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Thanks for A2A.Nanotechnology is a subject which requires attention to details.Nanotechnology deals with understanding, controlling and manipulating matter at the level of individual atoms and molecules in the range of 0.1–100 nm (10-9 m). It creates materials, devices, and systems with new properties and functions. The role of nanotechnology in the conceiving of innovative infrastructure systems has the potential to revolutionize the civil engineering practice and widen the vision of civil engineering.Some of its applications are examined in detail below:A. CONCRETEConcrete is one of the most common and widely used construction materials. Nanotechnology is widely used in studying its properties like hydration reaction, alkali silicate reaction (ASR) and fly ash reactivity [2]. Alkali silicate reaction is caused due to alkali content of cement and silica present in reactive aggregates like chert. The use of pozzolona in the concrete mix as a partial cement replacement can reduce the likelihood of ASR occurring as they reduce the alkalinity of a pore fluid. Fly ash not only improves concrete durability, strength and, importantly for sustainability, reduces the requirement for cement, however, the curing process of such concrete is slowed down due to the addition of fly ash and early stage strength is also low in comparison to normal concrete.Addition of Nano-silica leads to the densifying of the micro and nano structure resulting in improved mechanical properties. With the addition of nano-SiOpart of the cement is replaced but the density and strength of the fly-ash concrete improves particularly in the early stages. For concrete containing large volume fly ash, at early age it can improve pore size distribution by filling the pores between large fly ash and cement particles at Nano scale. The dispersion/slurry of amorphous nano-SiOis used to improve segregation resistance for self-compacting concrete [26]. The addition of small amount of carbon nanotube (1%) by weight could increase both compressive and flexural strength [1]. This can also improve the mechanical properties of samples consisting of the main portland cement phase and water. Oxidized multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT’s) show the best improvements both in compressive strength (+ 25 N/mm) and flexural strength (+8 N/mm) compared to the reference samples without the reinforcement.Cracking is a major concern for many structures. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is working on healing polymers, which include a microencapsulated healing agent and a catalytic chemical trigger [19]. When the microcapsules are broken by a crack, the healing agent is released into the crack and contact with the catalyst. The polymerization happens and bond the crack faces. The self-healing polymer could be especially applicable to fix the micro cracking in bridge piers and columns. But it requires costly epoxy injection. Research has shown that an anaerobic (one that does not require oxygen) microorganism incorporated into concrete mixing water results in a 25% increase in 28-day strength. The Shewanella microorganism was used at a concentration of 105 cells/ml and nanoscale observation revealed that there was a deposition of sand-cement matrix on its surface. This led to the growth of filler material within the pores of the cement sand matrix and resulted in increased strength.Finally, fibre wrapping of concrete is quite common today for increasing the strength of pre-existing concrete structural elements. An advancement in the procedure involves the use of a fibre sheet (matrix) containing nano-silica particles and hardeners. These nanoparticles penetrate and close small cracks on the concrete surface and, in strengthening applications, the matrices form a strong bond between the surface of the concrete and the fibre reinforcement.It is evident from the Fig.1 that the SCCNFC (self consolidating concrete Nano fibre concrete) column failed at higher loads and with larger deflection than the SCRC (steel confined reinforced concrete) column. Additionally, the SCCNFC column was much stiffer than the SCRC column and exhibited higher energy dissipation. SCCNFC can also be used as a type of self- Structural Health Monitoring system.B. STRUCTURAL COMPOSITESSteel is a major construction material. FHWA together with American Iron and Steel Institute and the U.S. Navy developed new, low carbon, high-performance steel (HPS) for bridges in 1992 with higher corrosion-resistance and weld ability by incorporating copper nanoparticles from at the steel grain boundaries [16].Sandvik NanoflexTM is new stainless steel developed by Sandvik Nanoflex Materials Technology. Due to its high performance, it is suitable for application which requires lightweight and rigid designs. Its good corrosion, formability and wear resistance can keep life-cycle costs low [22] MMFX2 is nanostructure-modified steel, produced by MFX Steel Corp, USA. Compared with the conventional steel, it has a fundamentally different microstructure- laminated lath structure resembling “plywood” as shown in Fig.2. Due to the modified nanostructure, MMFX steel has superior mechanical properties, e.g. higher strength, ductility and fatigue resistance, over other high-strength steels. These material properties can lead to longer service life in corrosive environments and lower construction costs. The MMFX2 steel has similar corrosion resistance to that of stainless steel, but at a much lower cost. So far, the MMFX steel has gained certification for use in general construction throughout the US.Carbon nanotubes are over 100 times stronger than steel and only one-sixth of the weight in addition to its high thermal and electrical conductivities. A CNT composite has recently been reported to be six times stronger than conventional carbon fibre composites [13]. Additionally, unlike carbon fibres which fracture easily under compression, the nanotubes are much more flexible and can be compressed without fracturing. CNT composite reinforced structures have a 50- to 150-fold increase in tensile strength, compared with conventional steel-reinforced structures.C. COATINGSThe coatings incorporating certain Nano particles or Nano layers have been developed for certain purpose including: protective or anti-corrosion coatings for components; self-cleaning, thermal control, energy saving, anti-reflection coatings for glass/windows; easy-to-clean, antibacterial coatings for work surfaces; and more durable paints and anti-graffiti coating for buildings and structures. For example: Self-cleaning windows have been developed and marketed by Pilkington, St. Gobain Co., and others [9]. This coating works in two stages. First, using a ‘photocatalytic’ process, nanosized TiOparticles in the coating react with ultra-violet rays from natural daylight to break down and disintegrate organic dirt. Secondly, the surface coating is hydrophilic, which lets rainwater spread evenly over the surface and ‘sheet’ down the glass to wash the loosened dirt away. It can therefore reduce airborne pollutants when applied to outdoor surfaces. Coating of 7000 mof road surface with such a material in Milan in 2002 has led to a 60% reduction in nitrogen oxides concentration at street level [22]. Research has also demonstrated that bimetallic Nano particles, such as Fe/Pd, Fe/Ag, or Zn/Pd, can serve as potent reductants and catalysts for a large variety of environmental