale Student Services Center, Suite MUniversity, MS 38677phone: 662-915-1267Fax: 662-915-1221Online degree programs: [email protected] Courses: [email protected] are committed to providing quality online teaching and learning opportunities at the University of Mississippi. The goal of Ole Miss Online is to:Partner with academic departments to identify and develop comprehensive distance education programs and to increase course offerings,· Empower Ole Miss colleagues to create quality online courses and continually enhance online courses through faculty development that fosters personal and professional growth,· Utilize technologies as tools to enhance academic instructions and connect people within the university community,· Increase awareness of online learning to the Ole Miss community, and· Provide high quality support services for faculty and studentMISSOURISaint Louis University Prison ProgramKenneth L. Parker, Director, Prison [email protected] Gould (Assistant Professor, Communication)[email protected] Johnston (Associate Professor, English)[email protected],314-.977-.3013Co-directors Prison Arts and Education Program.Population Served: Incarcerated men and prison staff at the Eastern Reception, Diagnostic and Correctional CenterProgram Description: Theology professor Kenneth Parker, Ph.D., founded the SLU Prison Program after watching a story on 60 Minutes about a similar effort at Bard College in New York. With the approval of University administrators and state officials — as well as funding from the Incarnate Word Foundation — SLU began offering a certificate in theological studies to incarcerated people in early 2008. Fifteen incarcerated students completed the five-course program in May 2010.University of MissouriParent Link (Parenting Information for Incarcerated Parents)College of EducationPhone Toll-free: 800-552-8522NEW JERSEYPrison Teaching InitiativePrinceton University - HomeAndrew NurkinSenior Program CoordinatorPace Center, Princeton UniversityPrinceton, NJ [email protected] KnappProfessor of Astrophysical SciencesPrinceton UniversityPrinceton, NJ [email protected] Served: Incarcerated individuals from the Garden State Youth Correctional Facility and Albert C. Wagner Youth Correctional FacilitProgram Description: Mark Krumholz started the program, now called Prison Teaching Initiative, partly because of his experiences as a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley. He taught math and science courses at San Quentin State Prison in a long running program that offered about a dozen classes per semester. PTI has grown slowly since, and now offers 9-10 courses per semester which supplement other courses taught by paid instructors from Mercer County Community College. The College of New Jersey has recently joined the partnership.Partnership for Religion and Education in Prison (PREP)Drew UniversityMargaret Quern AtkinsPREP CoordinatorDrew Theological [email protected] Served: Incarcerated students from Edna Mahan Correctional Facility for Women (Clinton); Northern State Prison for Men (Newark) and theological students from DrewProgram Description: PREP is a theological educational program that creates opportunities for a joint theological learning environment between theological students and students within State correctional facilities. Based in several models of prison educational programming across the country, PREP forges new partnerships between places of theological learning, organizations with educational programs in the prisons, and correctional institutions. PREP uses contextual education and tenets of practical theology as it offers Drew’s theological students, faculty, and practicing ministers a chance to connect with the outside world through meaningful pedagogical methods. Through combined classrooms, a diverse student body can interact and engage with one another in meaningful academic discourse.The College of New Jersey (TCNJ) Center for Prison Outreach and EducationCelia [email protected]@tcnj.eduPopulation Served: Juvenile and adult “youth” offenders under age 35 at targeted facilities such as Albert C. Wagner Youth Correctional Facility, Garden State Youth Correctional Facility (both in Bordentown NJ), and other central NJ detention centers. The population of the principal facilities, AC Wagner and Garden State, consists of males ages 18-35 at minimum, medium, and maximum levels of security.Program Description: TCNJ Center for Prison Outreach and Education coordinates and oversees new Associates degree tracks and a year-round, non-credit academic enrichment and tutoring program for incarcerated people of Albert C. Wagner Youth Correctional Facility and Garden State Youth Correctional Facility. It provides varied educational experiences in other penal institutions in central New Jersey, as well.NEW YORKNew York Theological Seminary Master’s of Professional Studies ProgramNew York Theological SeminaryDale Irvin (President of NYTS)[email protected] Served: Incarcerated people serving at Sing Sing, Green Haven, Arthurkill, Fishkill, Mid-Orange, Eastern, and Woodbourne Correctional Facilities possessing a high school diploma or its equivalent and are engaged in ministry or community service while incarcerated. All faiths are welcome.Program Description: In 1981, Ed Muller, a Pastor and chaplain at Green Haven Prison and KarelBoersma, a pastor and volunteer at Green Haven, came to Dr. Webber with a request that the seminary create a curricular extension program for incarcerated Christians and Muslims of strong faith who had a desire to provide pastoral care inside of the prison. They claimed that pastoral care needs were so great that outside chaplains could not address them all. Dr. Webber agreed and collaborated with Rev. Dr. Earl Moore, Deputy Commissioner of the New York State Department of Corrections, responsible for Ministerial and Family Services, and an NYTS alumnus, to create a Master in Professional Studies (MPS) degree for incarcerated people.Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Poughkeepsie)Program Website:N/AVassar professors:Mary [email protected] [email protected] Inside-Out Program at Taconic is coordinated through Hudson Link for Higher Education in PrisonPopulation Served: Incarcerated women Taconic Correctional Facility for Women and Vassar studentsProgram Description: The two professors, along with 10 Vassar students, traveled from Poughkeepsie to the medium security women’s prison in Bedford Hills, Westchester County, once a week during the spring 2009 semester to join with 12 incarcerated students for a two-and-a-half hour class.Unique Features: The course marks the first time that the DOCS in New York State has permitted a mixed classroom of traditional college students with the incarcerated as part of a curriculum for college credit.Hudson Link for Higher Education in PrisonHome | www.hudsonlink.orgSean Pica, Executive [email protected]. Box 862Ossining, NY [email protected] Link for Higher Education in PrisonPopulation Served: Men and women who are incarcerated at Fishkill, Sing Sing and Sullivan Correctional Facilities for Men and Taconic Correctional Facility for Women; requirements include either a GED or high school diploma. We also assist Hudson Link graduates after they are released from prison.Program Description: Hudson Link for Higher Education in Prison provides college education, life skills and re-entry support to incarcerated men and women to help them make a positive impact on their own lives, their families and communities, resulting in lower rates of recidivism, incarceration and poverty.Unique Features: Hudson Link has expanded its programming to include a pre-college program to prepare potential students for the rigors of obtaining a college degree. Hudson Link Alumni work as tutors and mentors to the pre-college students.The Consortium of the Niagara FrontierRobert Hausrath, [email protected] Served: People who are incarcerated in Attica Correctional Facility and the Wyoming Correctional Facility. Students must have a GED or a high school diploma and must pass a basics skills exam to be accepted into the program. While enrolled, students must maintain a 2.0 GPA in their courses to continue to participate in the program.Program Description: Established in 1975 at Attica Correctional Facility, a maximum security prison for men in Wyoming County, New York, the Consortium of the Niagara Frontier is one of the oldest PSCE programs in New York State. Offering Associate’s and Bachelor’s degrees in Social Sciences or Humanities, the Consortium consists of Niagara University, Canisius College, and Daemen College. In 2001, the Consortium left Attica and now operates only at Wyoming Correctional Facility, a medium security prison for men also located in the town of Attica.Cornell Prison Education ProgramCornell Prison Education ProgramDr. James (Jim) Schecter, Executive [email protected] Prison Education ProgramRobert Turgeon, Faculty [email protected] Served: Incarcerated women of Bedford Hills Correctional