Personal Property Short Form - City Of Bristol: Fill & Download for Free

As s much research is going on, and we all the time get new information, I from time to time am writing new information in this answer. I am writing this as a Mini-Blog about covid-19.Edit 28. October 2020: The studies of Remdesivir is now finished, and it is proven Remdesivir shortens the time to improve if having a severe Covid-19 infection. It is not proven to enhance the survival rate.Edit 5. June 2020: MARVELLOUS NEWS! Learn the name REMDESIVIR, as it probably will be the new drug with effect on covid-19! This is originally a drug used against cancer. Now it is found to have anti-viral properties as well, along a different route than Remdesivir. Norway and Great Britain are about to start a joint study on patients hospitalized with covid-19. 60 patients will get the drug and 60 controls will not get the drug. It is a British study called ACCORD (Acclerating covid-19 Research & Development Platform). The Norwegian firm BerGenBio is producing Bemcentinib, which is chosen as the first drug to be tested against covid-19. The drug might be able to hinder the bodys immune system to be weakened by the virus. If it actually works, we will have two medicines with effect against covid-19. Edit 25. May 2020:About children and covid-19. There is still much we do not know, due to the need of far more tests in the population as a whole to really know whom has been infected, and knowing more of the routes of infection.What we do know, is fewer children are being infected compared with adults. Also in infection tracking, there is by far less people being infected by children compared with youths and adults, also when adjusted for fewer children being infected.In general children are being less ill when infected by covid-19. Of children being ill from covid-19, infants younger than 1 year of age had a higher rate of serious infections compared to children over 1 year of age.New York warns of children's illness linked to Covid-19 after three deathsThere has now has been rapported 73 cases in New York of children getting a very serious condition with toxic shock similar to what is called Kawasaki Syndrome. Still, it is not certain the condition was caused by the infection, as the Kawasaki Syndrome can happen to children without any infection, with an incidence rate ranging from about 9 to 20 per 100,000 children under 5 years of age. It may be these children would have gotten the Kawasaki Syndrome also if they had not been infected by covid-19. Still, the finding of this syndrome in ill children means we have to be alerted to the possibility of developing this possible complication in children.Edit 24. May 2020:There now is one more promising drug being tried out against covid-19. The place on our cells where the covid-19 is able to attach itself and enter the infected cell, is a cell surface protein called Angiotensin Converting Enzyme 2, ACE2 in short.We have now been able to produce a solution of ACE2, this solution is called APNo1. It is produced by the Austrian company called Apeiron Biologics. It has already been tested in small pilot tests, and the testing till now has made it clear it is not harming the patient in any way.Now there is planned a larger scale scientific trial with 200 patients getting the drug and 200 controls. The clinical trials will be done at 10 sites together in Austria, Denmark and Germany.The possible working mechanism is if flooding our blood stream with artificial ACE2, the covid-19 viruses may connect to these free ACE2 molecules. If the viruses actually connects to these artificial ACE2 in the blood, they can not at the same time attach themselves to the ACE2 molecules on the host cells nor enter the host cells. If this drug actually works the way we hope, the drug will stop the viruses from infecting the body cells.In this way the APNo1 may shorten the time the person is ill from the infection, and may giving milder infections with less deaths.This is a very promising drug, but of course we have to await the results from the study.Edit 23.May 2020:The drug Remdesivir has a proven effect in hindering the covid-19 virus from multiplying. See details under the headline The work on antiviral Treatment.Also edit 23. May 2020: New information of how the covid-19 kills has been found. Among them there is multiple thrombosis in many of the smaller arteries to different organs, leading to the destruction of those organs in persons who have died from the disease. Due to this findings, there now is started clinical studies with more heavy anticoagulant treatment than before, to see if this can prevent the multi thrombosis, and thus lower the death rate.The results from these studies are not ready yet.By the 13. April 2020 Norwegian doctors came across a woman ill with covid-19 who tested negative on the ordinary covid-19 tests twice. The test swabs were taken from the pharynx.It turned out there was nothing wrong with the tests themselves.But further out when being ill and the infection having reached the lungs, there were no longer viruses in the pharynx. The viruses were only in the lungs.This lack of viruses higher up in the airways when the illness has progressed, makes it more difficult to get correct diagnosis.Testing for viruses from the lungs can only be done in hospital.Start of original answer:The picture shows doctor Li Wenliang. He is known to the world for privately warning others about the disease. He got ill himself and is now dead.If you were sure not to be one of those who are not being very ill by the virus, it could be a good idea just to expose yourself to the covid-19 virus and get immunity.But there are several reasons for this not being a good idea after all.Now it is a big risk to expose oneself to the virus.You can be one of the more than 80 % who just get a weak disease.But you do not know if you one of those who are being very ill.We also wait for antiviral treatment which can relieve the illness. Until this is developed, it is better to try to avoid being infected.The more infected people there are at the same time, the more difficult it will be to protect the most vulnerable part of the population from being infected. This includes people with heart conditions, lung conditions and cancer. It is unethical to not try protecting our vulnerable fellow citizens from being infected.23. April 2020:Covid-19 gives rise to far more deaths than the common flu. This is most easily seen in graphs.London, showing all deaths every week for the last nine years:From New York State, weekly deaths from the flu the last five years compared with covid-19 deaths in 2020:April 2020: Why humanity will be less vulnerable to covid-19 after some years due to immunity against some of the antigens on the virus, even if some of the antigens are mutated:Humanity will get SOME immunity against this virus, even if the virus mutates.Viruses have many antigens on their surfaces. Usually we fight the viruses off by attacking the main antigens. This is what happens with the seasonal flu. The virus mutates those main antigens, making us vulnerable to it again, and making it necessary to make a new seasonal flu vaccine.But there is one BIG DIFFERENCE. We do not only create antibodies against the main antigens on the viruses. We make some antibodies against most of the antigens on the surface of the viruses.We still have some immunity against some of the less important antigens on the surface of the virus. The virus does not mutate them all at once.The reason for us not having ANY immunity against covid-19, is because this virus is totally new to humanity. Nobody have any immunity to any of its antigens.The same was the case with the bird flu and the swine flu: We were so vulnerable to the viruses due to the viruses being completely new to humanity, and nobody having immunity against any of the antigens on the surfaces of these viruses.The covid-19 virus probably will mutate its major antigens. But the virus will not mutate all of its surface antigens at once. This will in time render humanity less vulnerable to the virus compared to what the case is now.30. Mars 2020, Cultural differences in distancing:The Scandinavians have personal distancing as a way of life.The following gif picture shows Swedes at a bus stop - BEFORE the covid-19:About health resources:The Scandinavian Health authorities publishes the number of intensive care hospital beds with possibilities to use respirators. This number is enough under usual circumstances. But if too many people are