contaminants [11].Another approach to create self-cleaning surface coating has been the development of ‘Lotus Spray’ products by BASF [12], based on ideas of replicating the spotless lotus leaves. The product offers 20 times more water-repellent property than a smooth, wax coating. With its applications in the construction industry, the company aims to develop a product that will retain its lotus effect even after an abrasion with sandpaper.Special coatings can also make the applied surface both hydrophobic and oleophobic at the same time. These could be used for anti-graffiti surfaces, carpets and protective clothing etc. Researchers in Mexico has successfully developed a new type of anti-graffiti paint DELETUM, by functionalising nanoparticles and polymers to form a coating repellent to water and oil at the same time, as shown in Fig. 3.As a result, the coated surface is non-stick or very easy to clean, and able to withstand repeated graffiti attacks. Furthermore nanostructured coatings can be used to selectively reflect and transmit light in different wavebands [4]. Research is focusing on smart and responsive materials able to sense and adapt to surroundings and change their appearance, such as whose colour changes as a function of temperature, and cladding which responds to heat and light to minimise energy use in buildings [16].D. GLASSFire-protective glass is another application of nanotechnology. This is achieved by using a clear intumescent layer sandwiched between glass panels (an interlayer) formed of fumed silica (SiO) nanoparticles which turns into a rigid and opaque fire shield when heated. The electrochromic coatings are being developed that react to changes in applied voltage by using a tungsten oxide layer; thereby becoming more opaque at the touch of a button. Because of the hydrophobic properties of TiO, it can be applied in antifogging coatings or in self-cleaning windows [1]. Nano-TiOcoatings can also be applied to building exteriors to prevent sticking of pollutants, and thus reduce a facility’smaintenance costs [15].E. NANOSENSORSNanotechnology enabled sensors/devices also offer great potential for developing smart materials and structures which have ‘self-sensing’ and ‘self-actuating’ capability. The device used for air bags in cars is such an example. Nano and Micro electrical mechanical systems (NEMS & MEMS) sensors havebeen developed and used in construction to monitor and/or control the environment conditions (e.g. temperature, moisture, smoke, noise, etc.) and the materials/structure performance (e.g. stress, strain, vibration, cracking, corrosion, etc.) during the structure’s life. Nano sensor ranges from 10m to 10m which could be embedded into the structure during the construction process.Cyrano Sciences has developed electronic noses based on an array of different polymer nanometre-thin film sensors [30]. Siemens and Yorkshire Water are developing autonomous, disposable chips with built-in chemical sensors to monitor water quality and send pollution alerts by radio [26]. Smart aggregate, a low cost piezoceramic-based multi-functional device, has been applied to monitor early age concrete properties such as moisture, temperature, relative humidity and early age strength development [30]. Also it can provide an early indication before a failure of the structure occurs.F. BULK INSULATING MATERIALSNanoPore has developed bulk nanoporous silica compounds with embedded organic molecules which perform up to 10 times better than conventional insulating materials [11, 32]. The superior insulation characteristics of these low density, highly porous solids are due to the unique shape and small size (10-100 nm) of its large number of pores. So far, these new insulating compounds have been used in applications that require excellent thermal performance, optimum energy efficiency, or minimum insulation thickness.G. PLASTICSThe carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) being light weight material does not exhibit good electrical properties. CNTs are among the stiffest and strongest fibers known, and have high electrical conductivity. At IFAM in Bremen, researchers employed plasma technology in order to transfer their properties to CFRPs since these micro- or nanoparticles must be highly homogeneous, and sometimes very closely bound to the polymer. Dr. Jörg Ihde, explains: “We spray the particles i.e. the nanotubes into this atmospheric plasma.” They immediately fall into the selected solvent, which can then be used to further process the polymer. The whole procedure takes just a few seconds”. This can be pressed onto an electronic component so heat is dissipated directly.H. PLASTIC SOLAR CELLThe most promising application in the areas of energy and environment leading to the sustainable building is the development of fuel cells and photovoltaic. In the last few years, considerable efforts have been made to develop plastic solar cells in Fig. 4, much simpler and cheaper to produce than that of conventional silicon semiconductor solar cells. Replacing conventional lamps with LEDs in the United States alone could generate energy savings of up to $100 billion by 2025 and reduce carbon emissions by 200 million tons per year [17].I. BITUMENThe bentonite (BT) and organically modified bentonite (OBT) were used to reinforce and modify asphalt binder by melt processing under sonication and shearing stresses. The BT modified asphalt possess intercalated structure while OBT modified asphalt possessed exfoliated structure. The BT and OBT modified asphalts have shown greater softening point, viscosity, higher complex modulus, lower phase angle and higher rutting parameter and better rheological properties than the base asphalt. But the ductility of the modified asphalts decreased with the addition of BT and OBT. They have significantly lower creep stiffness. Therefore, the low temperature cracking resistance was improved by addition ofBT and OBT. The OBT modified asphalts has better properties than the BT modified asphalts.J. BIOMIMETIC MATERIALSBiomimetics is the science of mimicking nature, and biomimetic materials seek to replicate the best features of natural materials. Examples such as honeycomb giving a lightweight structure with exceptional mechanical strength, antler bone being tougher than any man-made ceramic composites, lotus leaf giving self-cleaning surfaces, hameleon’s skin changing colours with the environment, etc. By manipulating materials at the atomic level enabled by nanotechnology advances, biomimetic materials research provides a productive approach of new materials and molecular manufacturing.K. SMART MATERIALSSmart materials are materials with properties engineered to change in a controlled manner under the influence of external stimuli like temperature, force, moisture, electric charge, magnetic fields and pH. Examples are Piezoelectrics, Thermoresponsives, Shape Memory Alloys (SMA), Polychromic, Chromogenic materials etc. Like piezoelectrics that alter their shape under the influence of the electric field, SMA change shape due to magnetic fields. Intelligent Reinforced Concrete Structure (IRCS) is conceptualised on them. The IRCS has multiple functions which include self-rehabilitation, self-vibration damping, and self-structural health monitoring. In this a special type of piezoceramic called PZT (lead zirconate titanate), which possesses a strong piezoelectricity effect, and a special type of SMA called Nitinol, which has good corrosion resistance and