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I attended a program during the summer of ’87 at Wesleyan University called the Creative Center for the Youth, currently it’s been renamed as Center for Creative Youth.There were no other students aside from us attending any classes during our program even though normal school year students did reside in frat houses over the summer.The Center for Creative Youth is a summer pre-college program that offers talented high school students five weeks of intensive study in their selected arts at Wesleyan.Pulling the following information directly from their official website, CREC: Center for Creative Youth states that since 1966, the Capitol Region Education Council (CREC), working with and for its member districts, has developed a wide array of cost-effective and high-quality programs and services to meet the educational needs of children and adults in the Capitol Region.Helps to create Core Values of:Trust: Built on personal integrity, and forthright and ethical communication.Leadership: Born of wisdom, experience, tenacity and courage.Diversity: Striving to promote social justice through our programs and our actions.Quality: Through a culture of continuous improvement.Collaboration: By partnering with our 35 member districts, area agencies, and by maintaining collegiality within our divisions, programs and staff.It offers those who audition and are selected:Daily arts classes in creative writing, dance, film making, music (both instrumental and vocal), musical theater, photography, theater and visual arts! Interdisciplinary classes, master classes, workshops, field trips, exhibits, performances, as well as recreational activities and share days throughout the program fill the summer with creative inspiration as students learn and explore a rich arts culture together.Students have a wonderful opportunity to experience professional venues of their art form, attend workshops, and explore the dynamic social opportunities that the Wesleyan University campus has to offer. Nothing is “sugar-coated” there – expectations are high for students both in the classroom and in the residence – but the staff is dedicated to ensuring students feel supported and succeed in an environment that values individuality.The above is a photograph of myself and a few of my fellow classmates. You can see from the information I shared above this image, this summer school was very different in approach and direction compared to it’s typically yearly collegiate studies and attendance.I highly recommend it for any and all youths who display creative interests, passions and ideas.

capital or capitol?Many of us have been taught to believe the capital of a country always means it is the seat of government of that country, which is a mistake.For some countries the capital is the main city of commerce, or is important for some reason distinct to that country, or is the most heavily populated; and for each of these countries their seat of government is located in another city or another part of their country.President Trump recognizes Jerusalem as the capital of Israel for this main reason - the US recognizes Jerusalem as the capitol of Israel - the seat of government.• Jerusalem is the home of Israeli Parliament• It is the home of the Israeli Supreme Court• It is the home of the Prime Minister• It is the home of the President• It is the meeting place of foreign dignitariesCitations can be useless. The authorities cited can be wrong.Citations used as authorities, or final authorities, can be misused to perpetrate misinformation (and even propaganda).It can be used, unknowingly, to pass on incorrect information.Take for example an answer on this thread written by Ms Tatiana Estevez that cites the Oxford English Dictionary as the authority on the definition of capital.Tatiana Estévez's answer to What is the spelling mistake in the following statement? “President Trump recognizes Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.”Capital in this sentence refers to the capital city, which is the centre of a country for government and is the correct spelling as per the Oxford dictionary. It is worth noting that I checked my 1991 Oxford Dictionary and it has the same definition:The city or town that functions as the seat of government and administrative centre of a country or region.[1]Ms Estévez further cites Merriam-Webster dictionary as another authority on the definition of capital.This is also given in the Merriam-Webster definition[2] :2a : being the seat of government London is the capital city of England.Let us use her example of the city of London being the seat of government of England.Her authorities, Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster Dictionary are mistaken.Greater London, not the City of London, is the seat of government of England.The City of London is not, and has never been, the seat of government of England.Westminster was the seat of government of England.Westminster was outside the boundaries of the City of London until recent times when both the City of London (which is a separate county) and Westminster became part of the urban core of Greater London.The county of Greater London is fairly recent. It was created on April 1, 