being severely ill at the same time, the number of intensive care beds with respirators will be too few.Fun fact:In Norway the opera had to close due to the covid-19. The opera has seamstresses who usually are creating costumes for the opera.Now they have had to stay at home. But they were not idle! They started sewing re-usable protection coats for health personell as there was some shortage of protection clothing, especially in the care facilities for the elderly.The picture shows one of the opera seamstresses at her home, wearing one of the protection coat she has sewn to help in the covid-19 crisis.This is what she usually is creating:In Norway many people does work to help in the covid-19 crisis. Medical students gets extra education and then start working in medical receptions, taking covid-19 tests, and even working as ambulance drivers.The picture shows medical students in Bergen, Norway who are taking covid-19 tests.You see it is in a tent. This tent is placed besides the local emergency reception.In Norway all the health system is now organized to NOT mix covid-19 patients with other patients. Those suspected of being infected with covid-19 are not allowed entrance to the actual emergency reception or a doctors waiting room. This to protect other patients from infection:Sweden:HRH Princess Sofia of Sweden, Duchess of Värmland, married to Prince Carl Philip who is the forth in line to the crown in Sweden has taken a course in how to work in a hospital, and is actually working as and aid to the nurses and other staff to help in the crisis.Cudos to this fine Princess!She is doing real work, not just a publicity stunt!I can not help myself, but posting another picture of this fine Princess. This is from a Nobel Prize reception:The number being severely ill depends on the number of people being infected.Due to this, it will help the survival rate if the infection rate is slowed down, making the amount of severely ill at no time exceed the capacity of respirators and intensive care beds. This of course also is true in countries outside of Scandinavia, and is a good reason for slowing down the spread as much as we can.Italy has been hit hard. Alessandro Paronuzzi tells in a comment that Italy still have not been in need of rejecting patients. Patients are sent to other parts of the country which are less affected by the virus.The Italian doctors themselves have compared it with war-time circumstances.In war-times and in great crisis, the doctors may have to make decisions of which patients are to be treated. Then it is necessary to leave out those with small possibilities of surviving.Crisis selection of patients is one of the subjects we have in medical school.27. Mars 2020 How different countries handle the epidemics:Both Sweden and UK started with an idea of letting the young and healthy not protect themselves against the virus, thinking this would lead to herd immunity by the fall 2020. The goal was 40 - 60 % of the population being immune. The old, sick and in other ways vulnerable was to be sheltered - this was not meant to let this part of the population ill and die.Both Sweden and UK have now changed their way of dealing with the virus, trying to slow down the rate of infections. The reason for this was they experienced the number of severely ill people in need of intensive care with respirators, and even dying, to be higher than they had expected. They saw that if they did not slow down the general rate of infections, they would get more severely ill patients than the health system could handle. This again would lead to more deaths compared with a policy of slowing down the infection rate in general.I have to add the Swedish state epidemiologist Anders Tegnell still does not agree they should try more to prevent infection among young, healthy people. But the actual politics in the country has changed in a more preventive direction, even though it is not as strict as in Denmark and Norway.Deaths per 100 000 inhabitants in Scandinavia per 29. April 2020:Sverige = Sweden, Norge = Norway, Danmark = Denmark, Island = Island,Finland = FinlandAs we can see, Sweden has far more deaths compared with the other Nordic countries. Still this is no proof Sweden is doing the wrong thing. There is for sure coming more waves with the virus, and then Sweden might have a population with higher resistance compared with the other Nordic countries. First after some years will we really know what is the better strategy.All the Nordic countries are cooperating with each other with research. Due to being small countries with a highly educated population and very well developed health system, the different ways of meeting the pandemic will be measured. This can later on give valuable information of what is the best way to meet pandemics.One thing do we know: Covid-19 is not going to be the last virus pandemic in the world!By 25. May 2020: The country in the world doing the worst possible thing in the covid-19 crisis is by now USA. Not having a central government supporting the states, supporting social distancing - and having created the situation of the States having to bid against each others to buy medical equipment such as ventilator - this artificially making the states getting less equipment for the money is incredible.This combined with holding back medical help to states if the president perceives himself as personally insulted by the state governor is also incredible.Suddenly one of the leading countries in the world is acting like a low level partial dictatorship without educated leadership.This has lead to US being the country in the world with most covid-19 deaths - over 90 000 deaths, even with a possible under-rating of covid-19 related deaths. Again, we have to await how the pandemic evolves. Can also US get a higher amount of people with resistance against the covid-19?The one thing which makes US for sure having more deaths than necessary, is the lack of ventilators and lack of protective clothing and masks for the health personell.27. Mars 2020 The special experiences in the city Vo in Italy:In the city Vo in Italy, they tested ALL inhabitants of the city. Then ALL the citizens was in home quarantine for two weeks. After that, ALL the citizens were tested once more.An unexpected finding was 70 % of all testing positive for the covid-19 virus, had no symptoms at all! We already knew some did not have any symptoms, but in no way the number being this high.The first reporters of the covid-19 virus:As Haodong Du states in a comment, it was other doctors, Dingyu Zhang and Jixian Zhang who kept reporting about the virus to the government through official channel to raise more attention, even under some pressure.About the covid-19 virus:New information is coming nearly by the hour now!It was found the covid-19 virus possibly had diverted into two different strains, the S- strain giving more serious disease and spreading more quickly, and the L-strain giving less serious disease and spreading less quickly. It was estimated 30 % of the cases being by the L-strain and 70 % of the cases being by the S-strain.What is a fact, is that the 21. January 2020 a man in USA tested positive for the covid-19 virus, and they found both the S-strain and the L-strain at the same time in this patient.Later research question both the difference in severity and the difference in spread ability of these two strains, even questioning it being correct to call it two different strains.This is in the study: Xiaolu Tang, m. fl: «On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2», National Science Review, 3. mars 2020:Response to “On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2”Edit 27. Mars 2020 about the covid-19 virus:The last findings are from Iceland, they studied the genetic details in the covid-19 viruses they had collected. There they found 40 different strains of covid-19 virus. They do not know if there is any difference in virulence or infectivity of those strains. They may have the same virulens and infectivity.Specialists in virology states that it is more probable for a virus to mutate and spread as a less virulent type, not a more virulent type. This is due to the “survival of the fittest”, which for viruses means the ability to multiply and spread. The more quickly the virus kills its host, the less time it will have to spread. Of course it is possible for the virus also to mutate into a more virulent strain.We have to expect still more news to come, and still quite quickly. Still news are coming nearly by the hour. We need to be open