Facility; Applicants to the program take placement examinations in basic mathematics, reading comprehension, and essay writing. Depending upon their scores, they are either placed into non-credit preparatory courses or matriculate directly into credit-bearing classes.Program Description: The Cornell Prison Education Program was established to provide college courses to incarcerated students at a maximum and medium security prison in upstate New York, and to engage Cornell faculty and students with the vital issue of the country’s burgeoning incarceration population. The Cornell Prison Education Program is dedicated to supporting incarcerated persons’ academic ambitions and preparation for successful re-entry. We believe that Cornell faculty and student engagement as instructors at correctional facilities manifests Ezra Cornell’s commitment to founding an institution where “any person can find instruction in any study.”Population Served: Incarcerated men and corrections staff at Auburn and Cayuga Correctional FacilitiesBedford Hills College ProgramAileen Baumgartner, [email protected] ext. 4514Program Description: Through the Bedford Hills College Program, Marymount Manhattan College offers non-credited College-preparatory courses and credit-bearing courses leading to Associate of Arts degrees in Social Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees in Sociology at the Bedford Hills Correctional Facility, a New York State maximum-security prison for women.In 1995, laws were passed preventing federal monies from being used for educating the incarcerated, causing many prison programs across the country to close their doors – including the one at Bedford Hills. A task force, chaired by then-superintendent Elaine Lord and comprised of education specialists and the incarcerated at the facility, found that the impact of higher education substantially reduced re-incarceration rates. To re-establish the college program without state and federal funding, the taskforce created a consortium of schools that would donate funds and faculty to continue the college program.Unique Features: In addition to supplying the necessary classroom space, the correctional facility supplies room for a learning center that contains the college’s computer lab and the on-site library, staffed by a dedicated coterie of volunteers from the Bedford Hills area.Bard Prison Initiative (BPI)Bard CollegeDaniel Karpowitz, Director of Policy & [email protected] Kenner, Executive [email protected], 845-758-7308Bard CollegePO Box 5000Annandale-on-HudsonNY 12504-5000Population Served: Women and men who are incarcerated at the Eastern Correctional Facility, Woodbourne Correctional Facility Elmira Correctional Facility, Green Haven Correctional Facility, otBayview Correctional Facility; students must have a GED or high school diploma and program administrators cap admission at 15 spots each year.Program Description: BPI offers college inside three long-term, maximum-security prisons and two transitional medium-security prisons. Founded in 1999 by former Bard student Max Kenner, BPI gives men and women the opportunity to earn a degree from Bard College, a highly regarded private liberal arts university. Providing curriculum in line with a traditional liberal arts program, BPI offers Associate’s and Bachelor’s degrees and holds classes identical to those taught at Bard College at Annandale-on- Hudson. The admissions office on Bard’s traditional campus makes decisions about acceptance into the Bachelor’s program based on an incarcerated student’s perceived preparedness and regardless of class size at the correctional facility. Incarcerated students are required to have a Bard Associate’s degree before they can apply to the Bachelor’s degree program. BPI now enrolls nearly 200 women and men fulltime in a rigorous and diverse liberal arts curriculum, offering both associate and bachelor degrees.John Jay College/CUNYPrisoner Reentry InstituteJohn Jay College of Criminal Justice555 W. 57th Street, 6th FloorNew York, NY 10019Phone: 212-484-1399NORTH CAROLINAUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill’s Friday Center for Continuing Education with North Carolina Department for CorrectionsHome - The William and Ida Friday Center for Continuing EducationBrick Oettinger, Associate Director for Correctional [email protected] Served: Incarcerated individuals from approximately twenty-five participating North Carolina correctional facilities (on-site classroom courses)with a GED score of at least 250, a WRAT reading grade level of at least 10.0, or prior college academic credits. The sentence criteria exclude all whose parole eligibility and discharge dates are more than 10 years in the future. 18- to 25-year-old individuals funded by Federal Youth Offender Act grants must be within five years of parole eligibility or discharge date.Program Description: The North Carolina Department of Correction works with UNC-Chapel Hill’s Friday Center for Continuing Education to provide a variety of tuition-free university courses and educational services to incarcerated people. Only those incarcerated in the North Carolina prison system qualify for the Correctional Education Program.Programs Offered: Self-paced Correspondence Courses:These courses have a nine-month enrollment period. A renewal of four months is available for a $30 fee (paid by the Correctional Education Program).Unique Features:N/AHeadquarters:NCCorrectional Facilities Served:OHIOInside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Cincinnati)All for One. One For All.Peg HubbardDepartment of Criminal [email protected] ShimrockFacilitator, Inside-Out [email protected] Served: Incarcerated men and Xavier students; The men at Lebanon Correctional Institution (LeCI) go through the same screening process as Xavier students. They fill out a similar application and are interviewed by the same panel. The intention of the instructors is to choose a mix of students (race, socioeconomic, opinions, criminal history, education, etc.) to ensure class discussion is enriched by varying viewpoints.Program Description: The Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program is a semester-long overview of current social justice topics, taught inside a local prison. Curriculum includes exploration of why people commit crime; what prisons are for; analysis of the Criminal Justice system; punishment and rehabilitation; victims and victimization; restorative justice; myths and realities of prison life.Inside/Outside (ISOS)Jefferson [email protected] Served: Adults from River City Correctional Center with substance abuse issues who would otherwise be sent to Ohio penitentiaries.Program Description: Inside/Outside began in February 2001 with the participation of individual artists and collaborating organizations in an intensive training conducted in Cincinnati by the Pat Graney Dance Company of Seattle. The training involved Cincinnati participants in the creation of an integrated arts program for women at River City.Ohio University College Program for the Incarcerated (CIP)MFEWelcome to Ohio UniversityKen Armstrong, Director of Independent [email protected]@ohio.eduHaning Hall 222Ohio UniversityAthens, OH 45701800-444-2420800-444-2910Population Served: People who are incarceratedProgram Description: Since 1974, the College Program for the Incarcerated (CPI) has provided incarcerated men and women with courses and degree opportunities to further their educational goals. Ohio University seeks to meet the diverse needs of incarcerated distance learners. Through CPI, both associates and bachelor’s degrees are available. Each student is assigned an academic advisor to assist in successfully planning a degree program.Although CPI cannot offer financial aid to incarcerated students, or the option of partial payments, a significant discount through the Comprehensive Fee Plan is offered. Some students may qualify for VA benefits. Ohio University is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. The College Program for the Incarcerated is administered by the Office of Independent Study.Zane State CollegeLinda Applegarth (Interim Coordinator of Prison Education)[email protected] Served: People who are incarcerated at the Belmont Correctional InstitutionProgram Description: The College provides instructors who offer credit courses in two short-term certificate programs.OREGONInside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Wilsonville)Julie Kopett, Director of [email protected] Spring, Assistant Director of Community-University [email protected] Served: People who are incarcerated at the Coffee Creek Correctional FacilityProgram Description: The Inside-Out Capstone course provides an opportunity for a small group of students from Portland State University and a group of residents from Coffee Creek Correctional facility to exchange perceptions about crime, justice, and how societal structures and culture define crime and justice. The course is called “Inside-Out Prison ExchangeInside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Salem, Oregon State University)[email protected] Served: People who are incarcerated at the Oregon State PenitentiaryProgram Description: Inside Out is a program that began in 1997 with a select group of Pennsylvania incarcerated individuals and students who had the common goal of studying crime, justice and social issues that affect society at large. Since then it has expanded and through the help of Professor Michelle Inderbitzen the program has made its way to Oregon State University. The goal of Inside Out at OSU is first and foremost to exchange ideas and perceptions and gain a deeper knowledge of crime, the criminal justice system, corrections and imprisonment.Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Salem, University of Oregon)Steven Shankman, Professor of English and [email protected] Served: People who are incarcerated at the Oregon State PenitentiaryProgram Description: Since 2007, University of Oregon (UO) Professor Steven Shankman has taught three Inside-Out Classes through the Clark Honors College (CHC) at the Oregon State Penitentiary. Courses are taught in an integrated classroom with outside students (from the Honors College) and inside students (who are incarcerated at Oregon State Penitentiary). Students study course materials together, and participate in dialogue about the texts and the larger questions of social justice and social inequalities. Since then, more than sixty CHC students have participated in Inside-Out classes at the Oregon State Penitentiary.College InsideNancy Green, Director of Corrections [email protected] Served: Incarcerated individuals from designated institutions (Oregon State Penitentiary, Oregon State Correctional Institution, Mill Creek Correctional Facility) with less than five years left on their sentence, a high school diploma or equivalency, and 18 months of clear conduct. Those meeting the education and clear conduct requirement that have outside funding or can self-pay also enroll in the program.Program Description: The College Inside program is a degree program designed to allow incarcerated students to obtain a two-year college degree that can transfer to a four year university with a focus on general studies, Business or Automotive Technology. College Inside allows students to be in control of their own educational and employment future. The program requires students to think and plan for the future, outside of prison. The program is not just something to do while in prison. It requires effort, responsibility, drive, and commitment.PENNSYLVANIAThe Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program (Philadelphia)Temple UniversitySuite 331, MB 66-101810 Liacouras WalkPhiladelphia, PA 19122Phone: 215-204-5163 | Fax: [email protected] Served: Prisons and jails in 25+ states - In each program branch: 9-18 campus-enrolled undergraduates and 9-18 incarcerated (or sentenced) students (in equal numbers)Program Description: Headquartered at Temple University, The Inside-Out Prison Exchange Program® is a national program that offers semester-long, college classes behind bars to groups of students of whom half are incarcerated and half are college students from outside. These seminars are offered in many academic disciplines, but they always emphasize collaboration, critical thinking, and dialogue, with course themes usually focusing on the study of some aspect of our society’s approach to crime and punishment. Every year at least three week-long intensive instructor training institutes prepare faculty from around the country and abroad to build effective correctional-academic partnerships in their home region, to find means to offer credit to inside students wherever possible.This work is fundamentally shaped by the perspectives of people in prison.Community College of Allegheny CountyDistance Learning Center800 Allegheny Avenue; Room 123Pittsburgh, PA 15233412.237.2239fax: 412.237.8187Proctored testing fax: [email protected] learning 412-237-8700For incarcerated individuals: any prison administrator such as a warden or medical administrator, a prison counselor or prison librarianNorthampton Community College3835 Green Pond RoadBethlehem, PA 18020610-861-5300Serving the Lehigh Valley and beyondProgram Description: NCC has helped students of all ages and backgrounds answer one of life's biggest questions.NCC is committed to quality, affordable higher education. We strive for accessibility, with courses scheduled at multiple campuses and locations during the day and evening, on weekends and online. You can choose from nearly 100 transfer and career programs leading to associate's degrees, certificates and diplomas.RHODE ISLANDRhode Island Department of Corrections Education UnitYour Page TitleRalph [email protected] Served: Incarcerated individuals at any Adult Correctional InstitutionProgram Description: Participants have the opportunity to earn college credits for various liberal arts and/or business offerings in classes offered by the community college. Course offerings vary by semester. Academic requirements of the AA degrees are followed to enable students to attain the AA degree while incarcerated or allow them to continue to pursue the AA degree upon release. Vocational post-secondary offerings vary by semester and lead to the obtainment of trade related certificates of completion and/or licenses as applicable.

NO. Unless you think a majority of scientists including 60 Nobel laureates lack substance? Let’s start with the climate lectures of two leading Nobel laureates -Dr. Ivar Giaever brilliantly destroys the global warming (aka climate change) scientific consensus in his Laureate speech below. He saves us from the fear mongering of Al Gore and his like.Skeptics of global warming are increasing with more than 60 other Nobel Prize winners denying human caused climate change.Nobel Laureate Dr. Kary Mullis is correct in his assessment of the current state of climate science, describing it as a "Joke".As he correctly points out, there is no scientific evidence whatever that our CO2 is, or can ever "drive" climate change.There is also no published empirical scientific evidence that any CO2, whether natural or man-made, causes warming in the troposphere.His Nobel Prize was awarded in 1993.When you step back an consider the alarmist views they do seem alot like a ‘joke’ as Professor Mullis thinks.Changing sun and oceans no longer playing a role?Today alarmist scientists would have us believe that that big bright tempestuous star up there in the sky stopped playing a role since the late 19th century, and that the oceans, which cover a puny 70% of our planet’s surface (sarc), also stopped playing a role.Instead the alarmist scientists insist that today’s climate is being 90+% driven by human-emitted CO2 and the rest of the factors have been somehow disabled. If that sound preposterous, then it might have something to do with how you perceive the your planet and how different parts are interrelated.“Human CO2 only 0.01% of atmosphereThrough the burning of fossil fuels, humans are also responsible for having boosted atmospheric CO2 emissions from some 300 ppm to 400 parts per million, which translates into a difference of 0.01% of the atmosphere. So what do the alarmists conclude from this:0.01% of the world’s biomass and 0.o1% of the atmosphere are today almost solely responsible for climate changes.The sun, oceans, volcanoes and other poorly understood major varying factors are ignored. Does all that sound plausible?Yeah right, and the price of tea in China drives the global economy.”By P. Gosselin May 26, 2018http://notrickszone.com/2018/05/26/right-tiny-0-01-of-atmosphere-and-0-01-of-earths-biomass-drive-near-100-of-climate/NOBEL PRIZE MEDAL“Partial list of 150 + scientists who do NOT support the Catastrophic Anthropogenic Climate Change Scam:(includes ~60 Nobel Prize winners)Sceptical list provided by David Harrington of leading scientists. They all have many excellent published papers on the AGW subject.A.J. Tom van Loon, PhDAaron Klug, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Abdus Salam, Nobel Prize (Physics)Adolph Butenandt, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Al Pekarek, PhDAlan Moran, PhDAlbrecht Glatzle, PhDAlex Robson, PhDAlister McFarquhar, PhDAmo A. Penzias, Nobel Prize (Physics)Andrei Illarionov, PhDAnthony Jewish, Nobel Prize (Physics)Anthony R. Lupo, PhDAntonino Zichichi, President of the World Federation of Scientists.Arthur L. Schawlow, Nobel Prize (Physics)Arthur Rorsch, PhDAsmunn Moene, PhDBaruj Benacerraf, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Bert Sakmann, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Bjarne Andresen, PhDBoris Winterhalter, PhDBrian G Valentine, PhDBrian Pratt, PhDBryan Leyland, International Climate Science CoalitionCesar Milstein, Nobel Prize (Physiology)Charles H. Townes, Nobel Prize (Physics)Chris C. Borel, PhDChris Schoneveld, MSc (Structural Geology)Christian de