1965 through the London Government Act in 1963.Wikipedia gives a brief overview of Greater London. Greater London - WikipediaGreater London, is a county and region of England which forms the administrative boundaries of London. It is organised into 33 local government districts: the 32 London boroughs (which make up the ceremonial county of Greater London) and the City of London (which is a separate county but still part of the region). The Greater London Authority, based in Southwark, is responsible for strategic local government across the region and consists of the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.The City of London has been the capital of England because it is the main city of finance, commerce, education, and the arts. It remains as England’s and the world’s largest financial center.The Netherlands is a country that makes this distinction:The capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam.The capitol (the seat of government) of the Netherlands is The Hague.The Hague is home to the:• Supreme Court• Parliament• Council of State• Peace Palace• International Court of Justice• International Criminal Court• Permanent Court of Arbitration(The capitol, seat of government, of Palestine is Ramallah - at the time this answer was written, December 2017. The capitol may change should the UN’s proposal of two states is accepted by both Israel and Palestine and boundaries shift.)Tel Aviv has served officially, however briefly in the past, as the capital of Israel.(Even in the late 1900s through early 2000s and 2017, inaccurate maps can be found that still show Tel Aviv as the capital of Israel.)It remains the economic center of Israel.Although foreign embassies are located in Tel Aviv, the United States did not/does not recognize Tel Aviv as the capitol - seat of government - of Israel.The US embassy is located in Tel Aviv and President Trump has ordered its move to Jerusalem.According to Business dictionary:Definition of capital1. Wealth in the form of money or assets, taken as a sign of the financial strength of an individual, organization, or nation, and assumed to be available for development or investment.2. Accounting: Money invested in a business to generate income.3. Economics: Factors of production that are used to create goods or services and are not themselves in the process.Recent Examples of capitol from the Web (from Mirriam Webster)Also, at 180 days, temptations increase for legislators to find excuses to be absent from the capitol when tough votes are about to be taken. — author: rep. david eastman, Alaska Dispatch News, "Not-so-special sessions isolate Alaska lawmakers from voters," 31 Oct. 2017News of his departure quickly swept through the nation's capitol, ending a 15-year tenure on the Hill during which Hensarling had established himself as a leading conservative voice. — james osborne, Houston Chronicle, "Hensarling announces leaving Congress," 31 Oct. 2017Nearly a thousand of the Democratic faithful came to a convention center down the street from the state capitol last night for the state party’s annual dinner. — james hohmann, Washington Post, "The Daily 202: Ohio Democrats say talking about Mueller’s probe is not the way to win in 2018," 30 Oct. 2017Many capital cities in the world are/were the main cities of commerce (business, economy, money) or the most populated (or both) and are not/were not the seat of government.Tel Aviv in Israel is a good example of a main city of commerce that is not the seat of government that once served as the capital of Israel.Some capital cities were either the main city of commerce or the most populated and then attracted government. They were a capital city because of commerce or population, not a seat of government, at first.A good example of this is Kolkata, India.Kolkata comes from the name of one of the three villages in India that predated the arrival of the British - Kalikata, Sutanuti, and Gobindapur.In 1690 East India Company obtained a trading license and developed the areas of Kalikata and Sutanuti into a trading post. Kolkata was a thriving, rich port of trade for many years.Then the British came and Kolkata became Calcutta, India’s capital under the British Raj (British rule) from 1773 to 1911.The village of Gobindapur was demolished. It was wiped out to construct Fort William.Although India acquired a system of government in 1909 that embodies the principle of parliamentary accountability - the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy - the first parliament met in 1919.The history of India’s capitals can be found from many sources: Wikipedia is one source that gives information about the history and also gives detailed information about when the capital of India was moved from Calcutta to New Delhi and when the British left India in 1947.The words capital and capitol are homophones. They are pronounced the same but they have different meanings and are not spelled the same.Individually, they are each homographs. Homograph is a group of words that have the same spelling but have different meanings.For those interested in the homograph of the word capital.capital - Wealth in the form of moneycapital - The upper case letter in the alphabet.capital - A charge or offense