minded and re-evaluate our opinions as new information is emerging!Original answer by 27. Mars 2020 about the development of a vaccine against the covid-19:It is NOT more difficult to develop a vaccine against covid-19 compared with developing vaccines in general. There are no previous vaccines against this virus, making it necessary to create a new vaccine. Creating a new vaccine usually takes three years. The reason for this is the need for long term tests on human subjects to ensure both the vaccine protecting people from being infected by the disease, and at the same time the vaccine not giving any severe side effects.The vaccine is first tested on cell cultures, then tested on more organized cell cultures, then on animals, then on a smaller group of human test objects. First when all this have went well, the main testing on humans starts. We have to see that antibodies are produced. Then we have to see these antibodies actually help in not getting the disease. And the long term testing is needed to se there being neither short term harms or long term harms from the vaccine.It is quite easy to make a vaccine prototype, many firms already have done so. But a vaccine prototype is not a vaccine ready to be used on the population.The two firms by now leading in the race, is the Boston based firm Moderna and the German firm CureVac.Sara Lourenço has given an update about Trump and the company CureVac:There were rumors Trump has tried to bribe CureVac into only giving their vaccine to US when it is ready, but CureVac’s CEO later denied such rumors ('There was and there is no takeover offer': German coronavirus vaccine company CureVac is shooting down viral reports that Trump tried to buy it). Bill Gates has given a substansial contribution to CureVac, and made sure the vaccine will be distributed to those who need it the most.Moderna has as its vaccine prototype a strand of messenger RNA which codes for the main gluco-protein spike on the surface of the virus. The reason for choosing mRNA is this mimicking a real infection, and thus maybe giving a stronger immune response.Moderna has the 16. Mars 2020 started the first tests on volunteer test subjects. This was done in Seattle, USA. The trial includes 45 healthy adults ages 18-55 and last for approximately 6 weeks as volunteers will receive two shots about a month apart.This picture shows the very first vaccine set on a voluntary human test object.We expect the results of this first study to be ready in July or August 2020.If all goes well, we expect a working vaccine to be ready in 12 - 18 months from now.14. April 2020 about the development of a vaccine against covid-19:By 10. April 2020 Nature published 78 vaccine projects was ongoing. Even 37 more projects are in an early stages of development.The University in Oxford, three Chinese research groups and two American companies including the firm Moderna have started the first trials on human volunteers.Edit 22. April 2020: The Oxford University has worked with a vaccine prototype being a synthetic version of the virus. In April 2020 dr. Sarah Gilbert, professor in vaccines at Oxford, states to The Times she believes there is 80 % probability for the vaccine to work.500 persons age 18 – 55 years of age have volunteered to participate in the test for the vaccine, this testing will start 23. April 2020. The vaccine may be ready already the autumn 2020 to be ready for production. The time for production comes after the testing period is finished. If this test is successful, the British authorities has confirmed being willing to buy several millions vaccines.To speed up the process, some scientists have suggested to expose the vaccinated volunteers with the virus. The reason for this is the studies need to see if those getting the test vaccine actually are protected from being infected. If this is not done in the study, we will wait to see what happens if they only by chance are infected.One of those who suggests this is Nir Eyal, professor in bio ethics at Rutgers University. He emphasizes such volunteers have to be young and healthy, they have to have access to intensive care treatment and have to be medically looked well after.This is not a generally accepted way of speeding up the process. Professor Adam Finn at the University of Bristol says we have to think this through before we do this, due to the risk for the test subjects.Bill Gates is supporting different teams in creating the vaccine. He has told he is willing to support the work of developing a vaccine, also supporting companies where the efforts turn out to not be of use.About sham treatments and false information:By now, we now should NOT be apologetic and tolerant of false information or of sham treatments.In less severe situations the only harm this does, is not helping. But in the situation we are now, false information and sham treatments create a real danger. False information and sham treatments will make it difficult for people to get the correct information they need to keep them healthy and safe.About the use of face masks:The important thing to know, is the difference between wearing a face mask to protect yourself against being infected by air, and wearing a face mask to lower emitting airborne infection from yourself to others.Wearing a face mask to protect yourself does not work. It has to be special masks, such as the N95 mask. It has to be put on correctly, and to only be worn once and then disposed of. Because of the shortage of these special masks, they should be left for those who are working with covid-19 sick patients, or work with test samples.To protect the airborne infection to spread to others from you is a completely different matter.The viruses have to be emitted into the air by droplets though coughing, sneezing or even talking, for creating an airborne infection.An ordinary face mask will stop or at least diminish the amount of emitting these droplets into the air.Also in this case, the face masks should only be used once, due to the risk for yourself being infected if the masks have viruses on them. The face masks we buy, are usually to be disposed of after use.If people used face masks made of cotton cloth - cotton because cotton can take high temperatures being washed - we would lower the amount of airborne infections.If every person had three cotton cloth face masks, they could wash by 70 degrees Celsius the used mask in the evening, and drying it. They then every day would have a clean, virus free face mask to put on. This would lower the amount of airborne infection.About the work on antiviral treatment:Edit 22. May 2020:ABOUT REMDESIVIRhttps://The large National Institutes of Health (NIH) study that enrolled over 1,000 hospitalized COVID-19 patients across 22 countries. To qualify, patients had to be hospitalized with confirmed COVID-19 and have evidence of lung involvement, such as an abnormal chest X-ray or needing supplemental oxygen. possibility of actually getting a working antiviral treatment gives us reason for trying to contain the spread of the covid-19 virus until we actually have a treatment. An early analysis of the data, which did not include patients enrolled later in the trial, found that median time to recovery was 11 days for patients on remdesivir and 15 days for patients on placebo. It also suggested a lower death rate, 8 percent on remdesivir compared to 11.6 percent on placebo, but that difference was just short of statistical significance.UCSF Medical Center and Zuckerberg San Francisco General were among the hospitals that participated in the NIH remdesivir trial. A COVID-19 accelerated care unit is set up outside the hospital at Parnassus.This is breakthrough, as it is the first medicine with any proven effect against covid-19. Even though the effect is not great, it gives something to start with.GENERAL ABOUT ANTIVIRAL MEDICATIONS AGAINST COVID-19A link about this work: It’s going to take a lot longer to make a COVID-19 vaccine than a treatmentQuote from the link: “The leading candidate is a drug called remdesivir, which was developed by the pharmaceutical company Gilead. Research showed that it could block SARS and MERS in cells and in mice. In addition, remdesivir was used in a clinical trial looking for treatments for Ebola — and therefore, it had already gone through safety testing to make sure it doesn’t cause any harm.That’s why teams in China and the US were able to start clinical trials testing remdesivir in COVID-19 patients so quickly.”In Norway there is being done research now on antiviral therapy against