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History of librariesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThe history of libraries began with the first efforts to organize collections of documents. Topics of interest include accessibility of the collection, acquisition of materials, arrangement and finding tools, the book trade, the influence of the physical properties of the different writing materials, language distribution, role in education, rates of literacy, budgets, staffing, libraries for specially targeted audiences, architectural merit, patterns of usage, and the role of libraries in a nation's cultural heritage, and the role of government, church or private sponsorship. Since the 1960s issues of computerization and digitization come to the fore.Library history is the academic discipline devoted to the study of the history of libraries; it is a subfield of library science and of history.The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing – the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer,[1][2] some dating back to 2600 BC.[3] About an inch thick, tablets came in various shapes and sizes. Mud like clay was placed in the wooden frames, and the surface was smoothed for writing and allowed to dry until damp. After being inscribed, the clay dried in the sun, or for a harder finish, was baked in a kiln. For storage, tablets could be stacked on edge, side by side, the contents described by a title written on the edge that faced out and was readily seen. The first libraries appeared five thousand years ago in Southwest Asia's Fertile Crescent, the area that ran from Mesopotamia to the Nile in Africa. Known as the cradle of civilization, the Fertile Crescent was the birthplace of writing, sometime before three thousand BC. (Murray, Stuart A.P.) These archives, which mainly consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory and the start of history.[4][5]Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt.[2] The earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit; besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC and those at Nineveh about 700 BC showing a library classification system.[6]Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been discovered at Nineveh,[7] providing modern scholars with an amazing wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious and administrative work. Among the findings were the Enuma Elish, also known as the Epic of Creation,[8] which depicts a traditional Babylonian view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh,[9] a large selection of "omen texts" including Enuma Anu Enlil which "contained omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction with planets and fixed stars, the sun, its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their visibility, appearance, and stations",[10] and astronomic/astrological texts, as well as standard lists used by scribes and scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of medical diagnoses.Philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty.[11] Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians.[11]Classical period[edit]Artistic rendering of the Library of Alexandria, based on some archaeological evidenceThe Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world.[12] It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II (283–246 BC).[13] An early organization system was in effect at Alexandria.[13]The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus[14][15] (completed in AD 135) by Celsus' son, Gaius Julius Aquila (consul, 110). The library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. The library's ruins were hidden under debris of the city of Ephesus that was deserted in early Middle Ages. In 1903, Austrian excavations led to this hidden heap of rubble that had collapsed during an earthquake. The donator's son built the library to honor his father's memory and construction began around 113 or 114. Presently, visitors only see the remains of the library's facade.[16]Private or personal libraries made up of written books (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. The celebrated book collectors of Hellenistic Antiquity were listed in the late 2nd century in Deipnosophistae. All these libraries were Greek; the cultivated Hellenized diners in Deipnosophistae pass over the libraries of Rome in silence. By the time of Augustus there were public libraries near the forums of Rome: there were libraries in the Porticus Octaviae near the Theatre of Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus, and in the Ulpian Library in the Forum of Trajan. The state archives were kept in a structure on the slope between the Roman Forum and the Capitoline Hill.Private libraries appeared during the late republic: Seneca inveighed against libraries fitted out for show by illiterate owners who scarcely read their titles in the course of a lifetime, but displayed the scrolls in bookcases (armaria) of citrus wood inlaid with ivory that ran right to the ceiling: "by now, like bathrooms and hot water, a library is got up as standard equipment for a fine house (domus).