large actuation stress, will be used. The proposed concrete structure is reinforced by martensite Nitinol cables using the method of post-tensioning. The martensite Nitinol significantly increases the concrete’s damping property and its ability to handle large impact. In presence of cracks due to explosions or earthquakes, by electrically heating the SMA cables, the SMA cables contract and close up the cracks.To detect possible cracks inside the concrete structure, a PZT patch is used as an actuator to generate waves and other distributed PZT patches are used as sensors to record the received vibration signals.L. NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FIRE PROTECTIONFire resistance of steel structures is often provided by a coating of spray on cementitious process which is no more popular because they need to be thick, tend to be brittle and polymer additions are needed to improve adhesion. However, research into nano-cement (made of nano-sized particles) has the potential to create a new paradigm in this area of application. This is achieved by the mixing of carbon nanotubes (CNT’s) with the cementious material to fabricate fibre composites that can inherit some of the outstanding properties of the nanotubes such as strength. Polypropylene fibres are also being considered as a method of increasing fire resistance and this is a cheaper option than conventional insulation. CNTs can also be used to produce protective clothing materials because of their flame retardant property.III. IMPACTS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY ON CONSTRUCTIONA. MERITS1) Compared with conventional TiO, TiOat the nano-scale experiences a 500% increase in surface area and a 400% decrease in opacity. Current nano-TiOproduction levels have reached approximately 4 million metric tons at a price of approximately $45/kg to $50/kg vs. $2.5/kg for conventional TiO.2) The CNT market worldwide is expected to grow from $51 million in 2006 to more than $800 million by 2011 (BCC Research 2008).3) Nano-modified concrete cuts down construction schedules while reducing labour-intensive (and expensive) tasks. Also it can reduce the cost of repair and maintenance.4) The paint and coatings industry consists of approximately annual sales of $20 billion (Baer et al. 2003). Nano-alumina and titania have a four- to six-fold increase in wear resistance, with doubled toughness and bond strength (Gell 2002).5) The potential global market of nanocomposites is estimated at $340 billion for the next two decades (Roco and Bainbridge 2001).6) The market for fire protection systems totalled approximately $45 billion in 2004 and is expected to grow to more than $80 billion by 2010 (Helmut Kaiser Consultancy 2008)7) Self-repairing asphalt, healing and rejuvenating nanoagents for asphalt (Partl et al. 2006), and self-assembling polymers improve asphalt mix.8) Nano sensors embedded in infrastructural materials can provide, at minimum cost, fully integrated and self-powered failure prediction and forecasting mechanisms for high-capital structures (e.g., reservoirs, nuclear power plants, and bridges).B. DEMERITS1) Because of their small particle size, nano particles have the potential to negatively affect the respiratory and digestive tracks and the skin or eye surface [4] thus exposes workers to hazards.2) Since nanotechnology-related industries are relatively new, the type of worker who is employed in construction research and development (or even some field applications) must have an interdisciplinary background.3) New policies in the context of nanotechnology will require cooperation between various levels of government, R&D agencies, manufacturers, and other industries.4) Small production volumes and high cost remain the main barriers to the use of nanotechnology (The Royal Society 2004)5) The time for commercializing a product is long. E.g. the concrete, which can eliminate the need for reinforcing bars, is projected to be commercialized by approximately 2020.IV. SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTIONAt an annual production rate of 2.35 billion tons, the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic COemissions. Additives such as belite, calcium sulfo-aluminate and calcium alumino-ferrite (BASF 2008) have been found to reduce the COemissions by nearly 25% in the production phaseA wall made of nano-modified concrete during a cold weather season could potentially be used as a thermal insulator when the outside temperature falls or used as a conductor when the ambient temperature inside the building is low, thereby reducing the energy load required for conditioning the building interior.With further development of LED & OLED technology and progress in the insulating materials and smart glazing, the vision for buildings to meet their own energy requirement will become a reality.V. FUTURE PROJECTION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTIONThere is substantial money flowing into nano-related research from multinational corporations and venture capital investments [4, 16]. Many of the world’s largest companies such as IBM, Intel, Motorola, Lucent, Boeing, Hitachi, etc. have all had significant Nano-related research projects goingon, or launched their own nanotech initiatives. By 2015, the National Science Foundation estimates that nanotechnology will have a $1 trillion effect on the global economy. To achieve this market-sized prediction, industries will employ nearly two million workers towards advancements in many Nano materials, Nano structures, and Nano systems. The time needed for commercializing a product is long because industries may prefer monitoring development in research agencies and laboratories before making substantial investments. Furthermore, nanotechnology development, particularly in conjunction with biomimetic research will lead to truly revolutionary approaches to design and production of materials and structures with much improved efficiency, sustainability and adaptability to changing environment.Source : Nanotechnology in Civil EngineeringOTHER WEBSITES :APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERINGNanotechnology In Civil EngineeringNANOTECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING - SANTHOSH BALAJI

Cells in the human body number in the trillions and come in all shapes and sizes. These tiny structures are the basic unit of living organisms. Cells comprise tissues, tissues comprise organs, organs form organ systems, and organ systems work together in an organism. There are hundreds of different types of cells in the body and the structure of a cell is perfectly suited for the role it performs. Cells of the digestive system, for instance, are different in structure and function from cells of the skeletal system. No matter the differences, cells of the body depend on one another, either directly or indirectly, to keep the body functioning as one unit. The following are examples of different types of cells in the body.01of 10Stem CellsPluripotent Stem Cell. Credit: Science Photo Library - STEVE GSCHMEISSNER/Brand X Pictures/Getty ImagesStem cells are unique cells of the body in that they are unspecialized and have the ability to develop into specialized cells for specific organs or to develop into tissues. Stem cells are able to divide and replicate many times in order to replenish and repair tissue. In the field of stem cell research, scientists are attempting to take advantage of the renewal properties of stem cells by utilizing