the covid-19 virus. The following picture shows the platform they are working from. It shows how far the work has come with different antiviral medications against different corona virus strains.It is very interesting to really study this chart. For example, just by looking at this chart you can see that Tilorone already is approved for use against MERS.You also can see, in the first column, how far the testing of different antiviral substances have come against covid-19.Remdesivir is in Phase III. Two more phases needed before it can be used - if it at all passes the next level of tests :Paul Peterson shared the following information about antiviral medication. I am copying his comment here:“I am glad to see chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine on the chart as under testing for covid-19. I read these are “ionophores” for zinc ions…meaning they help “shuttle” zinc into (infected) cells, where zinc then blocks “RNA-dependant replicase” (enzyme) from reproducing viral proteins (slowing the rampant spread of a person's viral load. Apparently chloroquin diphosphate (a related form ) is being used in S. Korea (500 mg. per day) and China (500 mg. X 2 daily), and S. Korea has a very low death rate…Italy's fatality rate is 8 times higher (hypothesis).”ABOUT HYDROXYCHLOROQUINEEdit 22. May 2020At first it was suggested Hydroxychloroquine might help against covid-19, but we knew we needed scientific clinical trials to see if this was the case.The conclusion was hydroxychloroquine did not help against covid-19, in fact it was dramatically raising the death rates due to heart arrhythmias.The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) had a study of covid-19 ill patients treated with hydroxychloroquine together with a control group not getting the drug. In the study of 368 patients, 97 patients who took hydroxychloroquine had a 27.8% death rate. The 158 patients who did not take the drug had an 11.4% death rate. This means the death rate was nearly doubled for the patients given hydroxychloroquine compared with patients not given that drug.The patients in this study were very ill.In Sweden they conducted a multicenter clinical trial on patients hospitalized for the covid-19 infection. These were not that ill patients, as it was only generally hospitalized patients, not the critically ill patients. All the patients had cardiac surveillance. During the study the doctors noticed many of the patients who got hydroxychloroquine developed dangerous heart arrhythmias, the arrhythmias being possibly lethal. Due to this the study was stopped from ethical reasons. The Swedish health authorities also published a prohibition to use hydroxychloroquine in covid-19 ill patients, both against the use in trials or for treatment.Conclusion:Hydroxychloroquine does NOT help against covid-19. It in stead represents a risk of higher mortality rate in covid-19 ill patients.Original answer:Ways the hydroxychloroquine might work against covid-19:Hydroxychloroquine has a slight antiviral property. The drug is used against different diseases. In addition to being used against malaria, it is used against several autoimmune diseases, such as severe rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.Because an over reaction of the inflammatory response of the body may be part of the cause for the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrom and the Cytokine Storm, the latter leading to multi organ failure, it is speculated the hydroxychloroquine might help in these cases because of its anti inflammatory properties. Other anti inflammatory drugs have been tried, such as the NSAIDs and corticosteroids. These did not work against the conditions.It is important to have scientific clinical studies with control groups, and see the results from these studies before concluding if hydroxychloroquine is helping or not.A thank to Rowince Gangwar for edit the language in this answer.

Caesar invaded Britain with around 24,000 legionaries and also other Auxilia. (it's a contentious figure but I feel about as accurate as it can get).Julius Caesar first landed in Britain on August 26th, 55 BC, but it was almost another hundred years before the Romans actually conquered Britain in AD 43. Having subdued Gaul, or so it seemed at the time, Julius Caesar launched an expedition to Britain.My article wishes to present factual material, (this is a Non-Fictional Educational History account, and wishes to avoid Fiction !!!) and also postulates the possibility of Rome possessing large ocean-going commerce or military ships. Archeologically, it is proven such giant Roman vessels did once exist, the prototypes being built by Emperor Caligula and found at Lake Nemi.No others have yet been found, but it is a possibility I postulate, that they do exist as rotting wooden remains, buried somewhere, in a harbour bed, or old port river estuary, near or underneath some old roman river or seaport. Exactly as the giant Lake Nemi boats did and were rediscovered later.It seems Militarily and commercially illogical to me, that Rome would build such fine vessels, and then fail to use to maximum advantage for their Empire the designs. Romes Emperors required ever more tax, ever more tribute, ever more Commercial goods and Revenues, to pay for its huge armies and Empire. Caligula was very short of Money. it seems likely he would build greedily large boats, as a measure to try to reverse the tax Deficit (and by the way continue to pay for his mental illness excesses which included Appointing his Horse as a Roman Offical !!!). He was a madman, and prone to mad ideas. but maybe a large commercial boat, after all, is not as mad as it might first appear.Large ships have been built, and figured with Egyptian history, Chinese history, and Greek history, so why not Roman history too?The initial value and reward in Britain lay not in a new land or new taxes, which came later on, but rather, it was in Lead.The lead was one of the main social and Military reasons for why Rome mounted the invasion. Caesar was very short of lead at the time, it was used in water pipes, and also Military applications,Roman period Lead water pipes.The lead was Mined open cast in the Mendip Hills and smelted at a Roman town, (now thought to have been in fact rather large) near Charterhouse, Priddy, in Somerset.Link to Charterhouse settlement.Charterhouse settlement“TIME TEAM” tv show carried out an Archaeology here in 2005. For much more information, please click this Link.http://www.sanhs.org/Documents/149/SmithBrown.pdfThe sheer massive quantities of lead smelted (furnaced) here was so high, that Cadmium and other highly poisonous compounds still are present at the site down to this day in dangerously high quantities.Nearby, the great shape and mound, the ruins of a U shaped Roman Amphitheatre to entertain the townspeople and workers engaged in lead workings there, can still be seen.Rome sent the precious Lead metal ingots back to Europe on Barques, which sailed down the River Axe and out into what is now known as the Bristol Channel, from “Uphill”.(In A.D; 407 the last Roman Soldiers left England from this beach). A small number of foreign biting Skorpion type insects, that still live in the sand dunes there, and only surface during very hot Summers, are a reminder of the times when Roman and other Foreign boats once sailed and Docked here. One of them sadly claimed the life of the wife of a young future “Field Marshal” Bernard Law Mongomery, when they holiday there long ago, and a friend of our family was also bitten in the hot summer in the 1970s and he actually had a black arm from the poison). Yes, the Romans and others REALLY used to be there!!In those times, thousands of years ago, the area surrounding the Coast and inland as far as Glastonbury Tor, was still tidal, all of it being salt water or fresh water marshlands. Indeed, the Tor itself required boarding a boat to reach it across the waters in those times.Looking down from the high Mendip Hills, the Axe river valley and Somerset levels begins. Once this valley lay under water in Roman times, and lead trading boats sailed to Romes countries with cargos of Lead mined nearby.Above. The valley and modern coastline, showing part of the drained Somerset “levels” which were once in Roman times under water.Lead Mining continued in the Priddy and Mendip Hills area until recent times.Shown here below, ruined remains of the old lead Mine furnaces used to “smelt and refine” the Lead ore from the 18th Century.Waste “slag” the furnace wast by-products