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Self diagnosis is not reliable, self-awareness is obligatory. We are what we do, thoughtful consideration of what is right personally and socially will help develop appropriate automatic/subconscious responses. Talk to a licensed psychologist or psychiatrist if you are concerned.Psychopathy and sociopathy share traits, but may have different origins.Hare (1993) indicated that for some researchers the term sociopath infers thepossession of psychopathic personality traits, but those traits are derivedonly from social influences, as opposed to genetic predisposition, physical, orbiochemical origins. Hare went on to state one could be diagnosed as eitherpsychopathic or sociopathic, depending on the subjective opinion of the expert.An example of sociopathy may be someone raised in a gang-infested area. Theyjoin the local gang in self-defense and adopt psychopathic traits. However,social factors are also theorized to be contributing factors in the creation ofa psychopath. This is consistent with evidence that genetic predisposition forbehavior can be altered by epigenetic factors (physical and psychologicalactivity-dependent learning), which can alter the effects genes would have onbehavior (Gazzaniga, 2011). This indicates that one genetically predisposed topsychopathy may not become one, and one not genetically predisposed topsychopathy can become a sociopath due to experiences.Sociopathy as a socially induced phenomenon seems consistent with thecriminological theory of alienation. Henderson and Simon (1994) indicated thaton a micro level this includes a defense mechanism to internal and externalstressors, through dehumanizing members of an out-group. This reduces internalconflict when oppressing members of the out-group. “In-group” refers to anygroup an individual identifies with, as opposed to an “out-group,” asignificantly distinct group with which an individual has no affiliation.Group-think leads to poor decision making, due to belief in group morality,illusion of invulnerability, illusion of unanimity, intimidation of dissent,self-censorship, diffusion of responsibility, collective rationalization, andpoor risk assessment (Myers, 2012). The two types of dehumanization areself-directed, which mutes emotion, and leads to adherence to bureaucraticdemands (as seen in well-documented research of Zimbardo and Milgram); and,object-directed, characterized by negative labeling and stereotyping, asself-protection against guilt and shame.Neither psychopathy nor sociopathy is included in the American PsychiatricAssociation's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) as adisorder; although they acknowledged to be generally included in the criteriafor Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) (2013, p. 659):“A. A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights ofothers occurring since the age of fifteen, as indicated by three (or more) ofthe following:1.Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors, asindicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest.2. Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conningothers for personal profit or pleasure.3. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.4. Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fightsor assaults.5. Reckless disregard for safety of self or others.6. Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustainconsistent work behavior or honor financial obligations7. Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizinghaving hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another.B. The individual is at least age 18 years.C. There is evidence of a Conduct Disorder, with onset before age 15 years.D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during thecourse ofSchizophrenia or a Manic Episode. …The essential feature of antisocial personality disorder is a pervasivepattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins inchildhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. This pattern hasalso been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dissocial personalitydisorder.”The conduct disorder element of onset before the age of 15 can consist offour types of persistent behavior: Aggression (to include toward animals),vandalism, deceit or theft, or serious rule violation.Hare and Neumann (2008) stated that the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised(PCL-R) “combined personality traits and antisocial behaviors, whereas theemphasis in APD was, and continues to be, antisocial behavior” (p. 219). Theydescribed the PCL-R four-factor model of psychopathy: Interpersonal, Affective,Lifestyle, and Antisocial; with 18 traits amongst them. Sexual promiscuity andmultiple short-term relationships are also examined through the PCL-R, but arenot associated with the four factors.The traits within Interpersonal are: ·Glib/superficial charm;· Grandiose self-worth;· Pathological lying; and· Conning and manipulative.Affective consists of:· Lack of remorse;· Shallow affect;· Callousness/lack of empathy; and,· Failure to accept responsibility.Lifestyle traits are:· Stimulation seeking/prone to boredom;· Impulsivity;· Denial of personal responsibility;· Parasitic; and,· Lacking in realistic goals.Relevant Antisocial traits are:· Poor behavior controls;· Early behavior problems;· Juvenile delinquency;· Revocation of probation; and· Criminal versatility.Personality disorders in general are dimensional in nature, and“psychopathic (or sociopathic) personality traits in adults and adolescents arebest viewed as existing on a continuum” Hare and Neumann, 2008, p. 234).Moreover, normal-range behaviors are correlated with those of psychopathicbehaviors. And traits attributed to psychopaths are usually only significantindicators of psychopathy with the synergistic effect of being present incombination.Hare (1993, p.102-107) described the “White-Collar Psychopaths” and“Trust-Mongers” who have gained and used professional positions; not onlythrough masquerade, cunning, and conning, but through genuine accumulation ofcredentials. Cleckley, who began research in the early 20th Century wrote ofthe case study of a psychiatrist who used his social capital to sexuallyassault patients. Hare refers to this type as the “successful psychopath” and “subcriminalpsychopaths:” to include lawyers, doctors, academics, businessprofessionals, police, writers, and artists. They are as capable of ignoringsocial norms as common psychopaths, and succeeding at the expense of others,but better at covering transgressions. They function at the edge of illegalityand “if they lie and cheat on the job—and get away with it or are even admiredfor it—they will lie and cheat in all areas of their lives” (p. 114).When life is pleasant, or when that is the easiest way to control another'sbehavior, successful psychopaths are pleasant; although they are capable of,and likely to, disguise their motives. When stressed, their proclivity fordeviant behavior emerges. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging examination hasshown firing neurons in the brains of psychopaths watching both inflicted painon others and when personally experienced. It was concluded that psychopathsare not lacking in empathy, rather that empathy can be turned on at will(Meffert, Gazzola, den Boer, Bartels, Keysers, 2013).Clay (2013) listed that top 10 professions attracting those withpsychopathic traits:1. CEO2. Lawyer3. Media (Television/Radio)4. Salesperson5. Surgeon6. Journalist7. Police officer8. Clergy person9. Chef10. Civil servantHare, a clinical and forensic psychologist, originated the PsychopathyChecklist, now in use as the PCL-R introduced in 1991, and the DSM has evolvedin a similar manner in that disorders are diagnosed based on a list ofsymptoms. Hare (1993) wrote that criminal psychopaths have a recidivism ratetwice that of other offenders, and their violent recidivism rate is three timeshigher. However, his work also indicates that not all psychopaths or sociopathsare criminals or evil people (there is a continuum of effect, minimum tomaximum), and some can become very successful. But there is a consistentdisregard for the feelings and welfare of others. And, they have an ability tomimic socially acceptable behavior when it suits their interests, as an elementof the deceitfulness indicated in the above diagnostic material.An ability to mimic socially acceptable behavior does not necessarily meanthey understand emotion. Psychopaths may have a disability when it comes tonormal affect and emotions, have what has been described as proto-emotions(shallow and primitive). Fear is lacking, and anger becomes primary. However,Hogenboom (2013) reported evidence that psychopaths do not lack empathy, theycan activate or inactivate those neural pathways if desired. This indicatesthat psychotherapy may be able treat psychopathy; although there is thepossibility of psychopathic manipulation of the therapist for some gain andpotential for recidivism.As stated above, multiple negative psychological traits can co-exist; andthe concept of comorbity of diagnostic consideration must incorporate thereality that an individual may have symptoms, behaviors, and traits that crossboundaries of multiple identified mental disorders. Another relevant syndromeis that of Narcissistic Personality Disorder; which, like all syndromes, existson a continuum, from being a dominant trait to being muted. “The DarkTriad—Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy—correlates with effectiveadornment. This effect was also evident for psychopathy measured alone. Thisstudy provides the first experimental evidence that dark personalitiesconstruct appearances that act as social lures—possibly facilitating theircunning social strategies” (Holtzman& Strube, 2013, Abstract).In the extreme, there are malignant narcissists, who are primarily male andmake up about 1% of the population. Malignant narcissism is characterized bymental and emotional abuse, and violence. They see themselves as victims andseek total control by any means necessary, are subject to feelings ofinferiority and paranoia, and are hyper-sensitive to criticism. And, as withpsychopaths, they can feign positive character traits when it is advantageousto them (Kulbarsh, 2008). Ackley (2009) a retired FBI profiler, indicated thatcommon among serious offenders is narcissistic personality disorder of thehypervigilant/vulnerable type, characterized by shyness, emotional sensitivity,and vigilance for being offended by others. School shooters have beenfrequently included in this category.It bears repeating that the psychopathic personality traits exist on acontinuum, and normal-range behaviors are consistent with those of psychopathicbehaviors; except that the synergistic effect of the identified traits beingpresent in combination is the diagnostic criteria for identification of apsychopath. Hare (1993) warned that one should not judge based on the presenceof some of the listed symptoms and an expert opinion of a psychologist orpsychiatrist trained in the interpretation of the PCL-R results is required.References:Ackley, C. N. (2009, March 3). Sexual assault and offender characteristics.Behavioral Science Education and Consultation Services. Presented at theConference on Crimes Against Women, Dallas, Texas.American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manualof mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.Clay, K. (2013, May 5). The Top 10 Jobs That Attract Psychopaths. Forbes.Retrieved from: The Top 10 Jobs That Attract PsychopathsGazzaniga, M. S. (2011). The ethical brain: The science of our moraldilemmas. New York: HarperCollins.Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of thepsychopaths among us. New York: Pocket Books.Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical andempirical construct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217-246.Henderson, J. H., & Simon, D. R. (1994). Crimes of the criminaljustice system.Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.Hogenboom, M. (2013, July 24). Psychopathic criminals have empathyswitch. Retrieved from: Psychopathic criminals have empathy switch - BBC NewsHoltzman, S., & Strube, M. J. (2013, July). People with darkpersonalities tend to create a physically attractive veneer. SocialPsychological and Personality Science (4)4. 461-467.Kulbarsh, P. (2008, April 21). The malignant narcissist. Retrieved from: http://www.officer.com/article/10248968/the-malignant-narcissist?page=2Meffert, H., Gazzola , V., den Boer J. A., Bartels, A. A. J., Keysers, C.(2013, July 24). Reduced spontaneous but relatively normal deliberate vicariousrepresentations in psychopathy. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 136 (8), 2550 –2562. Retrieved from: http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/brain/136/8/2550.full.pdfMyers, D. G. (2012). Social psychology (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Psychopathy and sociopathy share traits, but may have different origins. Hare (1993) indicated that for some researchers the term sociopath infers the possession of psychopathic personality traits, but those traits are derived only from social influences, as opposed to genetic predisposition, physical, or biochemical origins. Hare went on to state that one could be diagnosed as eitherpsychopathic or sociopathic, depending on the subjective opinion of the examiner. Hare, Neumann, and Mokros (2015) stated that the term “primarypsychopathy” has been used to indicate genetic predisposition biologically, inpersonality, and in innate behavior; and “secondary psychopathy” is a survivalstrategy brought on by social and environmental conditions.An example of sociopathy or secondary psychopathy may be someone raised in a gang-infested area. They join the local gang in self-defense and adopt psychopathic traits. However, social factors are also theorized to be contributing factors in the creation of a psychopath (Hare). This is consistent with evidence that genetic predisposition for behavior can be altered by epigenetic factors (physical and psychological activity-dependent learning), which can alter the effects genes would have on behavior (Gazzaniga, 2011). This indicates that one genetically predisposed to psychopathy may not become psychopathic, and one not genetically predisposed to psychopathy can become a sociopath due to experiences.Sociopathy as a socially induced phenomenon seems consistent with the criminological theory of alienation. Henderson and Simon (1994) indicated that on a micro level this includes a defense mechanism to internal and external stressors, through the dehumanization of members of an out-group. This reduces internal conflict when oppressing members of the out-group. “In-group” refers to any group an individual identifies with, as opposed to an “out-group,” a significantly distinct group with which an individual has no affiliation. Group-think leads to poor decision making, due to belief in group morality, illusion ofinvulnerability, illusion of unanimity, intimidation of dissent, self-censorship, diffusion of responsibility, collective rationalization, and poor risk assessment (Myers, 2012). The two types of dehumanization are self-directed, which mutes emotion, and leads to adherence to bureaucratic demands (as seen in well-documented research of Zimbardo and Milgram); and, object-directed, characterized by negative labeling and stereotyping, as self-protection against guilt and shame.Hare, Neumann, and Mokros reported that there is ample evidence that ASPD is more prevalent than psychopathy in criminal offenders, forensic psychiatric patients, and adults in the general population. They also reported that psychopaths with comorbid ASPD engage in more severe criminal behavior, and that they display anomalous cognitive processing and frontal lobe abnormalities.Neither psychopathy nor sociopathy is included in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM) as a disorder; although they are acknowledged to be generally included in the criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). ASPD symptoms are identified as:“A. A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since the age of fifteen, as indicated by three (or more) of the following:1. Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors, as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest.2. Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure.3. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.4. Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults.5. Reckless disregard for safety of self or others.6. Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations.7. Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another.B. The individual is at least age 18 years.C. There is evidence of a Conduct Disorder, with onset before age 15 years.D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the course of Schizophrenia or a Manic Episode. …The essential feature of antisocial personality disorder is a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. This pattern has also been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dissocial personality disorder. (2013, p. 659)”The conduct disorder element of onset before the age of 15 can consist of four types of persistent behavior: Aggression (to include toward animals), vandalism, deceit or theft, or serious rule violation.Hare, a clinical and forensic psychologist, originated the Psychopathy Checklist, now in use as the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) introduced in 1991, and the DSM has evolved in a similar manner in that disorders are diagnosed based on a list of symptoms. Hare, Neumann, and Mokros indicated that numerous researchers haverecognized the PCL-R as the international standard for clinical and forensicapplications. PCL-R results have been found reliable for clinical assessment,as well as for assessment of risk for antisocial and criminal activities, basedon several meta-analyses, making it “one of the two most frequently usedinstruments for risk assessment, risk management, and risk monitoring” (p, 7).And, “PCL-R scores are reliably predictive of aggressive behavior and violentrecidivism in criminal offenders” (p. 29).Hare and Neumann (2008) stated that the PCL-R “combined personality traits and antisocial behaviors, whereas the emphasis in APD was, and continues to be, antisocial behavior” (p. 219). Psychopathy is also marked by a lack of anxiety, delusions, and irrational thinking; and, any tension experienced is externally induced, as opposed to being the result of personal responsibility, remorse, or insecurity. They described the PCL-R four-factor model of psychopathy, consisting of the categories of: Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, and Antisocial; with 18 traits among them. Sexual promiscuity and multiple short-term relationships are also examined through the PCL-R, but are not associated with the four factors.The traits within Interpersonal are:· Glib/superficial charm;· Grandiose self-worth;· Pathological lying; and· Conning and manipulative.Affective consists of:· Lack of remorse;· Shallow affect;· Callousness/lack of empathy; and,· Failure to accept responsibility.Lifestyle traits are:· Stimulation seeking/prone to boredom;· Impulsivity;· Denial of personal responsibility;· Parasitic; and,· Lacking in realistic goals.Relevant Antisocial traits are:· Poor behavior controls;· Early behavior problems;· Juvenile delinquency;· Revocation of probation; and· Criminal versatility.The PCL-R consists of 20 items rated as absent, moderate, or fully present (0, 1, or 2), with 30 points being considered the threshold for psychopathy, from a possible score of 40; although the range between 20 and 30 can be considered to be indicative of psychopathic tendencies; and some European researchers employ a threshold of 25, based on differing population samples (Hare, Neumann, & Mokros).Hare and Neumann indicated that a two-factor model can be based on the combination of the traits within Interpersonal with those of Affective (Factor 1), and Lifestyle with Antisocial (Factor 2). Factor 1 scores are more indicative oflatent psychopathy than Factor 2 (Hare, Neumann, & Mokros). Despite theindications that psychopathy is persistent and treatment may result in conningof the therapist, there is evidence that PCL-R Factor 2 scores may lower withadvancing age.Personality disorders in general are dimensional in nature, and “psychopathic (or sociopathic) personality traits in adults and adolescents are best viewed as existing on a continuum” (Hare & Neumann, p. 234). Moreover, normal-range behaviors are correlated with those of psychopathic behaviors. And traits attributed to psychopaths are usually only significant indicators of psychopathy based on the synergistic effect of being present in combination.Hare (1993) wrote that criminal psychopaths have a recidivism rate twice that of other offenders, and their violent recidivism rate is three times higher. However, his work also indicated that not all psychopaths or sociopaths are criminals or evil people (there is a continuum of effect, minimum to maximum), and some can become very successful. But there is a consistent disregard for the feelings and welfare of others. And, they have an ability to mimic socially acceptable behavior when it suits their interests, as an element of the deceitfulness indicated in the above diagnostic material.An ability to mimic socially acceptable behavior does not necessarily mean they understand emotion. Psychopaths may have a disability when it comes to normal affect and emotions, and may have what has been described as proto-emotions (shallow and primitive). Fear is lacking, to include fear of consequences, and anger becomes primary.Hare (1993, p.102-107) described the “White-Collar Psychopaths” and “Trust-Mongers” who have gained and used professional positions; not only through masquerade, cunning, and conning, but through