them to generate cells for tissue repair, organ transplantation, and for the treatment of disease. More »02of 10Bone CellsColored scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a freeze-fractured osteocyte (purple) surrounded by bone (gray). An osteocyte is a mature osteoblast (a bone-producing cell) that has become trapped within a bone cavity. The fracture plane has revealed details of the internal cell structure, including a large, dark concave region that was the site of the cell nucleus. Steve Gschmeissner/Science Photo Library/Getty ImagesBones are a type of mineralized connective tissue and a major component of the skeletal system. Bone cells form bone, which is composed of a matrix of collagen and calcium phosphate minerals. There are three primary types of bone cells in the body. Osteoclasts are large cells that decompose bone for resorption and assimilation. Osteoblasts regulate bone mineralization and produce osteoid (organic substance of bone matrix), which mineralizes to form bone. Osteoblasts mature to form osteocytes. Osteocytes aid in the formation of bone and help maintain calcium balance. More »03of 10Blood CellsRed and white blood cells in the bloodstream. Science Photo Library - SCIEPRO / Getty ImagesFrom transporting oxygen throughout the body to fighting infection, cells of the bloodare vital to life. The three major types of cells in the blood are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells determine blood type and are also responsible for transporting oxygen to cells. White blood cells are immune systemcells that destroy pathogens and provide immunity. Platelets help to clot blood and prevent excessive blood loss due to broken or damaged blood vessels. Blood cells are produced by bone marrow. More »04of 10Muscle CellsImmunoflourescence of a smooth muscle cell. Beano5/Vetta/Getty ImagesMuscle cells form muscle tissue, which is important for bodily movement. Skeletal muscle tissue attaches to bones enabling voluntary movement. Skeletal muscle cells are covered by connective tissue, which protects and supports the muscle fiber bundles. Cardiac muscle cells form involuntary cardiac muscle found in the heart. These cells aid in heart contraction and are joined to one another by intercalated discs, which allow for synchronization of the heart beat. Smooth muscle tissue is not striated like cardiac and skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is involuntary muscle that lines body cavities and forms the walls of many organs (kidneys, intestines, blood vessels, lung airways, etc.). More »05of 10Fat CellsAdipocytes (fat cells) store energy as an insulating layer of fat and the majority of the cell's volume is taken up by a large lipid (fat or oil) droplet. Steve Gschmeissner / Science Photo Library / Getty ImagesFat cells, also called adipocytes, are the major cell component of adipose tissue. Adipocytes contain droplets of stored fat (triglycerides) that can be used for energy. When fat is being stored, fat cells swell and become round in shape. When fat is being used, these cells shrink in size. Adipose cells also have an endocrine function as they produce hormones that influence sex hormone metabolism, blood pressure regulation, insulin sensitivity, fat storage and use, blood clotting, and cell signaling. More »06of 10Skin CellsThis image shows squamous cells from the surface of the skin. These are flat, keratinized, dead cells that are continuously sloughed off and replaced with new cells from below. Science Photo Library / Getty ImagesThe skin is composed of a layer of epithelial tissue (epidermis) that is supported by a layer of connective tissue (dermis) and an underlying subcutaneous layer. The outermost layer of the skin is composed of flat, squamous epithelial cells that are closely packed together. The skin protects the internal structures of the body from damage, prevents dehydration, acts as a barrier against germs, stores fat, and produces vitamins and hormones. More »07of 10Nerve CellsActive Nerve Cells. Science Picture Co / Collection Mix: Subjects / Getty ImagesNerve cells or neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system. Nerves send signals among the brain, spinal cord, and other body organs via nerve impulses. A neuron consists of two major parts: a cell body and nerve processes. The central cell body contains the neuron's nucleus, associated cytoplasm, and organelles. Nerve processes are "finger-like" projections (axons and dendrites) that extend from the cell body and are able to conduct and transmit signals. More »08of 10Endothelial CellsDr. Torsten Wittman / Science Photo Library / Getty ImagesEndothelial cells form the inner lining of cardiovascular system and lymphatic systemstructures. These cells makes up the inner layer of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and organs including the brain, lungs, skin, and heart. Endothelial cells are responsible for angiogenesis or the creation of new blood vessels. They also regulate the movement of macromolecules, gases, and fluid between the blood and surrounding tissues, and help to regulate blood pressure.09of 10Sex CellsThis image depicts sperm entering an ovum. Science Picture Co / Collection Mix / Getty ImagesSex cells or gametes are reproductive cells produced in male and female gonads. Male sex cells or sperm are motile and have a long, tail-like projection called a flagellum. Female sex cells or ova are non-motile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete. In sexual reproduction, sex cells unite during fertilization to form a new individual. While other body cells replicate by mitosis, gametes reproduce by meiosis.More »10of 10Cancer CellsThese cervical cancer cells are dividing. Steve Gschmeissner / Science Photo Library / Getty ImagesCancer results from the development of abnormal properties in normal cells that enable them to divide uncontrollably and spread to other locations. Cancer celldevelopment can be caused by mutations that occur from factors such as chemicals, radiation, ultraviolet light, chromosome replication errors, or viral infection. Cancer cells lose sensitivity to anti-growth signals, proliferate rapidly, and lose the ability to undergo apoptosis or programmed cell death.

Minoan technologies are not well understood.The only one I can think of that we don’t have today is potentially an unusual prism type lens to reproduce a natural rainbow (see lenses below if in a hurry and look for the wedge crescent-shaped one, it is not clear if this was its purpose or coincidental, however, Minoan optics are superb for the time, they preceded the Nimrud lens by around 8 centuries and are of much higher quality and are precision ground from rock crystal (natural glass), Daedalus’ nephew is accredited with inventing the dividing calliper (a compass) and as you’ll see this dramatically improved their engineering tolerances which are as good as tool placement to within 20 micron, 0.02mm).We tend to think of technology (the art of science) as modern, however, some ancient civilisations were really good at developing new technologies and exploiting them to improve their lives.SummaryConsider the scene and oar arrangement on the flotilla fresco from Akrotiri, Thera (Santorini) to another Greek island, Delos at the centre of the Cyclades (it’s naval). Images can be zoomed by clicking on them. State of the art technology before circa 1628 BCE and a glimpse into the Minoan World, enjoy …Theran white-hulled FleetSmall boats of 10 rowing