Duve, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Christopher Essex, PhDCliff Ollier, PhDSusan Crockford PhDDaniel Nathans, Nobel Prize (Medicine)David Deming, PhD (Geophysics)David E. Wojick, PhDDavid Evans, PhD (EE)David Kear, PhDDavid R. Legates, PhDDick Thoenes, PhDDon Aitkin, PhDDon J. Easterbrook, PhDDonald A. Glaser, Nobel Prize (Physics)Donald Parkes, PhDDouglas Leahey, PhDDudley R. Herschbach, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Edwin G. Krebs, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Erwin Neher, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Frank Milne, PhDFred Goldberg, PhDFred Michel, PhDFreeman J. Dyson, PhDGarth W. Paltridge, PhDGary D. Sharp, PhDGeoff L. Austin, PhDGeorge E. Palade, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Gerald Debreu, Nobel Prize (Economy)Gerhard Herzberg, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Gerrit J. van der Lingen, PhDHans Albrecht Bethe, Nobel Prize (Physics)Hans H.J. Labohm, PhDHarold E. Varmus, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Harry M. Markowitz, Nobel Prize (Economics)Harry N.A. Priem, PhDHeinrich Rohrer, Nobel Prize (Physics)Hendrik Tennekes, PhDHenrik Svensmark, physicistHerbert A. Hauptman, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Horst Malberg, PhDHoward Hayden, PhDI. Prigogine, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Ian D. Clark, PhDIan Plimer, PhDIvar Giaever, Nobel Prize (Physics)James J. O’Brien, PhDJean Dausset, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Jean-Marie Lehn, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Jennifer Marohasy, PhDJerome Karle, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Joel M. Kauffman, PhDJohan Deisenhofer, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)John Charles Polanyi, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)John Maunder, PhDJohn Nicol, PhDJon Jenkins, PhDJoseph Murray, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Judith Curry, PhDJulius Axelrod, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Kai Siegbahn, Nobel Prize (Physics)Khabibullo Abdusamatov, astrophysicist at Pulkovo Observatory of the Russian Academy of SciencesKlaus Von Klitzing, Nobel Prize (Physics)Gerhard Kramm: PhD (meteorology)L. Graham Smith, PhDLee C. Gerhard, PhDLen Walker, PhDLeon Lederman, Nobel Prize (Physics)Linus Pauling, Nobel Prize (ChemistryLord Alexander Todd, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Lord George Porter, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Louis Neel, Nobel Prize (Physics)Lubos Motl, PhDMadhav Khandekar, PhDManfred Eigen, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Marcel Leroux, PhDMarshall W. Nirenberg, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Max Ferdinand Perutz, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Ned Nikolov PhDNils-Axel Morner, PhDOlavi Kärner, Ph.D.Owen Chamberlain, Nobel Prize (Physics)Pierre Lelong, ProfessorPierre-Gilles de Gennes, Nobel Prize (Physics)R. Timothy Patterson, PhDR. W. Gauldie, PhDR.G. Roper, PhDRaphael Wust, PhDReid A. Bryson, Ph.D. Page on Shave and Grooming Made Simple. D.Engr.Richard Laurence Millington Synge, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Richard Mackey, PhDRichard R. Ernst, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Richard S. Courtney, PhDRichard S. Lindzen, PhDRita Levi-Montalcini, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Roald Hoffman, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Robert H. Essenhigh, PhDRobert Huber, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Robert M. Carter, PhDRobert W. Wilson, Nobel Prize (Physics)Roger Guillemin, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Ross McKitrick, PhDRoy W. Spencer, PhDS. Fred Singer, PhDSallie Baliunas, astrophysicist HarvardSalomon Kroonenberg, PhDSherwood B. Idso, PhDSimon van der Meer, Nobel Prize (Physics)Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Sir James W. Black, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Sir John Kendrew, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Sir John R. Vane , Nobel Prize (Medicine)Sir John Warcup Cornforth, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Sir. Nevil F. Mott, Nobel Prize Winner (Physics)Sonja A. Boehmer-Christiansen, PhDStanley Cohen, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Stephan Wilksch, PhDStewart Franks, PhDSyun-Ichi Akasofu, PhDTadeus Reichstein, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Thomas Huckle Weller, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Thomas R. Cech, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Timothy F. Ball, PhDTom V. Segalstad, PhDTorsten N. Wiesel, Nobel Prize (Medicine)Vincent Gray, PhDWalter Starck, PhD (marine science; specialization in coral reefs and fisheries)Wibjorn Karlen, PhDWillem de Lange, PhDWilliam Evans, PhDWilliam Happer, physicist PrincetonWilliam J.R. Alexander, PhDWilliam Kininmonth Page on http://m.sc., Head of Australia’s National Climate Centre and a consultant to the World Meteorological organization’s Commission for ClimatologyWilliam Lindqvist, PhDWilliam N. Lipscomb, Nobel Prize Winner (Chemistry)Willie Soon, astrophysicist HarvardYuan T. Lee, Nobel Prize (Chemistry)Zbigniew Jaworowski, PhDKarl ZellerZichichi, PhD“Here is a partial list of science and other economic organizations who are on record with their doubts.“Skeptical Scientific Organizations:American Association of Petroleum Geologists (31,000+ Members)“The Climate Scientists' Register“We, the undersigned, having assessed the relevant scientific evidence, do not find convincing support for the hypothesis that human emissions of carbon dioxide are causing, or will in the foreseeable future cause, dangerous global warming."Click on country name in the following list to see endorsers from that nation: Algéria (1 endorser), Australia (8), Bulgaria (1), Canada (17), Denmark (1), Estonia (1), Finland(1), France (1), Germany (4), Greece (1), India (3), Italy (3), Luxembourg (1), Mexico (1), New Zealand (6), Norway (5), Poland (3), Russia (5), South Africa (1), Sweden(8), United Kingdom (6), United States of America (64).Complete Endorser List:Habibullo I. Abdussamatov, Dr. Sci., mathematician and astrophysicist, Head of the Russian-Ukrainian Astrometria project on the board of the Russian segment of the ISS, Head of Space Research Laboratory at the Pulkovo Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, RussiaSyun-Ichi Akasofu, PhD, Professor of Physics, Emeritus and Founding Director, International Arctic Research Center of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A.J.R. Alexander, Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Member, UN Scientific and Technical Committee on Natural Disasters, 1994-2000, Pretoria, South AfricaBjarne Andresen, Dr. Scient., physicist, published and presents on the impossibility of a "global temperature", Professor, Niels Bohr Institute (areas of specialization: fundamental physics and chemistry, in particular thermodynamics), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkTimothy F. Ball, PhD, environmental consultant and former climatology professor, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, Manitoba, CanadaRomuald Bartnik, PhD (Organic Chemistry), Professor Emeritus, Former chairman of the Department of Organic and Applied Chemistry, climate work in cooperation with Department of Hydrology and Geological Museum, University of Lodz, Lodz, PolandColin Barton, http://B.Sc., PhD (Earth Science), Principal research scientist (retd), Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Melbourne, Victoria, AustraliaFranco Battaglia, PhD (Chemical Physics), Professor of Environmental Chemistry (climate specialties: environmental chemistry), University of Modena, ItalyDavid Bellamy, OBE, PhD, English botanist, author, broadcaster, environmental campaigner, Hon. Professor of Botany (Geography), University of Nottingham, Hon. Prof. Faculty of Engineering and Physical Systems, Central Queensland University, Hon. Prof. of Adult and Continuing Education, University of Durham, United Nations Environment Program Global 500 Award Winner, Dutch Order of The Golden Ark, Bishop Auckland County, Durham, United KingdomRichard Becherer, BS (Physics, Boston College), MS (Physics, University of Illinois), PhD (Optics, University of Rochester), former Member of the Technical Staff - MIT Lincoln Laboratory, former Adjunct Professor - University of Connecticut, Areas of Specialization: optical radiation physics, coauthor - standard reference book Optical Radiation Measurements: Radiometry, Millis, MA, U.S.A.Ernst-Georg Beck, Dipl. Biology (University of Freiburg), biologist (area of specialization: CO2 record in the last 150 years – see paper “Accurate estimation of CO2 background level from near ground measurements at non-mixed environments”), see http://www.biomind.de/realCO2/ for more from Mr. Beck, Biesheim, FranceEdwin Berry, PhD (Atmospheric Physics, Nevada), MA (Physics, Dartmouth), BS (Engineering, Caltech), President, Climate