from mining, still litters the old abandoned industrial landscape centuries on, from the more recent lead works there.Some other more modern lead mines once in the area.Land near Charterhouse.Many old Roman and other opencast lead Mining pits still pockmark the landscape here in Somerset, left over from lead Mining works.Cautionary warning.Old Mines are not safe places, and in certain areas open and dangerous deep shafts or caves still exist, as well as very profoundly deep water flooded mines, please respect the safety of yourselves and others and ONLY stick to the official marked pathways.A road in Wells, (the smallest City in all England) that took the finished ingots of lead down to the Roman and other types of boats, still is named” The Portway” down to this day from those times.Roman Lead carrying boats sailed from near Wells, down to the sea. Wells also gets its name from the Romans, due to the large freshwater springs in the City.On the other “side” of the Mendip Hills or Mountains, there were other Roman Mines and roads, routes leading to the Bristol channel to ship goods.There has been some talk that even Saracens came to trade for the Lead metals and other goods here.We cannot be totally certain of the frequency of visits to take away the Lead and other goods by Roman vessels, ships or barges, but there is one very interesting possibility I will postulate here.: NEMI (named after the Italian lake where they were found) ships were giant boats built to carry very very large quantities of either persons or goods, and two of these giant boats were found in Italy before the war and examined and photographs taken of them. They seem to be prototypes for very large freighters or luxury ships, even including piped water to drink on the ship for long voyages.Roman Emperor Caligula had the prototypes built, to impress his Imperial “Electorate” of rich Roman Aristocratic voters. One boat was actually an entire floating palace, with water pipes (yes, pipes possibly even made from Mendip Lead) and a Fountain, with a rotating statue on special castors!!Most interesting, however, is the fact that the hulls of the NEMI ships were “plated” and designed for Ocean going travel. I mean, it is highly possible Rome had some other boats like these, which could have sailed from Narbo Martia (Modern day Narbonne in Southern France) and traded goods across the Empire. Rome even could have easily reached the Americas with boats of this calibre and quality including fresh piped drinking waters.Romes commercial trading reached Hibernia in Southern Ireland, and as far as Sarmatia near modern-day Crimea or Ukraine on the Black Sea.Map of Roman Trade Routes.New Roman roads after the English country was successfully occupied by Rome in AD 43 also meant increased commerce between Britannia via the port of Boulogne to Lugundum (Ancient city of Lyon) on the River Rhone. Lyon grew very very rich and prosperous due to Caesars re-invasion of England. (Caesar did land troops before this date). Rome was already scouting around in England long before finaly Caesar invaded. A dispute over the rule by vassal Queen Cartimundia, a Britannic Queen loyal to Rome who was at war with Romes enemies and betrayed King Caraticus, allowed Caesar the Political “excuse” to invade Britain and establish Commerce and lead Mining there.If some of these wide bottom giant boats visited Roman provincial ports in Romes satellite provinces such as Brittania, (Britain) then the amounts of materials Mined or produced for other goods for Rome might have been appreciably MORE than what little archaeological remains found so far suggest to us.Roman Pottery is a “case in point” because six percent of it was produced down the road from the French town of GAILLAC in the “Tarn” at a place called MONTANS. There is a museum and the remains of an old Roman Pottery there today.Just “How” did Roman urns, pots, cups, plates, get all that way along Romes roads and commercial networks, un smashed, uncracked, unspoiled? Unless it went by boat loads on water? The river tarn is very nearby to Montans, and I think they loaded the goods onto river barges and sailed them to England and other provinces, avoiding taking it too far or too long by horse or road cart, to avoid breakages.NEMI SHIPS, the Roman ships of great shallow “draught” , wide water “displacement” and shallow beam. Like giant freighter barges, these types of ships could easily navigate across flat flooded marshlands or shallow inland freshwater river estuaries, (such as the river Axe that runs from near Wells down across the ancient marshlands (now reclaimed farmland with many water ditches to keep them drained) that finally opens out at “UPHILL” beach on the Severn Tidal estuary, to the Severn Bristol channel and down to the French seas or even Spain. Slow, stable, and with huge cargo capacity, they could also land small armies or slave workers sent to work the British mines as punishment from the Romans. Rome enslaved many many persons to mine the lead, the waste Mine pit waters and human contact with the waste waters and dirt from lead mining proved fatal due to lead and cadmium poisoning, and slaves and lead miners lived short and very unhappy lives).The NIMEN design gives great stability to carry large cargos or people over great distances. Also, the NEMI ships had a plated hull, a copper plate or metal plate type covering to its hull, suggesting strongly that it was destined in production form to take to the salty waters of the high seas.This building was enormous, and the size of the wooden beams holding up the boat to display it was as wide as a door in a cube.To give you an accurate impression and idea of the NIMEN ships true size, look at the little size of the persons in the background of this photograph.Unfortunately, another tyrant, this time not Roman emperor Caligula, but Adolf Hitler, and the Nazis seem to have bombed and destroyed these wonderful rare Roman boats during the German Nazi war in Europe, and a mistake by the USAAF bombing Italy caught fire to the Museum and destroyed nearly all of the ships !!! depriving history of a wonderful treasure and precious insights into ancient Roman Military, Imperial and Commercial life.Wells Museum did use to have two very large, fine Lead Ingots, recovered by Archaeologists some years back from the old pits on the Mendip Hills. I saw them on a visit sometime in 1988. They are stamped SPQR in big letters;Wells Museum in Somerset Displays some Roman Lead Ingots.Senatus Populus Quo Romanus. Property of The Senate of the people of Rome.They were probably a part of an abandoned leftover cargo, never collected, by the ships and men of the “Sygarii” family, from the senator “Flavius Afranius Sygarii” of Narbo Martia and Rome.Through Bishop Arnulf of Metz, the author claims on his mother's genealogical side, a case for descent from Antiquity, from Senator and soldier of Rome, “Flavius Afranius Sygarri” who is a distant ancestor from Rodez in the Modern French South.The Aristocratic family, based in Lugundum and Narbo Martial and later Rome, grew rich from commerce by ship across the Roman empire and profited from the post-invasion trade from the ports in the Britannia Mined Roman lead.For more from me about Roman Britannia and the Roman occupation, please click here:Maxime Jouhan Chevallier's answer to Where client-kings and queens of Roman Britain like Cartimandua typically disloyal and treacherous who served Roman interests or did they truly represent their people?And avaiable only in French language there is also another article from me on Rome at:Réponse de Maxime Jouhan Chevallier à Qu'est-il arrivé aux habitants des villes romaines après la chute de l'Empire romain qui se sont retrouvés dans un royaume barbare ?Copyright text Maxime Jouhan Chevallier 2019 All rights reserved.