oars or less, are shown as plain wooden hulls in the fresco. Those over 10 oars are white hulls or copper in one case. The significance being that large plain wooden hulls over 10 oars (non-Minoan) for transporting goods can be identified as they pass through the Cyclades and duty potentially levied.Minoan Peak Sanctuary Observatories are present at elevated mountain tops and peaks which have a commanding view of the shipping lanes, farms (to estimate areas to establish quota for tax), the night sky noting the clear markers for measurement, potentially signalling and night fires providing a beacon for boats.Peak Sanctuaries have line-of-sight between them across most of the islands in the Cyclades. Line-of-sight to the horizon from a ship's deck is approximately 4kms by comparison. A method of island fire beacons is reported in the Illiad to report the fall of Troy to Argos within hours, not quite satellite communication, but for the time impressive, its over a 500 miles as the crow flies, there is nothing to touch this until radio communication over three thousand years later).Large Labyrs or double-axe (mirrors) could have been rested on the so-called stone ‘horns of consecration’ for signalling and coordinating fleet. Peak Sanctuaries likely used for solar observation and astronomy, as well of observing coastal approaches and shipping lanes. You can see the ware and repair on the artefacts below. N.B. The double axe is gravity cast flat in copper and would be approximately 85% reflective when polished on the ‘A’ side.In this way, large double-axe mirrors (3m high), could be rested against the ‘horns’ on the wall of the peak sanctuary and retained using a base and rocked to signal over a huge distance, a translation of Labrys is ‘bright’ or narrow street (e.g. a beam of light), interestingly ‘lightening’ means ‘star-axe’.Consider what is shown on this seal mirrors which could be seen from over 200kms away.Specific accounts of signalling being used in the Greek age[1][2] and according to Homer, fire beacons (on islands) although there are no earlier accounts (e.g. In Minoan times), this may have been and think likely a legacy from Minoan times.Talos (machines) possibly an early catapult (Minoans were proficient with standoff weapons, slings and archery, and as you can see are good at technical development). One can see on this seal, peak sanctuaries may be connected in some way and a catapult is implied for throwing rocks (likely protecting ports and or nature harbours), encouraging ship to anchor in ports where duty could be levied by throwing rocks at ships trying to anchor in natural harbours and circumventing the ports authority (and tax)!The historians generally concur that early machines likely existed as accounts refer to automatons, statues that move by themselves. Although there are no archaeological early examples that survive, my own view is that pulley wheels were within there manufacturing capability, these automatons delighted audiences with their movements and ‘sang’. I think we can reasonably assume Minoans were ‘nerds’, whether male or female they loved their technology. There are accounts of Hephaestus creating a serving automaton, likely three-wheeled trolley to serve food that could at least ‘walk in’ and return. The account of Daedulus alludes to how they might be powered, he used mercury which is 13.5 times denser than water, in this way the liquid can sequence movement when it fills a pot and under gravity falls, moving a spindle or pulley wheels to actuate movement of limbs, that could also draw in air (through a whistle) as it escaped which could explain how the machines were able to sing. Though how complex these machines were is difficult to say.The early craftsman may possibly have been able to achieve something like this, both of these are much later example and in this case, I think it is likely to be a much bigger device and would use pulleys rather than gears.There is an intriguing account of a palace of Baal having a door that opened with fire (steam), that is thought to be built by Minoan engineers. I think this possible, they had hot and cold running water using copper pipes to upper stories in palaces (so probably did have boilers but there are no surviving examples - this later example is from Samos around 700 BCE, I seem to remember it's now in the Met (NY).Minoan hydroengineering is generally considered to be comparable with 18th century Europe, the significance of this would be that they are exploring using machines to do significant mechanical work. Of all the civilisations at this time, the Minoans are on a trajectory to bring about an industrial revolution sooner, they are at the level of making many copies (batch production), then not quite there and then in 1628 BCE Thera erupted and they never fully recovered to the same level of sophistication and had other priorities.Carian marinesThe so-called ‘ship-wreck’ fresco is in the same room as the first flotilla fresco that may be part of the same story on the North Wall, that may suggest Carians are paid in head of herd, a hecatomb - 100 cattle [/island?] at a festival to Apollo on Delos, the centre of the Cyclades. This is aligned to the oral accounts for the founding of Delos.Delos, if you would be willing to be the abode of my son Phoebus Apollo and make him a rich temple –; for no other will touch you, as ou will find: and I think you will never be rich in oxen and sheep, nor bear vintage nor yet produce plants abundantly. But if you have the temple of far-shooting Apollo, all men will bring you hecatombs [hundreds of head of herd] and gather here, and incessant savour of rich sacrifice will always arise, and you will feed those who dwell in you from the hand of strangers; for truly your own soil is not rich.Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo 51–60It is known that Carians lived on Delos and adjacent islands, including Naxos, a redistribution centre. Carians supplied crew and soldiers (marines) for Minos’ navy. Carians being accredited with many shield inventions, horsehair helmets and military dances (formations/drill), they were considered by the later Greeks to be the most disciplined fighters, for hire (later in history), full-time professional soldiers. Note the Ship Winter storage sheds.Delos today, is one of the most if not the most archaeological dense sites in the entire world.Carians were known to be driven out of the islands by Minos (ca. 1,600–1450 BCE) and resettled on Caria which is where they get their name from, sometime after the Thera eruption, possibly a civil war broke out as the islands did not have food surplus available. This seal may represent this, a Cretan athElite left and Carian right. This same scene is recorded on many Minoan seals but this is one of the finest (ever found), it is 1.4″ in size.Zoomed in to approximately 10mm wide, the fidelity is extraordinary, the woollen kilt has clear raised lines with a fineness of less than 0.1mm (circa, 60 microns and very consistent, a human-hair fine). It does beg the question as to how this was made without optical magnification? Read on. If you download this image and zoom in you can see microdrill holes in the hairline - only a few, the artist missed, how they produced such fine rebated square sections I have no idea, it would be admired whenever it was produced, but this is circa 1500BCE, this entire width is 10mm, it is jaw-dropping).This is a 1mm square section and if you look carefully you can see some