[17] Libraries were amenities suited to a villa, such as Cicero's at Tusculum, Maecenas's several villas, or Pliny the Younger's, all described in surviving letters. At the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, apparently the villa of Caesar's father-in-law, the Greek library has been partly preserved in volcanic ash; archaeologists speculate that a Latin library, kept separate from the Greek one, may await discovery at the site.Remains of the Library of Celsus at EphesusIn the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman Empire as each succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which outshone that of his predecessor. Rome's first public library was established by Asinius Pollio. Pollio was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar and one of his most ardent supporters. After his military victory in Illyria, Pollio felt he had enough fame and fortune to create what Julius Caesar had sought for a long time: a public library to increase the prestige of Rome and rival the one in Alexandria.[18] Pollios's library, the Anla Libertatis,[19] which was housed in the Atrium Libertatis, was centrally located near the Forum Romanum. It was the first to employ an architectural design that separated works into Greek and Latin. All subsequent Roman public libraries will have this design.[20] At the conclusion of Rome's civil wars following the death of Marcus Antonius in 30 BC, the Emperor Augustus sought to reconstruct many of Rome's damaged buildings. During this construction, Augustus created two more public libraries. The first was the library of the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, often called the Palatine library, and the second was the library of the Porticus of Octaviae.[21]Two more libraries were added by the Emperor Tiberius on Palatine Hill and one by Vespasian after 70. Vespasian's library was constructed in the Forum of Vespasian, also known as the Forum of Peace, and became one of Rome's principal libraries. The Bibliotheca Pacis was built along the traditional model and had two large halls with rooms for Greek and Latin libraries containing the works of Galen and Lucius Aelius.[22] One of the best preserved was the ancient Ulpian Library built by the Emperor Trajan. Completed in 112/113 AD, the Ulpian Library was part of Trajan's Forum built on the Capitoline Hill. Trajan's Column separated the Greek and Latin rooms which faced each other.[23] The structure was approximately fifty feet high with the peak of the roof reaching almost seventy feet.[24]Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on shelves built into the walls of a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the room itself. The surviving records give only a few instances of lending features. Most of the large Roman baths were also cultural centres, built from the start with a library, a two-room arrangement with one room for Greek and one for Latin texts.Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus scrolls as at Alexandria: the export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce. There were a few institutional or royal libraries which were open to an educated public (such as the Serapeum collection of the Library of Alexandria, once the largest library in the ancient world),[13] but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it was possible for a scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access to the stacks. In all recorded cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where the staff went to get them for the readers, who had to consult them in an adjoining hall or covered walkway.In 213 BC during the reign of Emperor Qin Shi Huang most books were ordered destroyed. The Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) reversed this policy for replacement copies, and created three imperial libraries. Liu Xin a curator of the imperial library was the first to establish a library classification system and the first book notation system. The seven Epitomes would be created as the cataloging system started by Liu Xiang and finished by his son Liu Xin. The title of the Seven Epitomes seems to suggest its classification to have seven classes. In fact, it comprised six main classes and 38 divisions or subclasses. Preceding the six classes was the Collective Epitome - thus the title Seven Epitomes.[25] At this time the library catalog was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags. Important new technological innovations include the use of paper and block printing.[26][27] Wood-block printing, facilitated the large-scale reproduction of classic Buddhist texts which were avidly collected in many private libraries that flourished during the T'ang Dynasty (618–906 AD).The Ming Dynasty in 1407 founded the imperial library, the Wen Yuan Pavilion. It also sponsored the massive compilation of the Yongle Encyclopedia, containing 11,000 volumes including copies of over 7000 books. It was soon destroyed, but similar very large compilations appeared in 1725 and 1772.Late Antiquity[edit]Malatestiana Library of Cesena, the first European civic library[28]During the Late Antiquity and Middle Ages periods, there was no Rome of the kind that ruled the Mediterranean for centuries and spawned the culture that produced twenty-eight public libraries in the urbs Roma.[29] The empire had been divided then later re-united again under Constantine the Great who moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD to the city of Byzantium which was renamed Constantinople.[30] The Roman intellectual culture that flourished in ancient times was undergoing a transformation as the academic world moved from laymen to Christian clergy.