Here’s the history of English Jews from 1066–1135.William I to Henry I: 1066–1135There is no record of Jews in England before the Norman Conquest in 1066.The few references to Jews in the Anglo-Saxon laws of the Roman Catholic Church relate to Jewish practices about Easter.Believing that their commercial skills and incoming capital would make England more prosperous, William I (William the Conqueror) invited a group of Jewish merchants from Rouen, in Normandy, to England in 1070.However, Jews were not permitted to own land (as most gentiles were not allowed to own land) or to participate in trades (except for medicine). They were limited primarily to money lending. As Catholic doctrine held that money lending for interest was the sin of usury, Jews dominated this activity.The earliest immigrants spoke Judeo-French founded on the Norman dialect.Around 1092, Gilbert Crispin, the Abbot of Westminster, issued a disputation about his exchange with a Jew, entitled "Disputation of a Jew with a Christian about the Christian Bible." Crispin wrote that:I wrote it recently putting to paper what a Jew said when formerly disputing with me against our faith in defence of his own law, and what I replied in favour of the faith against his objections. I know not where he was born, but he was educated at Mayence; he was well versed even in our law and literature, and had a mind practised in the Scriptures and in disputes against us. He often used to come to me as a friend both for business and to see me, since in certain things I was very necessary to him, and as often as we came together we would soon get talking in a friendly spirit about the Scriptures and our faith. Now on a certain day, God granted both him and me greater leisure than usual, and soon we began questioning as usual. And as his objections were consequent and logical, and as he explained with equal consequence his former objections, while our reply met his objections foot to foot and by his own confession seemed equally supported by the testimony of the Scriptures, some of the bystanders requested me to preserve our disputes as likely to be of use to others in future.This disputation was notable for the even-handed presentation of both the Christian and Jewish points of view, and for the congenial tone of the exchange.At first, the status of Jews was not strictly determined. An attempt was made to introduce the continental principle that all Jews were the king's property and a clause to that effect was inserted under King Henry I in some manuscripts of the so-called Leges Edwardi Confessoris "Laws of Edward the Confessor"However, during Henry's reign (1100–1135) a royal charter was granted to Joseph, the chief rabbi of London, and all his followers. Under this charter, Jews were permitted to move about the country without paying tolls, to buy and sell goods and property, to sell their pledges after holding them a year and a day, to be tried by their peers, and to be sworn on the Torah rather than on a Christian Bible. Special weight was attributed to a Jewish person's oath, which was valid against that of 12 Christians, because they represented the king of England in financial matters. The sixth clause of the charter was especially important: it granted Jews the right of movement throughout the kingdom, as if they were the king's own property (sicut res propriæ nostræ).Jews did not settle outside of London before 1135.Stephen to Henry II: 1135–1189Frontage of the Medieval Jew's House in Lincoln, immediately below Jew's Court.Christian-Jewish relations in England were disturbed under King Stephen who burned down the house of a Jewish man in Oxford (some accounts say with the owner in it) because he refused to pay a contribution to the king's expenses. It was also during this time that the first recorded blood libel against Jews was brought in the case of William of Norwich (March, 1144).While the crusaders in Germany were attacking Jews, outbursts against the latter in England were, according to the Jewish chroniclers, prevented by King Stephen.With the restoration of order under Henry II, Jews renewed their activity. Within five years of his accession, Jews are found at London, Oxford, Cambridge, Norwich, Thetford, Bungay, Canterbury, Winchester, Newport, Stafford, Windsor, and Reading. However, they were not permitted to bury their dead elsewhere than in London until 1177. Their spread throughout the country enabled the king to draw upon them as occasion demanded; he repaid them by demand notes on the sheriffs of the counties, who accounted for payments thus made in the half-yearly accounts on the pipe rolls (see Aaron of Lincoln).Strongbow's conquest of Ireland (1170) was financed by Josce, a Jewish man from Gloucester; and the king accordingly fined Josce for having lent money to those under his displeasure. As a rule, however, Henry II does not appear to have limited in any way the financial activity of Jews. The favourable position of the English Jews was shown, among other things, by the visit of Abraham ibn Ezra in 1158, by that of Isaac of Chernigov in 1181, and by the resort to England of the Jews who were exiled from France by Philip Augustus in 1182, among them probably being Judah Sir Leon of Paris.In 1168, when concluding an alliance with Frederick Barbarossa, Henry II seized the chief representatives of the Jews and sent them to Normandy, while tallaging the rest 5,000 marks).When, however, he asked the rest of the country to pay a tithe for the crusade against Saladin in 1186, he demanded a quarter of the Jewish chattels. The tithe was reckoned at £70,000, the quarter at £60,000. It is improbable, however, that the whole amount was paid at once, as for many years after the imposition of the tallage arrears were demanded from the Jews.The king had probably been led to make this large demand upon English Jewry by the surprising windfall which came to his treasury at the death of Aaron of Lincoln. In this period, Aaron of Lincoln is believed to have been, probably, the wealthiest man in 12th-century Britain, in liquid assets.All property obtained by usury, whether Jewish or Christian, fell into the king's hands on Aaron's death; his estate included £15,000 of debts owed by some 430 debtors scattered around the English counties. In order to track down and collect these debts a special section of the Royal Exchequer was constituted, which was known as the "Aaron's Exchequer".The cash treasure of the Aaron's estate, that came into the king's hands, however, was lost on a shipwreck during a transport to Normandy.In this era, Jews lived on good terms with their non-Jewish neighbours, including the clergy; they entered churches freely, and took refuge in the abbeys in times of commotion. Some Jews lived in opulent houses, and helped to build a large number of abbeys and monasteries.However, by the end of Henry's reign they had incurred the ill will of the upper classes, and anti-Jewish sentiment spread further throughout the nation, fostered by the crusades.Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)External audioThe Medieval Massacre of the Jews of York, Speaking with Shadows, published by English Heritage, retrieved 10 November 2019Richard I had taken the cross before his coronation (3 September 1189). A number of the principal Jews of England presented themselves to do homage at Westminster; but there was a long-standing custom against Jews (and women) being admitted to the coronation ceremony, and they were expelled during the banquet which followed the coronation, whereupon they were attacked by a crowd of bystanders. The rumour spread from Westminster to London that the king had ordered a massacre of the Jews; and a mob in the Old Jewry, after vainly attacking the strong stone houses of the Jews throughout the day, set them on fire at night,killing those within who attempted to escape. The king was enraged at this insult to his royal dignity, but was unable to punish more than a few of the offenders, owing to their large numbers and to the considerable social standing of several of them. After his departure on the crusade, riots with loss of life occurred at Lynn, where the Jews attempted to attack a baptised coreligionist who had taken refuge in a church. The seafaring population rose against them, fired their houses, and put them to the sword. So, too, at Stamford Fair, on 7 March 1190, many were slain, and on 18 March, 57 were slaughtered at Bury St Edmunds. The Jews of Lincoln saved themselves only by taking refuge in the castle.Clifford's Tower, where the Jews of York were killed in 1190.Isolated attacks on Jews also occurred at Colchester, Thetford, and Ospringe.A significant loss of life occurred at York on the night of March 16 (Shabbat HaGadol, the Shabbat before Passover) and 17 March 1190.As crusaders prepared to leave on the Third Crusade, religious fervour resulted in several anti-Jewish violences. Josce of York, the leader of the Jews in York, asked the warden of York Castle to receive them with their wives and children, and they were accepted into Clifford's Tower. However, the tower was besieged by the mob of crusaders, demanding that the Jews convert to Christianity and be baptized. Trapped in the castle, the Jews were advised by