genuine accumulation of credentials. Cleckley, who began research on psychopathy in the first half of the 20th Century, wrote of a case study of a psychiatrist who used his social capital tosexually assault patients. Hare refers to this type as the “successful psychopath” and “subcriminal psychopaths:” to include lawyers, doctors, academics, business professionals, police, writers, and artists, among others. They are as capable of ignoring social norms as common psychopaths, and likewise succeed at the expense of others, but are better at covering transgressions. They function at the edge of illegality and “if they lie and cheat on the job—and get away with it or are even admired for it—they will lie and cheat in all areas of their lives” (p. 114). When life is pleasant, or when that is the easiest way to control another's behavior, successful psychopaths are pleasant; although they are capable of, and likely to, disguise their motives. When stressed, their proclivity for deviant behavior emerges. Clay (2013) listed that top 10 professions attracting those with psychopathic traits:1. CEO2. Lawyer3. Media (Television/Radio)4. Salesperson5. Surgeon6. Journalist7. Police officer8. Clergy person9. Chef10. Civil servantFunctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging examination has shown firing neurons in the brains of psychopaths watching both inflicted pain on others and when personally experienced; from which it was concluded that psychopaths are not lacking in empathy, rather that empathy can be turned on at will (Meffert, Gazzola, den Boer, Bartels, Keysers, 2013). Hogenboom (2013) also reported evidence that psychopaths do not lack empathy, they can activate or inactivate those neural pathways if desired. This indicates that psychotherapy may be able treat psychopathy; although there is the possibility of psychopathic manipulation of the therapist, as well as the potential for recidivism if successful in receiving a favorable forensic recommendation.As stated above, multiple negative psychological traits can co-exist in various combinations; and the concept of comorbity of diagnostic consideration must incorporate the reality that an individual may have symptoms, behaviors, and traits that include criteria of other mental disorders. Another relevant syndrome is that of Narcissistic Personality Disorder; which, like all syndromes, exists on acontinuum, from being a dominant trait to being muted. “The Dark Triad—Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy—correlates with effective adornment. This effect was also evident for psychopathy measured alone. This study provides the first experimental evidence that dark personalities construct appearances that act as social lures—possibly facilitating their cunning social strategies” (Holtzman & Strube, 2013, Abstract). Hare, Neumann, and Mokros indicated that PCL-R Factor 1 has been empirically found to overlap The Dark Triad.In the extreme, there are malignant narcissists, who are primarily male and make up about 1% of the population. Malignant narcissism is characterized by mental and emotional abuse, and violence. They see themselves as victims and seek total control by any means necessary, are subject to feelings of inferiority and paranoia, and are hyper-sensitive to criticism. And, as with psychopaths, they can feign positive character traits when it is advantageous to them (Kulbarsh, 2008). Ackley (2009) a retired FBI profiler, indicated that common among serious offenders is narcissistic personality disorder of the hypervigilant/vulnerable type, characterized by shyness, emotional sensitivity, and vigilance for being offended by others. School shooters have been frequently included in this category.It bears repeating that the psychopathic personality traits exist on a continuum, and normal-range behaviors are consistent with those of psychopathic behaviors; except that the synergistic effect of the identified traits being present in combination is the diagnostic criteria for identification of a psychopath. Hare (1993) warned that one should not judge based on the presence of some of the listed symptoms; and an expert opinion of a psychologist or psychiatrist with appropriate clinical and forensic experience who has been trained in the interpretation of the PCL-R results is required for an accurate diagnosis.References:Ackley, C. N. (2009, March 3). Sexual assault and offender characteristics. Behavioral Science Education and Consultation Services. Presented at the Conference on Crimes Against Women, Dallas, Texas.American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.Clay, K. (2013, May 5). The Top 10 Jobs That Attract Psychopaths. Forbes. Retrieved from:http://www.forbes.com/sites/kell...Gazzaniga, M. S. (2011). The ethical brain: The science of our moral dilemmas. New York: HarperCollins.Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Pocket Books.Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empiricalconstruct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217-246.Hare, R. D., Neumann, C. S., & Mokros, A. (2015, February 2).The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy development, properties, debates, and new directions. Final draft of a chapter to appear in C. J. Patrick (Ed.). Handbook ofPsychopathy. (2nd Ed.). New York City: Guilford Press.Henderson, J. H., & Simon, D. R. (1994). Crimes of the criminal justice system. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.Hogenboom, M. (2013, July 24). Psychopathic criminals have empathy switch. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.com/news/science-...Holtzman, S., & Strube, M. J. (2013, July). People with dark personalities tend to create a physically attractive veneer. Social Psychological and Personality Science(4)4. 461-467.Kulbarsh, P. (2008, April 21). The malignant narcissist. Retrieved from: http://www.officer.com/article/1...Meffert , H., Gazzola, V., den Boer, J. A., Bartels, A. A. J., Keysers, C. (2013, July 24). Reduced spontaneous but relatively normal deliberate vicarious representations in psychopathy. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 136 (8), 2550 – 2562. Retrieved from: http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/...Myers, D. G. (2012). Social psychology (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Psychopathy and sociopathy share traits, but may have different origins. Hare (1993) indicated that for some researchers the term sociopath infers the possession of psychopathic personality traits, but those traits are derived only from social influences, as opposed to genetic predisposition, physical, or biochemical origins. Hare went on to state that one could be diagnosed as either psychopathic or sociopathic, depending on the subjective opinion of the examiner. Hare, Neumann, and Mokros (2015) stated that the term “primary psychopathy” has been used to indicate genetic predisposition biologically, in personality, and in innate behavior; and “secondary psychopathy” is a survival strategy brought on by social and environmental conditions.An example of sociopathy or secondary psychopathy may be someone raised in a gang-infested area. They join the local gang in self-defense and adopt psychopathic traits. However, social factors are also theorized to be contributing factors in the creation of a psychopath (Hare). This is consistent with evidence that genetic predisposition for behavior can be altered by epigenetic factors (physical and psychological activity-dependent learning), which can alter the effects genes would have on behavior (Gazzaniga, 2011). This indicates that one genetically predisposed to psychopathy may not become psychopathic, and one not genetically predisposed to psychopathy can become a sociopath due to experiences. Further, in citing differences, if two criminal gang members are arrested, one psychopathic and one sociopathic, the psychopath would likely inform on other gang members to save themselves, while the sociopath would likely remain loyal and accept punishment rather than inform on gang members.Sociopathy as a socially induced phenomenon seems consistent with the criminological theory of alienation. Henderson and Simon (1994) indicated that on a micro level this includes a defense mechanism to internal and external stressors, through the dehumanization of members of an out-group. This reduces internal conflict when oppressing members of the out-group (group-think). “In-group” refers to any group an individual identifies with, as opposed to an “out-group,” a significantly distinct group with which an individual has no affiliation. The two types of dehumanization are self-directed, which mutes emotion, and leads to adherence to bureaucratic demands (as seen in well-documented research of Zimbardo and Milgram); and, object-directed, characterized by negative labeling and stereotyping, as self-protection against guilt and shame. Group-think leads to poor decision making, due to belief in group morality, illusion of invulnerability, illusion of unanimity, intimidation of dissent, self-censorship, diffusion of responsibility, collective rationalization, and poor risk assessment (Myers, 2012).Group-think leads to poor decision making, due to belief in group morality, illusion of invulnerability, illusion of unanimity, intimidation of dissent, self-censorship, diffusion of responsibility, collective rationalization, and poor risk assessment (Myers, 2012). However, this propensity has evolved due to the positive effect on group cohesion; which enhances survival.Hare, Neumann, and Mokros reported that there is ample evidence that Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) is more prevalent than psychopathy in criminal offenders, forensic psychiatric patients, and adults in the general population. They also reported that psychopaths with comorbid ASPD engage in more severe criminal behavior, and that they display anomalous cognitive processing and frontal lobe abnormalities.The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (DSM) identified ASPD as essentially “a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. This pattern has also been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dissocial personality disorder” (2013, p. 659). ASPD symptoms are identified as:“A. A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since the age of fifteen, as indicated by three (or more) of the following:1. Failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors, as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest.2. Deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure.3. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead.4. Irritability and aggressiveness, as indicated by repeated physical fights or assaults.5. Reckless disregard for safety of self or others.6. Consistent irresponsibility, as indicated by repeated failure to sustain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations.7. Lack of remorse, as indicated by being indifferent to or rationalizing having hurt, mistreated, or stolen from another.B. The individual is at least age 18 years.C. There is evidence of a Conduct Disorder, with onset before age 15 years.D. The occurrence of antisocial behavior is not exclusively during the course of Schizophrenia or a Manic Episode. …The essential feature of antisocial personality disorder is a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. This pattern has also been referred to as psychopathy, sociopathy, or dissocial personality disorder. (2013, p. 659)”The conduct disorder element of onset before the age of 15 can consist of four types of persistent behavior: Aggression (to include toward animals), vandalism, deceit or theft, or serious rule violation.Hare, a clinical and forensic psychologist, originated the Psychopathy Checklist, now in use as the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) introduced in 1991, and the DSM has evolved in a similar manner in that disorders are diagnosed based on a list of symptoms. Hare, Neumann, and Mokros indicated that numerous researchers have recognized the PCL-R as the international standard for clinical and forensic applications. PCL-R results have been found reliable for clinical assessment, as well as for assessment of risk for antisocial and criminal activities, based on several meta-analyses, making it “one of the two most frequently used instruments for risk assessment, risk management, and risk monitoring” (p, 7). And, “PCL-R scores are reliably predictive of aggressive behavior and violent recidivism in criminal offenders” (p. 29).Hare and Neumann (2008) stated that the PCL-R “combined personality traits and antisocial behaviors, whereas the emphasis in APD was, and continues to be, antisocial behavior” (p. 219). Psychopathy is also marked by a lack of anxiety, delusions, and irrational thinking; and, any tension experienced is externally induced, as opposed to being the result of personal responsibility, remorse, or insecurity. They described the PCL-R four-factor model of psychopathy, consisting of the categories of: Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, and Antisocial; with 18 traits among them. Sexual promiscuity and multiple short-term relationships are also examined through the PCL-R, but are not associated with the four factors.The traits within Interpersonal are:· Glib/superficial charm;· Grandiose self-worth;· Pathological lying; and· Conning and manipulative.Affective consists of:· Lack of remorse;· Shallow affect;· Callousness/lack of empathy; and,· Failure to accept responsibility.Lifestyle traits are:· Stimulation seeking/prone to boredom;· Impulsivity;· Denial of personal responsibility;· Parasitic; and,· Lacking in realistic goals.Relevant Antisocial traits are:· Poor behavior controls;· Early behavior problems;· Juvenile delinquency;· Revocation of probation; and· Criminal versatility.The PCL-R consists of 20 items rated as absent, moderate, or fully present (0, 1, or 2), with 30 points being considered the threshold for psychopathy, from a possible score of 40; although the range between 20 and 30 can be considered to be indicative of psychopathic tendencies; and some European researchers employ a threshold of 25, based on differing population samples (Hare, Neumann, & Mokros). Hare emphasized that one “not use these symptoms to diagnose themselves or others” (1993, p. 34). The traits are not unique to psychopaths, it is the combination and degree of the traits that indicate the diagnosis. Hare also indicated that many, but not all children meeting the definition of a Conduct Disorder as defined by the DSM become adult psychopathsHare and Neumann indicated that a two-factor model can be based on the combination of the traits within Interpersonal with those of Affective (Factor 1), and Lifestyle with Antisocial (Factor 2). Factor 1 scores are more indicative of latent psychopathy than Factor 2 (Hare, Neumann, & Mokros). Despite the indications that psychopathy is persistent and treatment may result in conning of the therapist, there is evidence that PCL-R Factor 2 scores may lower with advancing age.Personality disorders in general are dimensional in nature, and “psychopathic (or sociopathic) personality traits in adults and adolescents are best viewed as existing on a continuum” (Hare & Neumann, p. 234). Moreover, normal-range behaviors are correlated with those of psychopathic behaviors. And traits attributed to psychopaths are usually only significant indicators of psychopathy based on the synergistic effect of being present in combination.Hare (1993) wrote that criminal psychopaths have a recidivism rate twice that of other offenders, and their violent recidivism rate is three times higher. However, his work also indicated that not all psychopaths or sociopaths are criminals or evil people (there is a continuum of effect, minimum to maximum), and some can become very successful. But there is a consistent disregard for the feelings and welfare of others. And, they have an ability to mimic socially acceptable behavior when it suits their interests, as an element of the deceitfulness indicated in the above diagnostic material.An ability to mimic socially acceptable behavior does not necessarily mean they understand emotion. Psychopaths may have a disability when it comes to normal affect and emotions, and may have what has been described as proto-emotions (shallow and primitive). Fear is lacking, to include fear of consequences, and anger becomes primary.Hare (1993, p.102-107) described