Physics LLC, Bigfork, MT, U.S.A.Sonja A. Boehmer-Christiansen, PhD, Reader Emeritus, Dept. of Geography, Hull University, Editor - Energy&Environment, Multi-Science (www.multi-science.co.uk), Hull, United KingdomM. I. Bhat, PhD, formerly Scientist at the Wadia institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra, currently Professor & Head, Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of Kashmir (areas of specialization: Geochemistry, Himalayan and global tectonics & tectonics and climate (Prof Bhat: “Arguing for deepening the climate frontiers by considering interaction between solar flares and core-mantle boundary processes. Clue possibly lies in exploring the tectonics of regions that underlies high and low pressure cells of the three global oscillations (SO, NAO, NPO)”), Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, IndiaAhmed Boucenna, PhD, Professor of Physics, Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Ferhat Abbas University, Setif, Algéria. Author of The Great Season Climatic Oscillation, I. RE. PHY. 1(2007) 53, The Great Season Climatic Oscillation and the Global Warming, Global Conference On Global Warming, July 6-10, 2008, Istanbul, Turkey and Pseudo Radiation Energy Amplifier (PREA) and the Mean Earth's Ground Temperature, arXiv:0811.0357 (November 2008)Antonio Brambati, PhD, Emeritus Professor (sedimentology), Department of Geological, Environmental and Marine Sciences (DiSGAM), University of Trieste (specialization: climate change as determined by Antarctic marine sediments), Trieste, ItalyStephen C. Brown, PhD (Environmental Science, State University of New York), District Agriculture Agent, Assistant Professor, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Ground Penetrating Radar Glacier research, Palmer, Alaska, U.S.A.Mark Lawrence Campbell, PhD (chemical physics; gas-phase kinetic research involving greenhouse gases (nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide)), Professor, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.Robert M. Carter, PhD, Professor, Marine Geophysical Laboratory, James Cook University, Townsville, AustraliaArthur Chadwick, PhD (Molecular Biology), Research Professor, Department of Biology and Geology, Southwestern Adventist University, Climate Specialties: dendrochronology (determination of past climate states by tree ring analysis), palynology (same but using pollen as a climate proxy), paleobotany and botany; Keene, Texas, U.S.A.George V. Chilingar, PhD, Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.Antonis Christofides, Dipl. Civil Engineering, MSc Computing Science, Climate Specialties: co-author of relevant papers: here and here, author of http://hk-climate.org/, Athens, GreecePetr Chylek, PhD, Laboratory Fellow, Remote Sensing Team Leader, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, U.S.A.Ian D. Clark, PhD, Professor (isotope hydrogeology and paleoclimatology), Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaPaul Copper, BSc, MSc, PhD, DIC, FRSC, Professor Emeritus, Department of Earth Sciences, Laurentian University Sudbury, Ontario, CanadaCornelia Codreanova, Diploma in Geography, Researcher (Areas of Specialization: formation of glacial lakes) at Liberec University, Czech Republic, Zwenkau, GermanyMichael Coffman, PhD (Ecosystems Analysis and Climate Influences), CEO of Sovereignty International, President of Environmental Perspectives, Inc., Bangor, Maine, U.S.A.Piers Corbyn, MSc (Physics (Imperial College London)), ARCS, FRAS, FRMetS, astrophysicist (Queen Mary College, London), consultant, founder WeatherAction long range forecasters, London, United KingdomRichard S. Courtney, PhD, energy and environmental consultant, IPCC expert reviewer, Falmouth, Cornwall, United KingdomJoseph D’Aleo, BS, MS (Meteorology, University of Wisconsin), Doctoral Studies (NYU), Executive Director - ICECAP (International Climate and Environmental Change Assessment Project), Fellow of the AMS, College Professor Climatology/Meteorology, First Director of Meteorology The Weather Channel, Hudson, New Hampshire, U.S.A.David Deming, PhD (Geophysics), Associate Professor, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, U.S.A.James E Dent; http://B.Sc., FCIWEM, C.Met, FRMetS, C.Env., Independent Consultant, Member of WMO OPACHE Group on Flood Warning, Hadleigh, Suffolk, England, United KingdomChris R. de Freitas, PhD, climate Scientist, School of Environment, The University of Auckland, New ZealandWillem de Lange, MSc (Hons), DPhil (Computer and Earth Sciences), Senior Lecturer in Earth and Ocean Sciences, The University of Waikato, Hamilton, New ZealandGeoff Duffy, DEng (Dr of Engineering), PhD (Chemical Engineering), BSc, ASTCDip., FRSNZ (first chemical engineer to be a Fellow of the Royal Society in NZ), FIChemE, wide experience in radiant heat transfer and drying, chemical equilibria, etc. Has reviewed, analysed, and written brief reports and papers on climate change, Auckland, New ZealandRobert W. Durrenberger, PhD, former Arizona State Climatologist and President of the American Association of State Climatologists, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Arizona State University; Sun City, Arizona, U.S.A.Don J. Easterbrook, PhD, Emeritus Professor of Geology, Western Washington, University, Bellingham, Washington, U.S.A.Willis Eschenbach, Independent Climate Researcher, Climate Specialties: Tropical tropospheric amplification, constructal theories of climate, See sample of scientific writings in Nature here, Occidental, CA, U.S.A.Christopher Essex, PhD, professor of applied mathematics, and Associate Chair, Department of Applied Mathematics, Former Director, Program in Theoretical Physics, University of Western Ontario, Former NSERC postdoc at the Canadian Climate Centre's Numerical Modelling Division (GCM), London, Ontario, CanadaPer Engene, MSc, Biologist, Bø i Telemark, Norway, Co-author - The Climate, Science and Politics (2009)Terrence F. Flower, PhD, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, St. Catherine University, studied and taught physics of climate (focus on Arctic and Antarctic), took students to study physics of climate change in the Antarctic and Costa Rica, St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A.Stewart Franks, BSci. (Hons, Environmental Science), PhD (Landsurface-atmosphere interactions), Associate Professor and Dean of Students, University of Newcastle, Climate Specialties: hydro-climatology, flood/drought risk, Newcastle, AustraliaLars Franzén, PhD (Physical Geography), Professor, Physical Geography at Earth Sciences Centre, University of Gothenburg, Areas of Specialization: Palaeoclimate from global peatland and Chinese loess studies - see related scientific paper by Franzén et al, Gothenburg, Vastra Gotaland, SwedenGordon Fulks, PhD (Physics, University of Chicago), cosmic radiation, solar wind, electromagnetic and geophysical phenomena, Corbett, Oregon, U.S.A.Robert. W. Gauldie, PhD, Research Professor (retired), Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, School of Ocean Earth Sciences and Technology, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Hawaii, U.S.A.Katya Georgieva, MSc (Physics of the Earth, Atmosphere, and Space, specialty Meteorology), PhD (Solar-Terrestrial Physics - PhD thesis on solar influences on global climate changes), Associate Professor, Head of group "Solar dynamics and global climate change" in the Solar-Terrestrial Influences Laboratory at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, head of project "Solar activity influences of weather and climate" of the scientific plan of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, member of the "Climate changes" council of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Regional coordinator of the Balkan, Black sea and Caspian sea countries and member of the European Steering Committee for the International Heliophysical Year 2007-2008, deputy editor-in-chief of the international scientific journal "Sun and Geosphere", BulgariaLee C. Gerhard, PhD, Senior Scientist Emeritus, University of Kansas, past director and state geologist, Kansas Geological Survey, U.S.A.Gerhard Gerlich, Dr.rer.nat. (Mathematical Physics: Magnetohydrodynamics) habil. (Real Measure Manifolds), Professor, Institut für Mathematische Physik, Technische Universität Carolo-Wilhelmina zu Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany, Co-author of “Falsification Of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of Physics”, Int.J.Mod.Phys.,2009Fred Goldberg, PhD, Adj Professor, Royal Institute of Technology (Mech, Eng.), Secretary General KTH International Climate Seminar 2006 and Climate analyst (NIPCC), Lidingö, SwedenStanley B. Goldenberg, Research Meteorologist, NOAA, AOML/Hurricane Research Division, Miami, Florida, U.S.A.Wayne Goodfellow, PhD (Earth Science), Ocean Evolution, Paleoenvironments, Adjunct Professor, Senior Research Scientist, University of Ottawa, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaThomas B. Gray, MS (Meteorology, California Institute of Technology and Florida State University), 23 years as Meteorologist with the U.S. Army and Air Force (retired) and 15 years experience with NOAA Environmental Research Laboratories. Assignments include Chief, Analysis and Forecast Division, Global Weather Center, Omaha, Nebraska and Chief, Solar Forecast Center, Boulder Colorado, maintains active interest in paleoclimate and atmospheric physics, Yachats, Oregon, U.S.A.Vincent Gray, PhD, New Zealand Climate Coalition, expert reviewer for the IPCC, author of The Greenhouse Delusion: A Critique of Climate Change 2001, Wellington, New ZealandWilliam M. Gray, PhD, Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Head of the Tropical Meteorology Project, Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A.Kenneth P. Green, Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering (UCLA, 1994), Resident Scholar, Interim Director, Center for Regulatory Studies, American Enterprise Institute, Washington D.C., U.S.A.Charles B. Hammons, PhD (Applied Mathematics), climate-related specialties: applied mathematics, modeling & simulation, software & systems engineering, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Management, University of Dallas; Assistant Professor, North Texas State University (Dr. Hammons found many serious flaws during a detailed study of the software, associated control files plus related email traffic of the Climate Research Unit temperature and other records and “adjustments” carried out in support of IPCC conclusions), Coyle, OK, U.S.A.William Happer, PhD, Professor, Department of Physics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, U.S.A.Howard Hayden, PhD, Emeritus Professor (Physics), University of Connecticut, The Energy Advocate, Pueblo West, Colorado, U.S.A.Warren T. Hinds, B.S. (Engineering), M.S. (Atmospheric Sciences), PhD (Physical Ecology, U. Washington, Seattle), Sr. Scientist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory; consultant for USA EPA research on Global Climate Change Program, Specialist for Defense Programs, Department of Energy, Climate Specialties: atmospheric physics and quantitative empirical analyses regarding climatological, meteorological, and ecological responses to environmental stresses, Gainesville, Georgia, U.S.A.Art Horn, Meteorologist (honors, Lyndon State College, Lyndonville, Vermont), operator, The Art of Weather, U.S.A.Douglas Hoyt, B.S. (Physics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), M.S. (Astro-Geophysics, University of Colorado), co-author of the book The Role of the Sun in climate Change, previously senior scientist at Raytheon (MODIS instrument development), with earlier employment at NOAA, NCAR, World Radiation Center and the Sacramento Peak Observatory, Berkeley Springs, West Virginia, U.S.A.Warwick Hughes, MSc Hons (Geology), Founder of the "Errors in IPCC Climate Science" Blog - http://www.warwickhughes.com/blog/, Areas of Specialization: Jones et al temperature data, Canberra, AustraliaOle Humlum, PhD, Professor of Physical Geography, Department of Physical Geography, Institute of Geosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, NorwayCraig D. Idso, PhD, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.Sherwood B. Idso, PhD, President, Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change, Tempe, Arizona, U.S.A.Larry Irons, BS (Geology), MS (Geology), Sr. Geophysicist at FairfieldNodal (Areas of Specialization: Paleoclimate), Lakewood, Colorado, U.S.A.Terri Jackson, MSc (plasma physics), MPhil (energy economics), Director, Independent Climate Research Group, Northern Ireland and London (Founder of the energy/climate group at the Institute of Physics, London), United KingdomAlbert F. Jacobs, Geol.Drs., P. Geol., Calgary, Alberta, CanadaZbigniew Jaworowski, PhD, DSc, professor of natural sciences, Senior Science Adviser of Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection, researcher on ice core CO2 records, Warsaw, PolandBill Kappel, BS (Physical Science-Geology), BS (Meteorology), Storm Analysis, Climatology, Operation Forecasting, Vice President/Senior Meteorologist, Applied Weather Associates, LLC, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, U.S.A.Olavi Kärner, Ph.D., Extraordinary Research Associate; Dept. of Atmospheric Physics, Tartu Observatory, Toravere, EstoniaMadhav L. Khandekar, PhD, consultant meteorolgist, (former) Research Scientist, Environment Canada, Editor "Climate Research” (03-05), Editorial Board Member "Natural Hazards, IPCC Expert Reviewer 2007, Unionville, Ontario, CanadaLeonid F. Khilyuk, PhD, Science Secretary, Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Professor of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.William Kininmonth MSc, MAdmin, former head of Australia’s National Climate Centre and a consultant to the World Meteorological organization’s Commission for Climatology, Kew, Victoria, AustraliaGerhard Kramm, Dr. rer. nat. (Theoretical Meteorology), Research Associate Professor, Geophysical Institute, Associate Faculty, College of Natural Science and Mathematics, University of Alaska Fairbanks, (climate specialties: Atmospheric energetics, physics of the atmospheric boundary layer, physical climatology - seeinteresting paper by Kramm et al), Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A.Leif Kullman, PhD (Physical geography, plant ecology, landscape ecology), Professor, Physical geography, Department of Ecology and Environmental science, Umeå University, Areas of Specialization: Paleoclimate (Holocene to the present), glaciology, vegetation history, impact of modern climate on the living landscape, Umeå, SwedenDouglas Leahey, PhD, meteorologist and air-quality consultant, President - Friends of Science, Calgary, Alberta, CanadaJay Lehr, BEng (Princeton), PhD (environmental science and ground water hydrology), Science Director, The Heartland Institute, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.Edward Liebsch, B.A. (Earth Science, St. Cloud State University); M.S. (Meteorology, The Pennsylvania State University), former Associate Scientist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; former Adjunct Professor of Meteorology, St. Cloud State University, Environmental Consultant/Air Quality Scientist (Areas of Specialization: micrometeorology, greenhouse gas emissions), Maple Grove, Minnesota, U.S.A.Richard S. Lindzen, PhD, Alfred P. Sloan professor of meteorology, Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.William Lindqvist, PhD (Applied Geology), Independent Geologic Consultant, Areas of Specialization: Climate Variation in the recent geologic past, Tiburon, California, U.S.A.Peter Link, BS, MS, PhD (Geology, Climatology), Geol/Paleoclimatology, retired, Active in Geol-paleoclimatology, Tulsa University and Industry, Evergreen, Colorado, U.S.A.Anthony R. Lupo, Ph.D., Professor of Atmospheric Science, Department of Soil, Environmental, and Atmospheric Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.Qing-Bin Lu, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Physics and Astronomy, cross-appointed to Departments of Biology and Chemistry, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) New Investigator, University of Waterloo, Ontario, CanadaHorst Malberg, PhD, Professor (emeritus) for Meteorology and Climatology and former director of the Institute for Meteorology at the Free University of Berlin, GermanyBjörn Malmgren, PhD, Professor Emeritus in Marine Geology, Paleoclimate Science, Goteborg University, retired, Norrtälje, SwedenOliver Manuel, BS (Chem), MS (Geo-Chem), PhD (Nuclear Chem), Post-Doc (Space Physics), Fulbright Scholar (Astrophysics), NSF Post-Doc Fellow (UC-Berkeley), Associate - Climate & Solar Science Institute, Professor (now Emeritus)/Dept Chair, College of Arts & Sciences University of Missouri-Rolla, Fulbright Scholar (Tata Institute- Mumbai), previously Research Scientist (US Geological Survey-Denver) and NASA Principal Investigator for Apollo, Climate Specialties: Earth's heat source, sample of relevant papers: "Earth's heat source - the Sun", Energy and Environment 20 131-144 (2009); “The sun: a magnetic plasma diffuser that controls earth's climate”, paper presented at the V. International Conference on Non-accelerator New Physics, Dubna, Russia, 20 June 2005; "Super-fluidity in the solar interior: Implications for solar eruptions and climate", Journal of Fusion Energy 21, 193-198 (2002), Cape Girardeau, Missouri, U.S.A.David Manuta, Ph.D. (Inorganic/Physical Chemistry, SUNY Binghamton), FAIC, Climate Specialties: Gas Phase Infrared Studies, Thermodynamics of Small Molecule Formation (e.g., CO2, HF, and H2O), President, Manuta Chemical Consulting, Inc., Chairman of the Board, The American Institute of Chemists, Past Positions include Adjunct Professor of Physics, Ohio University-Chillicothe, Ohio, Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Physical Science at Shawnee State University, Ohio, Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Physical