of the milling holes have not been worked. This suggests a tool bit of around 0.06mm and placement precision of 0.02mm, as you’ll see Minoans had lenses to realise this…It is worth adding that a compass may have been used to create this seal, the significance of this is that you can dramatically increase engineering tolerances. The dividing calliper (compass) is accredited to Perdix (Daedalus’ nephew), which archaeology seems to confirm is correct.This does tend to suggest that the majority of Minoan artefact currently found are Minoan brick-a-brac, what is needed is a deserted Minoan Citadel and there is one, see fresco, its around the Modern-day airport on Thera under a large amount of pumice that has likely preserved everything!The Theran eruption caused regional and to a less degree globe crop failure with the ash fallout (tree ring circles from Ireland had been used to date this eruption and there are other written accounts as far east as China) and with this the potential inability of the islands to pay the Marines in cattle!Vulcanologists generally concur, the Thera caldera had a single opening to the Sea to the West before ca 1628BCE when the eruption occurred, which implies that the fleet is heading North (to Delos) rather than South to Crete.Fresco orientated to North (left), e.g to Delos, noting this is shown on the North Wall of the room also, Thera pre-eruption (middle) and today (right).Weight assisted propulsion (lost in antiquity). The oars on the large ships appear to protrude mid-hull. This may be a counterbalanced oar, that uses a rope around the oar connected to weights. In this way, the weight of the oar, at some distance from the ship, is counterbalanced and crew can be adjacent to the hull rather than set away from it, saving useful stowage space.The fresco shows the end of the pull stroke, on the return stroke, the rope is extended further (outside the hull) and the internal weights within the hull are lifted. This would offer greater speed as work is performed continuously and unnecessary work is avoided, the oar is counterbalanced. Substantially faster passage could be achieved with this arrangement. Minoan technology is wonderfully simple. Not even Leonardo realised that work could be performed on the push and pull strokes who did explore how to harness human power for propulsion and flight.Minoan Marine TechnologyThere are many improvements over ships of this time shown in the fresco which include:a) Freestanding deployable masts, see main fresco.b) Composite reinforced hulls, a Minoan hull has been reconstructed (shown below) using a wooden frame with strong mortice and tenon joints and reinforced with flax linen cloth, in a pine resin matrix infused with limestone powders to make them white, the copper ship would suggest reinforcement was applied inside and out, the advantage is that if the hull runs into rocks although the wooden hull will fail, the inner composite will delaminate, keeping the hull watertight to make landfall and repair, saving the ship, crew and cargo.It is possible the Therans realised copper repels barnacles (that increase drag dramatically), the Royal Navy copper-bottomed ships for this very reason, the term today means the best. Fishing boats anchor within the Caldera to this day to clean the hull as copper is found within the islands rock formations. This seems to be limited to one ship (shown above), noting copper is a valuable commodity.To give an idea of what a copper hull may have looked like, this is a modern cold cast part (resin impregnated with copper filings and burnished). Splendid and would keep the hull clean to go faster too if the copper colour hull is using it. If the Minoans are using limestone powders I suspect they would experiment with other things too, the inner of this ship seems to be using lapis lazuli for example and is blue (need to zoom in to see it - at the rear of the vessel by the captain's cabin and blue being a feature colour on many hulls). Lapis Lazuli imported from Afghanistan coming into Phoenician ports, along with Tin (the other sources are Iberia, Cornwall/Britanny and there is a small deposits in the Anatolian mountains).I wonder if Orichalcum - Wikipedia which is referred to in the ancient text but only known by name in Plato’s time, is not a metal or an alloy as such, but rather a composite with metal powders for cold casting or applying a metallic surface finish? The issue being this would not age well using natural resin, so I’m not surprised it's not found in the archaeological archive. Second in value only to gold according to Plato.c) Devices that may be anemometers are shown on the ships hull which may deflect in wind, giving an indication to the captain and pilot of crosswinds so course correction can be made), bells appear to be shown on the line on some ships to give an audible indication of wind intensity to the crew, facing backwards.Minoan CompassOther artefacts suggest Minoans may have had superb navigational tools. Many Minoan buildings are aligned to magnetic North, which does suggest that they had a compass using magnetite, meteoric iron struck by lightning available from Skyros, although there is only a single example of a land-based compass. I cannot see that if they had this capability they would not use it at sea. The sub markers on this land-based example represent the fractional angle to True North (1 mark/total), the main pointer is West to indicate declination.It is worth noting that the four Minoan deities represent the four cardinal directions and seasons (solstice and equinox), a Minoan society working with these natural cycles to improve crop yields and developing conventions to assist navigation of the seas to facilitate trade.An Early Marine Sextant to establish Latitude (Jacob’s Staff) *.Consider Orion (the Hunter, male) and Ophiuchus (the Serpent-holder, female), in the star chart. Click to zoom.Labrys could have been used as a Jacobs staff to measure angles to reference stars, such as Orion’s belt or Ophiuchus, the Snake bearers [elbow] on the opposite side of the sky, called the serpent holder above (in English). The height of both these constellations approximates the extent of the axial tilt of the earth, the attitude or inclination of the stars position change by this extent over the year, these are the only constellation which expresses this, both being associated with moving the Zodiac constellations around the sky. The so-called ‘snake goddess’ may be little more than a Priestess explaining how to use Ophiuchus for navigation. Minoan used a lunar-solar calendar and added a 13th month every fourth year, an Olympiad when they celebrated by jumping the bull, so Ophiuchus is possibly their name for this intercalated month, this actually shown on the Orbit calculator later in this article (note that the lunar device flip-flops before advancing a position.There are a huge number of Labrys found, they are assumed to be of cultural significance, however, may have been a practical tool to assist with navigation and would also be a symbol of their naval power, Minos (Wanax or ruler) is accredited with creating the Worlds first Navy.Labrys being gravity cast in copper or gold in the case of small examples are practical mirrors when polished, B side shown. A signalling mirrors on board ship (ship to ship) and at peak sanctuaries (huge - 3m high shown above, shore to ship) to coordinate fleet perhaps.`The use as Jacob’s staff is confirmed by this later Phoenician iconography that adopts Labyrs, becoming straight-edged.