liable to the death penalty (in the US).capital - An exclamation (British). Example: “That’s capital!” (Splendid!)capital - A place, a city, that is the center of financial enterprisecapital - Main, major, salientcapital - the most important city or town of a country or region, usually its seat of government and administrative center.Regarding the definition and etymology of capital:Tatiana Estevez’s answer on this thread citesThe meaning "city or town which is the official seat of government" is first recorded 1660s (the Old English word was heafodstol; Middle English had hevedburgh).But there is no record before, during, or after the 1600s that shows the words heafodstol or hevedburgh which means the “city or town which is the official seat of government” replaced capitalis a place, a main city, the head of financial enterprise.From Middle English capital, borrowed from Latin capitālis (“of the head”) (in sense “head of cattle”), from caput (“head”) (English cap). Use in trade and finance originated in Medieval economies when a common but expensive transaction involved trading heads of cattle.Homograph of the word capitol.capitol - seat of governmentcapitol - building in which the functions of government are carried outcapitol - a domeFrom United States English and American English dictionaries and thesauriWordReference English Thesaurus © 2017capitolstatehouselegislative hallU.S. CongressSenateHouse of Representativesstate legislatureseat of governmentCapitol Hillthe political frontthe political scenecentergovernmentFederal GovernmentWashingtonWhite HouseFrom Thesaurus.comSynonyms for capitolnoun building or buildings housing chief governmental officescenterdomestatehouseCapitol Hilllegislative hallpolitical sceneseat of governmentFrom Power Thesaurus 44 Capitol Synonyms - Other Words for Capitol -Here are the synonyms for capitol:capitolsynonyms44 Synonymsstatehouse n.center n. buildingseat of government n.political scene n.keep v. defenseCapitol Building n.courthousefortlegislative hall n.congresseddomegovernment n.hill buildingtowerus congresswallsWashingtonwoodenwooden wallscitadelblockhousecastlecity halldungeonfortressCapitol Hill n.barracoonboard gamecapital citycelebrate v.commemorate v.fastnessmartello towerparliament n.political frontsavestrongholdsconcesenatetower of strengthasylumExamples of capitals that are not the seat of government from Capital city - WikipediaBenin: Porto-Novo is the official capital, but Cotonou is the seat of government.Bolivia: Sucre is the constitutional capital, and the supreme tribunal of justice is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital. The palacio quemado, the national congress and national electoral court are located in La Paz, making it the seat of government.Ivory Coast: Yamoussoukro was designated the national capital in 1983, but most government offices and embassies are still located in Abidjan.Georgia: Since 2012, the seat of government has been Kutais, but the President's residence and the Supreme Court remain inTbilisi, the official capital.Netherlands: Amsterdam is the constitutional national capital even though the Dutch government, the parliament, the supreme court, the Council of State, and the work palace of the King are all located in The Hague, as are all the embassies.Philippines: Presidential Decree No. 940, issued on June 24, 1976, designates the whole of Metropolitan Manila as the seat of government, with the City of Manila as the capital.Some historical examples of similar arrangements, where the recognized capital was not the official seat of government:Kingdom of England: The traditional capital was the City of London, while Westminster, outside of the boundaries of the City of London, was the seat of government. They are both today part of the urban core of Greater London.Kingdom of France: The traditional capital was Paris, though from 1682-1789 the seat of government was at the Palace of Versailles, located in a rural area southwest of ParisInteresting fact about French seat of government (also fromWikipedia)France: The French constitution does not recognise any capital city in France. By law, Paris is the seat of both houses of Parliament (the National Assembly and the Senate), but their joint congresses are held at the Palace of Versailles. In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.Planned capitals - are de facto capitolsde facto capitols are recent events that first showed up in the 18th century but began mainly in the 19th century, and occurred most frequently in the 20th century.An interesting fact of capitals/capitols is that some government entities planned and built cities to become capital cities to house the seat of government.They are in the truest definition, capitols, and should be called capitols (seat of government). But they will be called, are called, capitals (main city, main city of commerce or finance, most populated city of that country).Is it any wonder people are confused about the spelling of capital and capitol?Wikipedia gives a list and provides the requirements that cities must meet in order to be considered a planned capital:These cities satisfy one or both of the following criteria:A deliberately planned that was built expressly to house the