Science at Upper Iowa University and US Enrichment Corp. (nuclear), Waverly, Ohio, USAFrancis Massen, PhD, Physics Lab and meteoLCD, Lycée Classique de Diekirch, 32 av. de la gare L-9233, (see interesting scientific paper by Massen et al), Diekirch, LuxembourgIrina Melnikova, PhD (Physics & Mathematics), Head of the Laboratory for Physics of the Atmosphere INENCO RAN, specialization: radiative regime of the cloudy atmosphere - see interesting paper on this topic by Dr. Melnikova, St. Petersburg, RussiaPatrick J. Michaels, A.B., S.M., Ph.D. (ecological climatology, Senior Fellow in Environmental Studies, CATO Institute, Distinguished Senior Fellow in the School of Public Policy, George Mason University, a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists, past program chair for the Committee on Applied Climatology of the American Meteorological Society, past research professor of Environmental Sciences at University of Virginia, contributing author and reviewer of the UN IPCC, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.Fred Michel, PhD, Director, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Associate Professor of Earth Sciences, Carleton University (article by Dr. Michel: “Climatic hubris: The Ellesmere Island ice shelves have been disappearing since they were first mapped in 1906”, January 16, 2007, National Post), Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaFerenc Mark Miskolczi, PhD, atmospheric physicist, formerly of NASA's Langley Research Center, (in his 2010 paper, Dr. Miskolczi writes, "The data negate increase in CO2 in the atmosphere as a hypothetical cause for the apparently observed global warming. A hypothesis of significant positive feedback by water vapor effect on atmospheric infrared absorption is also negated by the observed measurements. Apparently major revision of the physics underlying the greenhouse effect is needed."), Hampton, Virginia, U.S.A.Asmunn Moene, PhD, MSc (Meteorology), former head of the Forecasting Centre, Meteorological Institute, Oslo, NorwayNils-Axel Mörner, PhD (Sea Level Changes and Climate), Emeritus Professor of Paleogeophysics & Geodynamics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, SwedenNasif Nahle, BSc (Biology), C-1L on Scientific Research, climatology and meteorology, physics, and paleobiology, Director of Scientific Research at Biology Cabinet (Areas of Specialization: Climatology and Meteorology (certification), San Nicolas de los Garza, Nuevo Leon, MexicoDavid Nowell, http://M.Sc., Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society, former chairman of the NATO Meteorological Group, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaJames J. O'Brien, PhD., Emeritus Professor, Meteorology and Oceanography, Florida State University, Florida, U.S.A.Peter Oliver, BSc (Geology), BSc (Hons, Geochemistry & Geophysics), MSc (Geochemistry), PhD (Geology), specialized in NZ quaternary glaciations, Geochemistry and Paleomagnetism, previously research scientist for the NZ Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Upper Hutt, New ZealandCliff Ollier, http://D.Sc., Professor Emeritus (School of Earth and Environment - see his Copenhagen Climate Challenge sea level article here), Research Fellow, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, W.A., AustraliaR. Timothy Patterson, PhD, Professor, Dept. of Earth Sciences (paleoclimatology), Carleton University, Chair - International Climate Science Coalition, Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaAlfred H. Pekarek, PhD, Associate Professor of Geology, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Deptartment, St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota, U.S.A.Stanley Penkala, BS (Chemical Engineering, Univ. of PA), PhD (Chemical Engineering, Univ. of PA.), Asst. Prof. Air Engineering and Industrial Hygiene, University of Pittsburgh GSPH (1970-1973), Environmental Scientist, DeNardo & McFarland Weather Services (1973-1980), Air Science Consultants, Inc. (VP 1980-1995, President 1995-Present), Areas of Specialization: Air Dispersion Modeling, Anthropogenic Sources of Global CO2, Quality Assurance in Air Pollution Measurements, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A.Ian Plimer, PhD, Professor of Mining Geology, The University of Adelaide; Emeritus Professor of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, AustraliaOleg M. Pokrovsky, BS, MS, PhD (mathematics and atmospheric physics - St. Petersburg State University, 1970), Dr. in Phys. and Math Sciences (1985), Professor in Geophysics (1995), principal scientist, Main Geophysical Observatory (RosHydroMet), St. Petersburg, Russia. Note: Dr. Pokrovsky carried out comprehensive analysis of many available long climate time series and cam e to conclusion that anthropogenic CO2 impact is not main contributor in climate change as declared by IPCC.Daniel Joseph Pounder, BS (Meteorology, University of Oklahoma), MS (Atmospheric Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign); Meteorological/Oceanographic Data Analyst for the National Data Buoy Center, formerly Meteorologist, WILL AM/FM/TV, Urbana, U.S.A.Brian Pratt, PhD, Professor of Geology (Sedimentology), University of Saskatchewan (see Professor Pratt's article for a summary of his views), Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, CanadaTom Quirk, MSc (Melbourne), D Phil (physics), MA (Oxford), SMP (Harvard), Member of the Scientific Advisory Panel of the Australian climate Science Coalition, Member Board Institute of Public Affairs, Melbourne, Areas of Specialization: Methane, Decadal Oscillations, Isotopes, Victoria, AustraliaVijay Kumar Raina, Ex. Deputy Director General, Geological Survey of India, author of 2010 MoEF Discussion Paper, “Himalayan Glaciers - State-of-Art Review of Glacial Studies, Glacial Retreat and Climate Change”, the first comprehensive study on the region. Mr. Raina’s field activities covered extensive research on the geology and the glaciers of the Himalayas, Andaman Islands that included research on the volcanoes in the Bay of Bengal. He led two Indian Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica that earned him the National Mineral Award and the Antarctica Award. He has authored over 100 scientific papers and three books: ‘Glacier Atlas of India’ dealing with various aspects of glacier studies under taken in the Himalayas; ‘Glaciers, the rivers of ice’ and ‘Images Antarctica, Reminiscences’, Chandigarh, IndiaDenis Rancourt, http://B.Sc., http://M.Sc., Ph.D. (Physics), Former physics professor, University of Ottawa (then funded by NSERC in both physics and environmental science), Climate Specialties: global carbon cycle and environmental nanoparticles science, statistical physics, as well as the politics, sociology and psychology of the climate debate, current research includes radiative effects and phenomena (albedo, greenhouse effect), Ottawa, Ontario, CanadaOleg Raspopov, Doctor of Science and Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Professor - Geophysics, Senior Scientist, St. Petersburg Filial (Branch) of N.V.Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radiowaves Propagetion of RAS (climate specialty: climate in the past, particularly the influence of solar variability), Editor-in-Chief of journal "Geomagnetism and Aeronomy" (published by Russian Academy of Sciences), St. Petersburg, RussiaS. Jeevananda Reddy, http://M.Sc. (Geophysics), Post Graduate Diploma (Applied Statistics, Andhra University), PhD (Agricultural Meteorology, Australian University, Canberra), Formerly Chief Technical Advisor -- United Nations World Meteorological Organization (WMO) & Expert-Food and Agriculture Organization (UN), Convenor - Forum for a Sustainable Environment, author of 500 scientific articles and several books - here is one: "Climate Change - Myths & Realities", Hyderabad, IndiaGeorge A. Reilly, PhD (Geology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor), areas of specialization: Geological aspects of paleoclimatology, Retired, Winnipeg, Manitoba, CanadaRobert G. Roper, PhD, DSc (University of Adelaide, South Australia), Emeritus Professor of Atmospheric Sciences, School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.Nicola Scafetta, PhD (Physics, 2001, University of North Texas), Laurea (Dottore in Physics, 1997, Universita’ di Pisa, Italy), Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Experiment (ACRIM), Climate Specialties: solar and astronomical causes of climate change, see intresting paper by Scafetta on this), Research Scientist - Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A.Rob Scagel, MSc (forest microclimate specialist), Principal Consultant - Pacific Phytometric Consultants, Surrey, British Columbia, CanadaTom V. Segalstad, PhD (Geology/Geochemistry), secondary Web page here, Head of the Geological Museum, Natural History Museum and Associate Professor of Resource and Environmental Geology, University of Oslo, NorwayGary Sharp, PhD, Center for Climate/Ocean