‘Double axe’ marks are used for datums on Minoan buildings as a shadow is cast on the mark precisely at typically Equinox or Solstice datums.In this case, to refer to stars and constellations (Phoenician).Natural Birds to estimate Longitude *Birds illustrated, which also feature on the bow and stern posts of Phoenician ships, unfortunately, no surviving Minoan white hulls have yet been found, however, a small Minoan Shipwreck has recently been found but results are yet to be published.A possible reason is that caged birds face (longingly) towards the port they were exchanged in, this has been well established by scientific studies, they scuff the bowl in the cage, cover one of the bird’s eyes and they lose this ability, incredibly it looks as if they exploit a quantum effect as light as a wave rather than a particle, e.g. the two-slit experiment. The Minoans would not understand this, just recognise that birds had/have this ability (they hone to the desired location with the migratory seasons, which is what the Minoan sailors wanted to do and did). From this longitude (tricky) can be estimated by triangulation, it will not be perfect but some indication of longitude in the middle of the Mediterranean would have been extremely useful.It is known that Minoans realised high sea passage, but not how this was achieved, a puzzle that has perplexed marine archaeologists. These technologies being millennia ahead of the time, fibreglass hulls were not ‘invented’ until the 1950’s AD for example, flax linen cloth is almost as strong in tension as E-glass cloth used for composite hulls (GRP) of today but flax has improved flexural qualities. This is a half-scale reproduction (video tour) Minoan white-hull - 20 oars (the mid-hull oar arrangement, freestanding masts and devices of metrology (measurement) not reproduced, but according to the fresco are used).Palace ShipyardsThe Minoans do not appear to give away their advantage and likely kept these technologies secret, which is why little about this is known, obviously, the white hulls are on plain view in port, but no-one else knew how to build these ships and probably thought this was for decoration, the ships are pretty, featuring the fastest animals to ‘fly’ or ‘porpoise’ across the sea at speed! Ships likely produced by Palace controlled shipyards. It is worth noting that when Theseus returned to Athens the ship was kept for many centuries as a prize, had the mainland finally learned the Minoan secret of the location of metals of the world and to navigate it? Well maybe, but the mainland didn’t see the advantages of reinforcing a hull! Theseus made a beeline for Skyros on his return, a source of magnetite (iron), he was thrown off a cliff, the islands clearly didn’t like what he (Athens) offered.Seals. The profusion of seals found, allude to Palace seal authorisation. It is often difficult to interpret Minoan artefacts, are these possibly clay imprinted tokens for the passage for tradespeople or a kind of promissory note to exchange commodities on the next visit to port perhaps or perhaps a receipt against which the holders personal account is credited when presented to the Palace after the goods are delivered to port? Most of these impressions are found on the Phaistos Disc - Wikipedia.Palaces had shutters over doors for air management and fountains for natural cooling, flushing toilets, sewers, aqueducts, flat concrete floors, clay interlocking plumbing for freshwater, hypocaust (for heating), steam rooms and communal bathing, alabaster glazing (before flat glass, hazy but light penetrates), paved roads and canals being evident, not just writing but blind embossed printing, lost wax casting and formers to make once well and scale production with apprentices making many copies, fancy stuff. Why would anyone want to leave? Then again, they need to gather raw materials to make these wonderful things.The Priestess set quota for farms and monitor variance and there is evidence of economic planning to make up shortfalls through trade, winter food storage and magazines will have had significant metal reserves that they likely call upon following the Thera eruption, significant ash fallout fell on Crete. It may look like pots but the treasury is likely under the floor and you can’t see it for pottery.This is what the ladies in Minoan society did, organise, everything!The Priestess seem to collect internal revenues, the Minos external revenues (duty) and this may have been stored in the caves (protected by the Dactyls), on can see metal ingots stored in the caves, in this seal. Minos (lion) went to the caves every nine years to bring in new laws, the nine olives of victory being shown, Minos was last to leave the Arena according to mythology, which suggests Minoan leaders were appointed by talent. Briefly, the Minoan deities are shown on the top left branch: Daught Moon (Artemis), Mother Earth (Demeter); the bees, Son the Sun (Apollo) and his consort Venus; the love birds. The Minoan names are respectively: Potnia Theron (the Mistress of Animals), I-DA-MA-TE, Kouros (the Master of Animals), (J)A-SA-SA-RA-ME (Venus).The Priestess (bottom right) have corresponding houses. Mother Superior is shown behind the Griffon that represents the Great Year (a 26,000-year cycle, yes they worked this out, it 26 are shown repeatedly on Griffon iconography). The populus bottom left.The Priestess (bees) are like civil servants with special powers, they understand the science of the day (astronomy) and administration (organisation), purposeful intervening to increase production capacity and yields (e.g. literally seedcorn loans) to support an expanding population: 100,000 in Knossos - huge, which is around 1% of the world population at the time. It is called a Palace but it is more an administration centre (Government).It is generally assumed that coinage was ‘invented’ in Lydia around the 6th century BCE by the Priests of Artemis. Now consider these token minted by the Priestess of Potnia Theron (the Mistress of Animals and the forerunner to Artemis) and Demeter, know as the bees, respectively responsible for the Harvest and Winter food storage. They likely represent a months salary for acolytes (young trainee priestess, eight is frequently shown which represent an Octaeteris - Wikipedia that is associated with Venus, one of their four deities, A-SA-SA-RA-ME). The tokens are of a standard bullion weight and design and are found in quantity (often in hundreds) and used from around 1800 BCE. They are likely used to facilitate trade transactions and could have been drawn from the Palace and deposited at another to setup an account which good could then be drawn down from magazines against, in the main Minoans used a system of credit and reconciled accounts, drawing down goods with seal authorisation (like a credit card). Palace records show quota being set for farms, repaid at harvest time (with tax) and variance monitored and rolling over to the next accounting period. How very organised.There is a duality in this society, robustness to defend their way of life that is tempered by the female fascination with how nature is organised (the cycles of life). This society prospered (before the Thera eruption). Minos is accredited with suppressing piracy (facilitating trade).Minoan Orbital Calculator and astronomyClosing thoughts here is a casting stone to make many copies of an orbital calculator (manual), it precedes the Antikythera mechanism by