seat of government, superseding a capital city that was in an established population center. There have been various reasons for this, including overcrowding in that major metropolitan area, and the desire to place the capital city in a location with a better climate (usually a less tropical one).A town that was chosen as a compromise among two or more cities (or other political divisions), none of which was willing to concede to the other(s) the privilege of being the capital city. Usually, the new capital is geographically located roughly equidistant between the competing population centres.Here is a partial list:Abuja, Nigeria (1991)Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, India (2016)Ankara, Turkey (1923)Astana, Kazakhstan (1997)Brasília, Brazil (1960)Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India (1948)Dhaka, Bangladesh (1971)Canberra, Australia (1927)Islamabad, Pakistan (1960)Jhongsing New Village, Taiwan (1955)Naypyidaw, Burma (2005-2006)New Delhi, India (1911)Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (1857)Washington, D.C., USA (1800)It is important to note that the answer on this thread written by Tatiana Estevez provides the image below as authority on the capital of Israel.This image is moot and cannot serve as authority. The reason why follows below this image.Notice on the right hand side of this image there is a notation that states “The position of the United Nations on Jerusalem is stated in A/RES/181 (II) and subsequent General Assembly and Security Council resolutions.”From United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine - WikipediaThe United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal by the United Nations, which recommended a partition of Mandatory Palestine at the end of the British Mandate. On 29 November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted the Plan as Resolution 181(II).The resolution recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish States and a Special International Regime for the city of Jerusalem. The Partition Plan, a four-part document attached to the resolution, provided for the termination of the Mandate, the progressive withdrawal of British armed forces and the delineation of boundaries between the two States and Jerusalem.The Plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, despite its perceived limitations.Arab leaders and governments rejected it (emphasis added) and indicated an unwillingness to accept any form of territorial division, arguing that it violated the principles of national self-determination in the UN Charter which granted people the right to decide their own destiny.Immediately after adoption of the Resolution by the General Assembly, a civil war broke out and the plan was not implemented. (emphasis added)The boundaries of Israel and Palestine and capital cities are still to be determined. There is still a war going on between Israel and Palestine.We are living in a significant historic time where countries, states, and capitals as well as capitols are being destroyed, built, and shaped.Definitions of the words capital and capitols are being redefined, defined, and honed.One thing is certain, the word capital cannot and will not be used as the final definition of the words, seat of government for all countries around the world.For some countries the capital will be the main city of commerce, or the most populated, or the most important for some reason important to that specific country.The word capitol, however, will pertain to the seat of government, the buildings that house the activities of government, the dome that tops a building of government, and with a capital C the specific building that houses the US Congress in Washington DC; all are directly related to government.

9-0 decision are nice, but not necessary. They are exceedingly rare on the current Court because of its ideological make up. They only really happen on the current Court on non-politicized issues. This is a very different Court from the Brown Court, and it is working in, and responding to, very different legal and social challenges. I don't want to take anything away from the Obergefell v. Hodges decision. It is certainly an historic case, but it is nowhere near as important or controversial as Brown v. Board of Education. The Brown decision was the opening salvo in a judicial revolution. It overturned well established Supreme Court precedent, and it set the Federal government on a collision course with recalcitrant segregationist states. The Obergefell decision is none of those things. Sure, there will be some resistance here and there, but there will be nowhere near the fight that was put up by the South against Brown and the Civil Rights movement. Let's take a look at the history so you can see what I mean.Post WWII America: Separate and UnequalMedgar Evers: WWII veteran who went on to become the NAACP's first field secretary in Mississippi. He survived the allied invasion of Europe only to be gun downed in his driveway by white supremacist in 1963.Thousands of black soldiers fought bravely against a racist regime across the Atlantic only to return to live under racist regimes at home. Emboldened by their experiences fighting Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany and frustrated by the stark inequality they returned to, black veterans began to mobilize a civil rights movement in the South. The time had come to take the fight to "Jim Crow." African Americans, often led by black veterans, organized voter-registration drives in the South. They were met with open hostility and violence. After learning of the murders of black Americans who were killed for daring to assert their constitutionally guaranteed right to vote, President Truman decided to act. He established the President's Committee on Civil Rights in late 1946. The Committee recommended the government act to bring about greater equality in education, housing, and employment. It called for Federal laws against lynching and poll taxes. When Congress refused to act, Truman used his executive authority to step up enforcement of existing civil rights law within the Justice Department and, under pressure from labor unions, ordered the desegregation of the armed services in 1948 . As a result of President Truman's support for these modest reforms, South Carolina Democratic Senator Strom Thurmond decided to lead a revolt. He formed the States' Rights Democratic Party (popularly known as the Dixiecrats) and challenged President Truman in the presidential elections of 1948. During his doomed but consequential presidential campaign, Thurmond crowed that "all of the laws in Washington and bayonets of the Army cannot force the Negro into our homes, into our schools, our churches and our places of amusement and recreation."Inspired by the nonviolent direct action movement of India's Mahatma Gandhi, African Americans began to organize campaigns to confront America's institutionalized racism. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) carried out sit-ins at lunch counters in northern cities and organized a swim-in at Palisades Park in New Jersey. Although the participants were beaten back by angry mobs, the amusement park and many lunch counters reluctantly desegregated. These hard-won modest gains convinced activist of the need for greater direct action. These victories could be used to galvanize their communities and to put greater pressure on the white establishment.Legal Assault on American ApartheidTeam of lawyers who argued Brown v. Board of Education: John Scott, James Nabrit, Spottwood Robinson, Frank Reves, Jack Greenberg, Thurgood Marshall, Louis Redding, U. Simpson Tate, George HayesFrom 1932-1948 the Democratic party managed to win five consecutive presidential election. Led by its liberal-progressive wing, the party was determined to reshape American institutions and pass sweeping reform. Having faced down the prospect of a conservative Court striking down much of the parties New Deal legislation, Democrats came to appreciate the importance of having an ideologically friendly judiciary. From 1933 to 1952 Democratic Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman appointed staunch New Deal Democrats to the Federal Judiciary. By 1944 all but two of the Justices sitting on the Court had been appointed by Franklin Roosevelt. This post-New Deal Court was was less likely to give its constitutional blessing to overtly racist laws and state action.Under the auspices of a more progressive judicial system, African American activist and citizens began to take up the work of legally challenging segregation. In Smith v. Allwright (1944) the Court struck down the whites-only primary system that was prevalent in the South. In Morgan v. Virginia (1946), the Court concluded that racial segregation on interstate buses violated federal law. In Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) the Court determined that neither federal nor state courts could constitutionally enforce racially restrictive covenants in private contracts of the type that were used by white developers and home owners to keep black Americans out of their neighborhoods. Upon hearing of the ruling in the Shelley case, Mississippi Congressman John E. Rankin remarked on the floor of the House, "there must have been a celebration in Moscow last night; for the Communist won their greatest victory in the Supreme Court of the United States."The most powerful symbol of racial inequality was the segregated school system. While 53.9 of white college student in the South attended tax payer funded public universities, only 8.9 percent of black students did so. The region boasted of thirty-one law schools for white students, but only three for blacks.The biggest legal stumbling block to full integration of the segregated school system was the judicial doctrine of separate-but-equal. The doctrine had been established in the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson. While the Court was reluctant to overturn the Plessy ruling, a majority of Justices seemed willing to chip away at it by forcing states to honor the "equal" part of it. Encouraged by the trickle of favorable outcomes, Thurgood Marshall, chief legal counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), sensed that the time was right to aggressively attack school segregation. Marshall and the NAACP decided to lay judicial siege to school segregation.Five case were consolidated into the heading of one key