Resources Study, Salinas, California, U.S.A.Thomas P. Sheahen, PhD (Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), specialist in renewable energy, research and publication (applied optics) in modeling and measurement of absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric CO2, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2005-2008); Argonne National Laboratory (1988-1992); Bell Telephone labs (1966-73), National Bureau of Standards (1975-83), Oakland, Maryland, U.S.A.S. Fred Singer, PhD, Professor Emeritus (Environmental Sciences), University of Virginia, former director, U.S. Weather Satellite Service, Science and Environmental Policy Project, Charlottesville, Virginia, U.S.A.Jan-Erik Solheim, MSc (Astrophysics), Professor, Institute of Physics, University of Tromso, Norway (1971-2002), Professor (emeritus), Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics, University of Oslo, Norway (1965-1970, 2002- present), climate specialties: sun and periodic climate variations, scientific paper by Professor Solheim "Solen varsler et kaldere tiår", Baerum, NorwayRoy W. Spencer, PhD, climatologist, Principal Research Scientist, Earth System Science Center, The University of Alabama, Huntsville, Alabama, U.S.A.H. Leighton Steward, Master of Science (Geology), Areas of Specialization: paleoclimates and empirical evidence that indicates CO2 is not a significant driver of climate change, Chairman, PlantsNeedCO2.org and CO2IsGreen.org, Chairman of the Institute for the Study of Earth and Man (geology, archeology & anthropology) at SMU in Dallas, Texas, Boerne, TX, U.S.A.Peter Stilbs, TeknD, Professor of Physical Chemistry, Research Leader, School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), member of American Chemical Society and life member of American Physical Society, Chair of "Global Warming - Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability", International seminar meeting at KTH, 2006, Stockholm, SwedenEdward (Ted) R. Swart, http://D.Sc. (physical chemistry, University of Pretoria), http://B.Sc. (chem eng.) and Ph.D. (math/computer science, University of Witwatersrand). Dean of the Faculty of Science, Professor and Head of the Department of Computer Science, University of Rhodesia and past President of the Rhodesia Scientific Association. Set up the first radiocarbon dating laboratory in Africa with funds from the Gulbenkian Foundation. Professor in the Department of Combinatorics and Optimization at the University of Waterloo and Chair of Computing and Information Science and Acting Dean at the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Now retired in Kelowna, British Columbia, CanadaRoger Tanner, PhD (Analytical Chemistry, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana), 40-yr career in atmospheric chemistry and air quality measurement science at Tennessee Valley Authority, Desert Research Institute, Reno, and Brookhaven National Lab, Climate Specialties: atmospheric chemistry and air quality measurement science, Florence, Alabama, U.S.A.George H. Taylor, B.A. (Mathematics, U.C. Santa Barbara), M.S. (Meteorology, University of Utah), Certified Consulting Meteorologist, Applied Climate Services, LLC, Former State Climatologist (Oregon), President, American Association of State Climatologists (1998-2000), Corvallis, Oregon, U.S.A.Frank Tipler, PhD, Professor of Mathematical Physics, astrophysics, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.Edward M. Tomlinson, MS (Meteorology), Ph.D. (Meteorology, University of Utah), President, Applied Weather Associates, LLC (leader in extreme rainfall storm analyses), 21 years US Air Force in meteorology (Air Weather Service), Monument, Colorado, U.S.A.Ralf D. Tscheuschner, Dr.rer.nat. (Theoretical physics: Quantum Theory), Freelance Lecturer and Researcher in Physics and Applied Informatics, Hamburg, Germany. Co-author of “Falsification of The Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects Within The Frame Of Physics, Int.J.Mod.Phys. 2009Göran Tullberg, Civilingenjör i Kemi (equivalent to Masters of Chemical Engineering), Co-author - The Climate, Science and Politics (2009) (see here for a review), formerly instructor of Organic Chemistry (specialization in “Climate chemistry”), Environmental Control and Environmental Protection Engineering at University in Växjö; Falsterbo, SwedenBrian Gregory Valentine, PhD, Adjunct professor of engineering (aero and fluid dynamics specialization) at the University of Maryland, Technical manager at US Department of Energy, for large-scale modeling of atmospheric pollution, Technical referee for the US Department of Energy's Office of Science programs in climate and atmospheric modeling conducted at American Universities and National Labs, Washington, DC, U.S.A.Gerrit J. van der Lingen, PhD (Utrecht University), geologist and paleoclimatologist, climate change consultant, Geoscience Research and Investigations, Christchurch, New ZealandA.J. (Tom) van Loon, PhD, Professor of Geology (Quaternary Geologyspecialism: Glacial Geology), Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland; former President of the European Association of Science EditorsMichael G. Vershovsky, Ph.D. in meteorology (macrometeorology, long-term forecasts, climatology), Senior Researcher, Russian State Hydrometeorological University, works with, as he writes, “Atmospheric Centers of Action (cyclons and anticyclones, such as Icelandic depression, the South Pacific subtropical anticyclone, etc.). Changes in key parameters of these centers strongly indicate that the global temperature is influenced by these natural factors (not exclusively but nevertheless)”, St. Petersburg, RussiaGösta Walin, Professor, i oceanografi, Earth Science Center, Göteborg University, Göteborg, SwedenHelen Warn, PhD (Meteorology, specialized in atmospheric fluid dynamics at McGill University), Vancouver, BC, CanadaAnthony Watts, ItWorks/IntelliWeather, Founder, surfacestations.org, Watts Up With That, Chico, California, U.S.A.Charles L. Wax, PhD (physical geography: climatology, LSU), State Climatologist – Mississippi, past President of the American Association of State Climatologists, Professor, Department of Geosciences, Mississippi State University, U.S.A.Forese-Carlo Wezel, PhD, Emeritus Professor of Stratigraphy (global and Mediterranean geology, mass biotic extinctions and paleoclimatology), University of Urbino, Urbino, ItalyBoris Winterhalter, PhD, senior marine researcher (retired), Geological Survey of Finland, former professor in marine geology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FinlandDavid E. Wojick, PhD, PE, energy and environmental consultant, Technical Advisory Board member - Climate Science Coalition of America, Star Tannery, Virginia, U.S.A.Dr. Bob Zybach, PhD (Oregon State University (OSU), Environmental Sciences Program, EPA-sponsored peer-reviewed research on carbon sequestration in coniferous forests -- mostly in relation to climate history and quality of climate predictive models), MAIS (OSU, Forest Ecology, Cultural Anthropology, Historical Archaeology), BS (OSU College of Forestry), President, NW Maps Co., Program Manager, Oregon Websites and Watersheds Project, Inc., Cottage Grove, Oregon, U.S.A.American Association of State Climatologists” http://www.climatescienceinterna...American Geological InstituteAmerican Institute of Professional GeologistsGeological Sciences of the Polish Academy of SciencesJapan Society of Energy and Resources (1791 Members)Russian Academy of Scienceshttp://www.populartechnology.net...THE SCIENCE IS FAR FROM SETTLED -What historians will definitely wonder about in futurecenturies is how deeply flawed logic, obscured by shrewdand unrelenting propaganda, actually enabled a coalition ofpowerful special interests to convince nearly everyone inthe world that carbon dioxide from human industry was adangerous, planet-destroying toxin.It wlll be remembered as the greatest mass delusion in thehistory of the world - that carbon dioxide, the life of plants,was considered for a time to be a deadly poison.(Ed Ring,)No science consensus that global warming caused by humans .And according to a study of 1,868 scientists working in climate-related fields, conducted just this year by the PBL Netherlands Environment Assessment Agency, three in ten respondents said that less than half of global warming since 1951 could be attributed to human activity, or that they did not know. Given the politics of modern academia and the scientific community, it’s not unlikely that most scientists involved in climate-related studies believe in anthropogenic global warming, and likely believe, too, that it presents a problem. However, there is no consensus approaching 97 percent. A vigorous, vocal minority exists. The science is far from settled. –Ian Tuttle is a William F. Buckley Jr. Fellow in Political Journalism at the National Review Institute.Read more at: http://www.nationalreview.com/article/425232/climate-change-no-its-not-97-percent-consensus-ian-tuttle