their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtov of Joigney, to kill themselves rather than convert; Josce began by slaying his wife Anna and his two children, and then was killed by Yomtov. The father of each family killed his wife and children, before Yomtov and Josce set fire to the wooden keep, killing themselves. The handful of Jews who did not kill themselves died in the fire, or were murdered by rioters.Ordinance of the Jewry, 1194During Richard's absence in the Holy Land and during his captivity, the Jews of England were harassed by William de Longchamp. The Jewish community was forced to contribute 5,000 marks toward the king's ransom, more than three times as much as the contribution of the City of London.On his return, Richard determined to organise the Jewish community in order to ensure that he should no longer be defrauded of his just dues as universal legatee of the Jewry by any such outbreaks as those that occurred after his coronation. Richard accordingly decided, in 1194, that records should be kept by royal officials of all the transactions of the Jews, without which such transactions would not be legal.Every debt was to be entered upon a chirograph, one part of which was to be kept by the Jewish creditor, and the other preserved in a chest to which only special officials should have access. By this means the king could at any time ascertain the property of any Jew in the land; and no destruction of the bond held by the Jew could release the creditor from his indebtedness.This "Ordinance of the Jewry" was, in practice, the beginning of the office of Exchequer of the Jews, which made all the transactions of the English Jewry liable to taxation by the King of England, who thus became a sleeping partner in all the transactions of Jewish money lending. The king besides demanded two bezants in the pound, that is, 10 per cent, of all sums recovered by the Jews with the aid of his courts.At this point in time Jews had many of the same rights as gentile citizens. However, their loans could be recovered at law, whereas the Christian money lender could not recover more than his original loan. They were in direct relation to the king and his courts; but this did not imply any arbitrary power of the king to tax them or to take their money without repayment, as is frequently exemplified in the pipe rolls.Leadership of the Chief Rabbis, 13th centuryJews were allowed to have their own jurisdiction, and there is evidence of their having a beth din with three judges. Reference is made to the parnas (president) and gabbai (treasurer), of the congregation, and to scribes and chirographers. A complete system of education seems to have been in vogue.At the head of the Jewish community was placed a chief rabbi, known as "the presbyter of all the Jews of England"; he appears to have been selected by the Jews themselves, who were granted a congé d'élire by the king. The latter claimed, however, the right of confirmation, as in the case of bishops. The Jewish presbyter was indeed in a measure a royal official, holding the position of adviser, as regards Jewish law, to the Exchequer of the Jews, as the English legal system admitted the validity of Jewish law in its proper sphere as much as it did that of the canon law.Six presbyters are known in the 13th century: Jacob of London, reappointed 1200; Josce of London, 1207; Aaron of York, 1237; Elyas of London, 1243; Hagin fil Cresse, 1257; and Cresse fil Mosse.Under John, 1205–1216As early as 1198 Pope Innocent III had written to all Christian princes, including Richard of England, calling upon them to compel the remission of all usury demanded by Jews from Christians. This would render the Jewish community's very existence impossible.On 15 July 1205, the pope laid down the principle that Jews were doomed to perpetual servitude because they had crucified Jesus.In England the secular power soon followed the initiative of the Church. John, having become indebted to the Jewish community while in Ireland, at first treated Jews with a show of forbearance. He confirmed the charter of Rabbi Josce and his sons, and made it apply to all the Jews of England; he wrote a sharp remonstrance to the mayor of London against the attacks that were continually being made upon the Jews of that city, alone of all the cities of England. He reappointed one Jacob archpriest of all the English Jews (12 July 1199).But with the loss of Normandy in 1205 a new spirit seems to have come over the attitude of John to his Jews. In the height of his triumph over the pope, he demanded the sum of no less than £100,000 from the religious houses of England, and 66,000 marks from the Jews (1210). One of the latter, Abraham of Bristol, who refused to pay his quota of 10,000 marks, had, by order of the king, seven of his teeth extracted, one a day, until he was willing to disgorgeThough John squeezed as much as he could out of the Jewish community, they were an important element on his side in the triangular struggle between king, barons, and municipalities which makes up the constitutional history of England during his reign and that of his son. Even in the Magna Carta, clauses were inserted preventing the king or his Jewish subjects from obtaining interest during the minority of an heir.Increasing persecution, 13th centuryWith the accession of Henry III (1216) the position of the Jews became somewhat easier, but only for a short time. Innocent III had in the preceding year caused the Fourth Council of the Lateran to pass the law enforcing the Badge upon the Jews; and in 1218 Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, brought it into operation in England, the badge taking the form of an oblong white patch of two finger-lengths by four. The action of the Church was followed by similar opposition on the part of the English boroughs.Petitions were accordingly sent to the king in many instances to remove his Jews from the boroughs, and they were expelled from Bury St. Edmunds in 1190, Newcastle in 1234, Wycombe in 1235, Southampton in 1236, Berkhamsted in 1242, Newbury in 1244.Simon de Montfort issued an edict to expel the Jewish population from Leicester in 1231, "in my time or in the time of any of my heirs to the end of the world". He justified his action as being "for the good of my soul, and for the souls of my ancestors and successors".The Jews appear to have found refuge in the suburbs outside his control.The Papacy continued to develop its theological commitment to restrictions on Judaism and Jews.In England, a number of Benedictine priories showed particular hostility to Jews, or sought to capitalise on it. The fictional stories of Jewish ritual murder, for instance, emerged from Benedictine priories, apparently attempting to set competing local cults. In Worcester, Bishop William de Blois pushed for tighter restrictions on Jews, writing to Pope Gregory IX for assistance in enforcing segregation between Jews and Christians, including wearing of badges and prohibitions on Christians working for Jews especially within their homes.The value of the Jewish community to the royal treasury had become considerably lessened during the 13th century through two circumstances: the king's income from other sources had continually increased, and the contributions of the Jews had decreased both absolutely and relatively. Besides this, the king had found other sources from which to obtain loans. Italian merchants, "pope's usurers" as they were called, supplied him with money, at times on the security of the Jewry. By the contraction of the area in which Jews were permitted to exercise their money-lending activity their means of profit were lessened, while the king by his continuous exactions prevented the automatic growth of interest.By the middle of the 13th century the Jews of England, like those of the Continent, had become chattels of the king. There appeared to be no limit to the exactions he could impose upon them, though it was obviously against his own interest to deprive them entirely of capital, without which they could not gain for him interest.The great financial pressure Henry placed on the Jews caused them to force repayment of loans, fuelling anti-Jewish resentment.Jewish bonds were purchased and used by richer Barons and members of Henry III's royal circle as a means to acquire lands of lesser landholders, through payment defaults.Henry had built the Domus Conversorum in London in 1232 to help convert Jews to Christianity, and efforts intensified after 1239. As many as 10 percent of the Jews in England had been converted by the late 1250.in large part due to their deteriorating economic conditions.Blood libels and Little Saint Hugh of LincolnMany anti-Jewish stories involving tales of child sacrifice circulated in the 1230s-50s including the account of "Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln" in 1255.The event is considered particularly important, as the first such accusation endorsed by the Crown.In August 1255, a number of the chief Jews who had assembled at Lincoln to celebrate the marriage of a daughter of Berechiah de Nicole were seized on a charge of having murdered a boy named Hugh. Henry intervened to order the execution of Copin, who had confessed to the murder in return for his life, and removed 91 Jews to the Tower of London. 