case that involved Linda Brown of Topeka, Kansas. Marshall decided to abandon his piecemeal approach and mount a frontal assault on "separate but equal." He likened the doctrine to the "Black Codes (United States)" passed after the Civil War. He argued that the doctrine could only be sustained if the Court found "that for some reason Negros are inferior to all other human beings." Marshall insisted that segregation violated the Fourteenth Amendment, and he submitted psychological research conducted by Dr. Kenneth Clark that suggested that black children who attended all black schools suffered lasting emotional and intellectual damage as a result.The Death in Time That Swung NineFrom left: Richard Nixon, Dwight Eisenhower, and Governor Earl Warren at the Republican National ConventionThe Supreme Court heard arguments in Brown v. Board of Education in late 1952, but, fearing a divided Court, delayed ruling. Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, along with several of the associate Justices, disliked segregation but thought that states had the right to make their own school policy. In September of 1953, in the midst of deliberation on Brown, Vinson died. Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter was reported to have quipped that Vinson's timely death was "the only proof I've seen of the existence of God." A year earlier, presidential candidate Dwight Eisenhower had promised progressive Republican California governor Earl Warren the first available appointment to the Supreme Court in exchange for his support at the Convention. Although the Eisenhower Administration had some misgivings about appointing Warren to the top post on the highest court in the land, Eisenhower kept his promise and put Warren's nomination for Chief Justice forth. Warren, who had played a pivotal role in the interment of thousands of Japanese American as California's attorney general, had come to deeply regret his involvement in Japanese interment and believed that the Court should serve to protect oppressed and disadvantage people.Warren ordered a rehearing of Brown in December of 1953. In private deliberations, Warren stressed that the Court had to overrule Plessy if it was to maintain its legitimacy and integrity. He also expressed fear that if any dissents were issued--while technically not affecting the legal authority of the ruling--southern segregationist would use them as legal cover to resist the order. As it was, the Court was unsure about its ability to issue such a sweeping ruling. It feared that southern states would simply ignore the order. The Court had limited tools at its disposal to enforce the decision, and the Eisenhower Administration, while not supporters of segregation, had shown no enthusiasm for pushing civil rights on the South. The Court would have to issue the order and hope that the White House would be willing to use its executive power to compel rebellious southern authorities to follow it. Eventually, all eight associate justice agreed to sign on. Even Justice Stanley Forman Reed, who was more or less sympathetic to segregationist concerns, decided to cast his vote with the majority. The Court's ruling overturned Plessy, outlawed segregation in public education, and put fourth an essentially novel interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment.The Aftermath: "Segregation Now, Segregation Tomorrow, Segregation Forever"Former Alabama Governor George Wallace, who rose to national prominence as Americas foremost advocate for white supremacyThe decision shocked and incensed many southerners. A young southern minister named Jerry Falwell claimed he saw the "hand of Moscow" behind it. He further elaborated that "[i]f Chief Justice Warren and his associates had known God's word, I am confident that the...decision would never have been made." According to Falwell's reading of the Bible, blacks "were cursed to be the servants of the Jews and Gentiles." Other critics charged that the Court had usurped congressional and state power by making, rather than interpreting, law. But the truth was that the Court had taken action--reluctantly--to solve a moral, legal, and political issue that neither Congress nor the president seemed capable of confronting. Civil rights legislation had been stalled by partisan gridlock, and the Supreme Court was the sole government institution willing and able to move the issue forward.The Court delayed implementation of its decision and called on local authorities to consult with Federal judges. During 1954 and 1955, southern states requested further delays. President Eisenhower refused to either endorse or denounce the decision. The Administration's aloofness and the Court's delays helped fuel a massive resistance movement.In May 1955 the Court decided Brown II. Warren agains spoke for a unanimous Court and ruled that school segregation must end everywhere in the nation with "all deliberate speed." The Court again refused to give a specific time table. Southern officials hoped that District Courts would sign off on never ending delays. One Georgia official hoped that courts would define "reasonable time as one or two hundred years." White Citizens' Councils sprung up in several southern states designed to intimidate