the “White-Collar Psychopaths” and “Trust-Mongers” who have gained and used professional positions; not only through masquerade, cunning, and conning, but through genuine accumulation of credentials. Cleckley, who began research on psychopathy in the first half of the 20th Century, wrote of a case study of a psychiatrist who used his social capital to sexually assault patients. Hare refers to this type as the “successful psychopath” and “subcriminal psychopaths:” to include lawyers, doctors, academics, business professionals, police, writers, and artists, among others. They are as capable of ignoring social norms as common psychopaths, and likewise succeed at the expense of others, but are better at covering transgressions. They function at the edge of illegality and “if they lie and cheat on the job—and get away with it or are even admired for it—they will lie and cheat in all areas of their lives” (p. 114). When life is pleasant, or when that is the easiest way to control another's behavior, successful psychopaths are pleasant; although they are capable of, and likely to, disguise their motives. When stressed, their proclivity for deviant behavior emerges. Clay (2013) listed that top 10 professions attracting those with psychopathic traits:1. CEO2. Lawyer3. Media (Television/Radio)4. Salesperson5. Surgeon6. Journalist7. Police officer8. Clergy person9. Chef10. Civil servantFunctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging examination has shown firing neurons in the brains of psychopaths watching both inflicted pain on others and when personally experienced; from which it was concluded that psychopaths are not lacking in empathy, rather that empathy can be turned on at will (Meffert, Gazzola, den Boer, Bartels, Keysers, 2013). Hogenboom (2013) also reported evidence that psychopaths do not lack empathy, they can activate or inactivate those neural pathways if desired. This indicates that psychotherapy may be able treat psychopathy; although there is the possibility of psychopathic manipulation of the therapist, as well as the potential for recidivism if successful in receiving a favorable forensic recommendation.As stated above, multiple negative psychological traits can co-exist in various combinations; and the concept of comorbity of diagnostic consideration must incorporate the reality that an individual may have symptoms, behaviors, and traits that include criteria of other mental disorders. Another relevant syndrome is that of Narcissistic Personality Disorder; which, like all syndromes, exists on a continuum, from being a dominant trait to being muted. “The Dark Triad—Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy—correlates with effective adornment. This effect was also evident for psychopathy measured alone. This study provides the first experimental evidence that dark personalities construct appearances that act as social lures—possibly facilitating their cunning social strategies” (Holtzman & Strube, 2013, Abstract). Hare, Neumann, and Mokros indicated that PCL-R Factor 1 has been empirically found to overlap The Dark Triad.In the extreme, there are malignant narcissists, who are primarily male and make up about 1% of the population. Malignant narcissism is characterized by mental and emotional abuse, and violence. They see themselves as victims and seek total control by any means necessary, are subject to feelings of inferiority and paranoia, and are hyper-sensitive to criticism. And, as with psychopaths, they can feign positive character traits when it is advantageous to them (Kulbarsh, 2008). Ackley (2009) a retired FBI profiler, indicated that common among serious offenders is narcissistic personality disorder of the hypervigilant/vulnerable type, characterized by shyness, emotional sensitivity, and vigilance for being offended by others. School shooters have been frequently included in this category.It bears repeating that the psychopathic personality traits exist on a continuum, and normal-range behaviors are consistent with those of psychopathic behaviors; except that the synergistic effect of the identified traits being present in combination is the diagnostic criteria for identification of a psychopath. Hare (1993) warned that one should not judge based on the presence of some of the listed symptoms; and an expert opinion of a psychologist or psychiatrist with appropriate clinical and forensic experience who has been trained in the interpretation of the PCL-R results is required for an accurate diagnosis.References:Ackley, C. N. (2009, March 3). Sexual assault and offender characteristics. Behavioral Science Education and Consultation Services. Presented at the Conference on Crimes Against Women, Dallas, Texas.American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.Clay, K. (2013, May 5). The Top 10 Jobs That Attract Psychopaths. Forbes. Retrieved from: http://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyclay/2013/01/05/the-top-10-jobs-that-attract-psychopaths/#45fab25873c3Gazzaniga, M. S. (2011). The ethical brain: The science of our moral dilemmas. New York: HarperCollins.Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Pocket Books.Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empiricalconstruct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217-246.Hare, R. D., Neumann, C. S., & Mokros, A. (2015, February 2).The PCL-R assessmentof psychopathy development, properties, debates, and new directions. 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