18 were executed, and their property expropriated by the Crown. The king had mortgaged the Jewish community to his brother Richard of Cornwall in February 1255, for 5,000 marks, and had lost all rights over it for a year,so did not provide Henry with income, except when executed.The story was referred to in later English literature including Chaucer and Marlowe, and entered popular folk culture through a contemporary ballad. It was quoted as fact by Thomas Fuller in his posthumous 1662 book Worthies of England.Further restrictions and the Statute of Jewry 1253Henry III passed the Statute of Jewry in 1253, which attempted to stop the construction of synagogues and reinforce the wearing of Jewish badges (rather than accepting fines).A prohibition on Christian servants working for Jews was to reduce the 'risk' of sexual contact, also prohibited. It remains unclear to what extent this statute was actually implemented by Henry.The laws themselves were following the Catholic church's existing pronouncements.In the later 1250s, as Henry was not fully in control over government, the Barons asked for limits on the resale of Jewish bonds. Jewish loans became a motivating factor in the following war. Henry's policies up to 1258 of excessive Jewish taxation, anti-Jewish legislation and propaganda had caused a very important and negative change.Targeting of Jews during the conflict with the BaronsWhile the level of debts to Jewish moneylenders was in fact lower in the 1260s than the 1230s, Henry III's policies had made the landowning classes fear that debts to Jews would lead to them being deprived of their lands, which were used to secure loans. Excessive taxation of Jews, forcing them to collect no matter what the circumstances, was one factor in this. The other was the King's support for courtiers and relatives who bought Jewish loans in order to dispossess defaulters of their landholdings. These were the fears that de Montfort and his supporters played on to bring support to their rebellion.With the outbreak of the Barons' war violent measures were adopted to remove all traces of indebtedness either to the king or to the higher barons. The Jewries of London, Canterbury, Northampton, Winchester, Cambridge, Worcester, and Lincoln were looted (1263–65), and the archæ (official chests of records) either destroyed or deposited at the headquarters of the barons at Ely.Simon de Montfort, who in 1231 had expelled the Jews from his town of Leicester, when at the height of his power after the battle of Lewes cancelled the debts and interest owed to Jews of around 60 men, including those held by his baronial supporters.Montfort had been accused of sharing the plunder but issued edicts for their protection after the battle.Nevertheless, his closest allies including two of his sons had led the violence and killing, so it seems implausible to regard him as ignorant of the likely consequences of the campaign.Later policies of Henry IIIOnce de Montfort was dead and the rebels were defeated, Henry's policy went into reverse and as best as he was able, the debts were reimposed. However, Henry's finances were very weak, and he also wished to pursue the Crusade that he had tried to mount in the 1250s. Parliament refused to comply without legislation that restricted the abuse of Jewish finances, particularly by Christians. In 1269 Henry agreed to limits on perpetual fee-rents, an end to the sale of Jewish loans to Christians without the permission of the Crown and a prohibition on levying interest on loans purchased by Christians. These were the grievances that had helped fuel the wider crisis since 1239. In 1271 he conceded a ban on Jews holding freehold land and again ordered that the previous legislation be enforced.]Nevertheless, these policies would not be adequate in allaying wider fears, which quickly resurfaced under Edward I.Edward I and the ExpulsionJews were expelled from the lands of Queen Dowager Eleanor in January 1275 (which included towns such as Guildford, Cambridge and Worcester).Statutum de Judaismo, 1275Main article: Statute of the JewryEdward I returned from the Crusades in 1274, two years after his accession as King of England. In 1275, he made some experimental decrees. The Church laws against usury had recently been reiterated with more than usual vehemence at the Second Council of Lyon (1274), and Edward in the Statutum de Judaismo (Statute of the Jewry) absolutely forbade Jews to lend on usury, but granted them permission to engage in commerce and handicrafts, and even to take farms for a period not exceeding ten years, though he expressly excluded them from all the feudal advantages of the possession of land.This permission to own land, however, regarded as a means by which Jews in general could gain a livelihood, was illusory.]Farming can not be taken up at a moment's notice, nor can handicrafts be acquired at once. Moreover, in England in the 13th century the guilds were already securing a monopoly of all skilled labour, and in the majority of markets only those could buy and sell who were members of the Guild Merchant.By depriving the Jews of a resort to usury, Edward was practically preventing them from earning a living at all under the conditions of life then existing in feudal England; and in principle the "Statute of the Jewry" expelled them fifteen years before the final expulsion. Some of the Jews attempted to evade the law by resorting to the tricks of the Caursines, who lent sums and extorted bonds that included both principal and interest. Some resorted to highway robbery; others joined the Domus Conversorum; while a considerable number appear to have resorted to coin clipping as a means of securing a precarious existence. As a consequence, in 1278 the whole English Jewry was imprisoned; and no fewer than 293 Jews were executed at London.Expulsion, 1290Main article: Edict of ExpulsionAfter the failed experiments in legislation which Edward I made from 1269 onward, there was only one option left: If the Jews were not to have intercourse with their fellow citizens as artisans, merchants, or farmers, and were not to be allowed to take interest, the only alternative was for them to leave the country. He expelled the Jews from Gascony 1287, a province still then held by England and in which he was travelling at the time; and on his return to England (July 18, 1290) he issued writs to the sheriffs of all the English counties ordering them to enforce a decree to the effect that all Jews should leave England before All Saints' Day of that year. They were allowed to carry their portable property; but their houses escheated to the king, except in the case of a few favoured persons who were allowed to sell theirs before they left. Between 4,000 and 16,000 Jews were expelled. They emigrated to countries such as Poland that protected them by law.Between the expulsion of the Jews in 1290 and their formal return in 1655 there is no official trace of Jews as such on English soilexcept in connection with the Domus Conversorum, which kept a number of them within its precincts up to 1551 and even later.Anti-Judaism did not disappear with the expulsion of Jews. Jeremy Cohen writes about accusations of host desecration:The story exerted its influence even in the absence of Jews ... the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw the proliferation of the Host-desecration story in England: in collections of miracle stories, many of them dedicated to the miracles of the Virgin Mary; in the art of illuminated manuscripts used for Christian prayer and meditation; and on stage, as in popular Croxton Play of the Sacrament, which itself evoked memories of an alleged ritual murder committed by Jews in East Anglia in 1191.And the story of English persecution of Jews continues to this day . . .Source . . . Wikipedia