black parents and school boards trying to integrate schools. These councils--the "uptown Ku Klux Klan" as their critics called them --formally disavowed violence but tacitly encouraged it. They took out adds in local papers and published the names and addresses of local blacks who had registered to vote or participated in other civil rights activity. Southern politicians reassured white citizens that the Court's decision was illegitimate, and southern states would not have to comply with it. Over one hundred members of Congress signed a Southern Manifesto that decried the Supreme Court's "clear abuse of judicial power" and vowed to fight the ruling. Robert F. Byrd, Democratic Senator form Virginia, called for massive resistance. Several southern legislatures declared that they would defy the "unconstitutional" ruling.Over the next few years, state legislatures passed laws designed to impede the integration of schools. Laws where passed to forbid local officials from taking any action that would lead to mixing of the races. State money was provided (usually in the form of school vouchers) so that white parent could send their children to "private" all white academies. Several states abolished or curtailed their public school systems. At one point, Mississippi and South Carolina amended their state constitutions to abolish public schools. In 1957 conservative intellectual and unofficial spokesmen for American conservatism William F. Buckley, Jr wrote in National Review of their efforts:"the White community in the South is entitled to take such measures as are necessary to prevail, politically and culturally, in areas where it does not predominate numerically..." He reasoned that whites had this right because "for the time being, it is the advanced race...It is more important for any community, anywhere in the world, to affirm and live by civilized standards, than to bow to the demands of the numerical majority."The rash of new laws delayed school integration and tied up the NAACP and black citizens in costly and time consuming litigation. The laws' defenders claimed that these new laws represented legitimate public authority--unlike the Supreme Court's decision--because they represented the popular will of the southern people.President Eisenhower, meanwhile, did little to nothing to promote the ruling. Privately, he recognized the legitimacy of the Court's conclusion but expressed some misgivings about its practicality. NAACP executive director Roy Wilkins said of Eisenhower's tepid response that "President Eisenhower was a fine general and good, decent man, but if he had fought World War II the way he fought for civil rights, we would all be speaking German today."It was not until a southern governor directly challenged federal power that the White House intervened in a pronounced way.In 1957 the Little Rock, Arkansas, school board, which had voluntarily put forward it own integration plan, began implementation by selecting nine African American students to enroll in the city's Central High. Governor Orval Faubus deployed the National Guard to stop the students from enrolling. When a federal court ordered the troops to withdraw, a white mob formed around the school, taunting and threatening the students as they attempted to enter the building. Faced with a local revolt against a federal court order and unable to persuade governor Faubus to offer any protection for the students, Eisenhower mobilized a thousand US troops and federalized ten thousand Arkansas National Guardsmen to ensure the student's safety, maintain order, and support the authority of the federal government.Fifteen-year-old Elizabeth Eckford makes her way to Central High through a hostile crowd. Eckford latter recalled of her experiences: "They moved closer...somebody started yelling...I tried to see a friendly face in the crowed--somebody who maybe could help. I looked into the face of an old women and it seemed a kind face, but when I looked at her again, she spat on me."In 1963, 10 years after the Brown decision, with the South still smoldering from the efforts of federal courts to integrate schools, a defiant Alabama governor proudly proclaimed on the steps of the state capitol building, "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."PrologueThe school integration movement eventually began to winnow away. Unpopular integration plans in the North created a national backlash against "school busing." Savvy politicians seized on the issue to rally voters. Once in office, they would use legislative and executive power to undermine the goal of integration. Federal court grew tired of having to look over the shoulder of local school boards. Civil rights activist grew disillusioned. And subsequent conservative Supreme Courts did much to curtail the force of the early integration ruling. The great American project of school integration that began with a bang a slowed to a whimper. Still, the impact and controversy that surrounded the Brown decision makes it one of the most consequential Supreme Court decisions in American history. Whatever the ultimate failings of the school integration movement--which is in no way over--it has done much to dismantle institutional racism and change the face of America.