over a millennium and defines many of the periods used on the later device. The four main Minoan deities define periods of time, an Earth Day (mother), a Lunar month (daughter), a Solar year (son) and a four-year Olympiad or Octaeteris (lady - consort). The device can also predict Saros cycles when the celestial bodies return to their original position, which can be used to predict eclipses, the device is 94% accurate in doing so. Rather impressive stuff. As you can see the device on the left, can be used to express angles as fractions of opposite and adjacent, that are the underlying elements of trigonometry, and particularly useful for orbital calculation, for example, to establishing the seasonal offset due to Earth’s axial tilt to accurately determine latitude. These people are geeks, they love their multifunction devices as do we today, theirs are a bit more basic but also very useful.The device on the right is for lunar periods but mostly for keeping a calendar, the first use of a 7 day week (lunar phase), the device flip-flops before advancing one position on the left solar device each month so that an accurate 29.5 day month can be maintained (clever huh), there is additional archaeology that confirms this. The solar device and notch systems allow a four-year Olympiad to be maintained, that the Minoans may have celebrated every four years with Bull-leaping (the first games), literally the leap month celebration, according to artefacts. Minos, the Cretan ruler, ‘being last to leave the arena.’ I suspect this device is more for the populous, the Priestess likely to have even better instruments, unfortunately, none of these has yet been found. It is mainly used for maintaining an accurate calendar but can perform some very useful mathematical functions, specifically, trigonometry for orbital calculation and seasonal offsets for determine latitude. It is a remarkable device and precedes the Antikythera mechanism by a full millennium, accepting its manual, non-mechanical, but still, the hard part is determining all these astronomical cycles and is self-evident that the Minoans clearly studied and define.One can see how the idea of the cog (a huge thing) may have evolved from this, but it is not in itself a meshed gear. There is no archaeology in-between this and the mechanism (or the North facing chariot with a differential that appears around the same time) for example. If you know of some any cogs around the first millennia BCE, please do drop me a comment!Minoans understanding of the solar system and particularly optics seems comparable to that of the time of Newton considered to be the start of the enlightenment (with amazingly far fewer materials, precision ground rock crystal lens shown below that are optically superior to a single Babylonian example), I don’t think they saw the value of tubes with fixed focal length, there seem to be extendable poles present at peak sanctuaries according to the artwork, two of the lens have elongated sections that seem to imply that the lens was attached to some form of pole (possibly fixed with linen thread and pine resin, it's how you attach an arrowhead to the shaft). Consider, the wedge crescent-shaped device it will recreate a Natural rainbow, the prism wasn’t invented until newtons time, then again prisms are found at mountain top workshops too, what on earth we’re they doing splitting light into a spectrum, we can only speculate as to what they may have used this for.The wedge-shaped crescent lens being remarkable, it may have been used to reproduce a natural rainbow, noting Newton is accredited with splitting light into its spectrum using a prism, he did not reproduce a rainbow, simulating nature is hard to do so shows a true understanding of optics. Minoan Palaces have both light and dark rooms to study these things, they watch the passage of Venus across the Sun in the reflection of water bowls for example.It is extraordinary what they achieved with the limited materials of the day.The meaning of the Griffons, is they protect the celestial cone which mother Earth wobbles back within throughout the Ages, a 26,000-year cycle, that they may have been trying to calculate, as the pole stars gradually drift over the centuries due to precession of the equinox (three pole stars being shown on each Griffons (2) wings in iconography, the lions digit front paws make 13 x 2 = 26, lions only have 4 digit claws on the rear shown on the each and probably represent four-year Olympiad and eight-year Octaeteris). They studied what we would call today Astronomy and Earth science, it is not just the heavens, but nature, plants and trees that can help identify metal ore, provide treatments, even a nice cuppa: a well-deserved chamomile mountain tea break!UPDATE: they have nailed the Great Year, 13 marks are shown on each griffon collar flanking the embodiment of Demeter (Mother Superior).This is confirmed on the Saffron gathering fresco, 26 ‘V’ are shown on the single griffon's wing.ConclusionI don’t believe Minoan artefacts can be understood in isolation, they need to be considered in a wider context and generally show the state of the art before bronze age collapse. The Minoans connected three continents in trade, the ideas and commodities of the known world flowed through their ports and technological advantage maintains the ‘Minoan Peace’.A hugely productive period in the story and advancement of civilisation, before ca. 1628 BCE when Thera erupted.This technology is almost divided (scattered), the Greeks get the Priestess, the Oracle of Delphi with priests of the Double Axe: the Pythia had her hands full trying to dissuade city-states from fighting amongst each other. The Islands to some degree preserve the astronomical knowledge. The Babylonians got a lens and trigonometry, the archaeology suggests trig in a basic form originally came from the British Isles of all places! The Phoenicians get some of the navigational tools. Composite hulls and this wonderful method of storing energy for propulsion is lost to time.I hope this shows that Civilisation is a privilege rather than a right. An unforeseen event can fundamentally change the course of human progress.These people celebrated life! The art appears modern, as Cycladic art (the indigenous people of the islands, leading to the Minoans), inspired the much later modern art movement.One way to consider the four Minoan deities being: Organisation (North), Creation (East), Commerce (South), and Science (West). In this Minoan fresco, the pigment wants to move around on the fresco wall. Art (state of), science (technology) and commerce are considered in a holistic way for the betterment of society (by organisation).This fresco summarises the Minoans for me, OK it looks highly stylised and pretty, but the artist embeds everything we need to know, 49 lunar months are shown in the horizontal border, a four-year Olympiad. The verticle count is 14 (years), that collectively give a saros when the organised ones (the celestial bodies, their deities) return to their starting positions. I’m so looking forward to a worldwide celebration next year, our own games!! This blaster virus has really upset the natural order of things.Have things really move forward or become complicated? What can you do in your lifetime? Get busy, go places, see what can be done! All speed. Go make something amazing!Footnotes[1] https://research.ncl.ac.uk/histos/documents/2017AA04MooreFire-SignalingInGreekHistoriography.pdf[2] The Lighthouses of Greece