[31] As the West crumbled, books and libraries flourished and flowed east toward the Byzantine Empire.[32] There, four different types of libraries were established: imperial, patriarchal, monastic, and private.[33] Each had its own purpose and, as a result, their survival varied.Christianity was a new force in Europe and many of the faithful saw Hellenistic culture as pagan. As such, many classical Greek works, written on scrolls, were left to decay as only Christian texts were thought fit for preservation in a codex, the progenitor of the modern book.[34] In the East, however, this was not the case as many of these classical Greek and Roman texts were copied.[35]In Byzantium, much of this work devoted to preserving Hellenistic thought in codex form was performed in scriptoriums by monks.[36] While monastic library scriptoriums flourished throughout the East and West, the rules governing them were generally the same.[37] Barren and sun-lit rooms (because candles were a source of fire) were major features of the scriptorium that was both a model of production and monastic piety.[38] Monks scribbled away for hours a day, interrupted only by meals and prayers.[39] With such production, medieval monasteries began to accumulate large libraries. These libraries were devoted solely to the education of the monks and were seen as essential to their spiritual development.[40] Although most of these texts that were produced were Christian in nature, many monastic leaders saw common virtues in the Greek classics. As a result, many of these Greek works were copied, and thus saved, in monastic scriptoriums.[41]When Europe passed into the Dark Ages, Byzantine scriptoriums laboriously preserved Greco-Roman classics. As a result, Byzantium revived Classical models of education and libraries.[42] The Imperial Library of Constantinople was an important depository of ancient knowledge. Constantine himself wanted such a library but his short rule denied him the ability to see his vision to fruition. His son Constantius II made this dream a reality and created an imperial library in a portico of the royal palace.[43] He ruled for 24 years and accelerated the development of the library and the intellectual culture that came with such a vast accumulation of books.[44]Constantius II appointed Themistius, a pagan philosopher and teacher, as chief architect of this library building program. Themistius set about a bold program to create an imperial public library that would be the centerpiece of the new intellectual capital of Constantinople.[45] Classical authors such as Plato, Aristotle, Demosthenes, Isocrates, Thucydides, Homer, and Zeno were sought. Themeistius hired calligraphers and craftsman to produce the actual codices. He also appointed educators and created a university-like school centered around the library.[46]After the death of Constantius II, Julian the Apostate, a bibliophile intellectual, ruled briefly for less than three years. Despite this, he had a profound impact on the imperial library and sought both Christian and pagan books for its collections.[43] Later, the Emperor Valens hired Greek and Latin scribes full-time with from the royal treasury to copy and repair manuscripts.[47]At its height in the 5th century, the Imperial Library of Constantinople had 120,000 volumes and was the largest library in Europe.[48] A fire in 477 consumed the entire library but it was rebuilt only to be burned again in 726, 1204, and in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks.[49]Patriarchal libraries fared no better, and sometimes worse, than the Imperial Library. The Library of the Patriarchate of Constantinople was founded most likely during the reign of Constantine the Great in the 4th century.[50] As a theological library, it was known to have employed a library classification system.[51] It also served as a repository of several ecumenical councils such as the Council of Nicea, Council of Ephesus, and the Council of Chalcedon. The library, which employed a librarian and assistants, may have been originally located in the Patriarch's official residence before it was moved to the Thomaites Triclinus in the 7th century. While much is not known about the actual library itself, it is known that many of its contents were subject to destruction as religious in-fighting ultimately resulted in book burnings.[52]During this period, small private libraries existed. Many of these were owned by church members and the aristocracy.[53] Teachers also were known to have small personal libraries as well as wealthy bibliophiles who could afford the highly ornate books of the period.[54]Thus, in the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria. Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, established a monastery at Vivarium in the toe of Italy (modern Calabria) with a library where he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus not only collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses of reading and methods for copying texts accurately. In the end, however, the library at Vivarium was dispersed and lost within a century.Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid collector of books of Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others came and studied there.Islamic landsInside a Qur'anic Library in Chinguetti, MauritaniaThe first libraries in Muslim lands were not necessarily for the public, but they contained much knowledge. The need for the preservation of the Quran, the Muslim Holy Book, and the Traditions of the Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam is what led to the collection of writings in the Muslim world. Where traditions and history used to be oral, the need to preserve the words of the Quran necessitated a method of preserving the words by some means other than orally. Mosques that were the center of everything in an Muslim societies day-to-day life became also libraries that stored and preserved all knowledge, from the Quran to books on religion, philosophy and science. "Under the Abbasids, Muslims formed the vanguard of civilization. The Abbasids were influenced by the Quran and Hadith such as, "the ink of scholar is equal to the blood of martyr,[55] "stressing the value of knowledge." With the passion of the Caliphs to establish centers of knowledge, the Muslim world quickly began to have different centers that housed libraries which contained encyclopedias, translations, commentaries and treatises written by Muslim philosophers, scholars and scientists. With the discovery of paper, the Muslim world quickly began to progress in its development of libraries, and "libraries (royal, public, specialised, private) had become common and bookmen (authors, translators, copiers, illuminators, librarians, booksellers' collectors) from all classes and sections of society, of all nationalities and ethnic backgrounds, vied with each other in the production and distribution of books.[56]"By the 8th century first Iranians and then Arabs had imported the craft of papermaking from China, with a paper mill already at work in Baghdad in 794. By the 9th century public libraries started to appear in many Islamic cities. They were called "halls of Science" or dar al-'ilm. They were each endowed by Islamic sects with the purpose of representing their tenets as well as promoting the dissemination of secular knowledge. In Baghdad, the library was known as the House of Wisdom.[57] It also was a university where numerous scholars and copyists translated works from other nations into Arabic. he 9th-century Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil of Iraq, ordered the construction of a "zawiyat qurra" – an enclosure for readers which was "lavishly furnished and equipped". In Shiraz Adhud al-Daula (d. 983) set up a library, described by the medieval historian, al-Muqaddasi, as "a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with lakes and waterways. The buildings were topped with domes, and comprised an upper and a lower story with a total, according to the chief official, of 360 rooms.... In each department, catalogues were placed on a shelf... the rooms were furnished with carpets".[58] The libraries often employed translators and copyists in large numbers, in order to render into Arabic the bulk of the available Persian, Greek, Roman and Sanskrit non-fiction and the classics of literature.It should also be noted that Islamic states in Africa began to see a rapid development in education from the 11th century. Libraries of particular importance would include that of Timbuktu, which held many manuscripts that were important for over 600 years in the Ghanan, Mali and Songhai empires. One of the most notable authors was Ahmad Baba who wrote over 40 manuscripts – widely considered as being one of the most influential scholars from Timbuktu. Many of the manuscripts and buildings were destroyed by the Arab-European invasion in 1591 and writers, such as Ahmad Baba were taken into captivity.[59] Despite this and the poor preservation conditions as many as 700,000 manuscripts still survive today.[60]This flowering of Islamic learning ceased centuries later when learning began declining in the Islamic world, after many of these libraries were destroyed by Mongol invasions. Others were victim of wars and religious strife in the Islamic world. However, a few examples of these medieval libraries, such as the libraries of Chinguetti in West Africa, remain intact and relatively unchanged. Another ancient library from this period which is still operational and expanding is the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in the Iranian city of Mashhad, which has been operating for more than six centuries.The contents of these Islamic libraries were copied by Christian monks in Muslim/Christian border areas, particularly Spain and Sicily. From there they eventually made their way into other parts of Christian Europe. These copies joined works that had been preserved directly by Christian monks from Greek and Roman originals, as well as copies Western Christian monks made of Byzantine works. The resulting conglomerate libraries are the basis of every modern library today.AsiaThe spread of religion and philosophy in South and East Asia spurred the development of writing and books. Chinese emperors were very supportive of this culture. Chinese printing and papermaking, which predate Western development, gave birth to a thriving book culture in East Asia.[61] Several Asian religious and philosophical movements are responsible for stimulating learning, printing and book collecting: Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and Jainism.[61] Jainism, a major faith of the Indian subcontinent, had a tradition of religious, scientific, and cultural scholarship. Early practitioners of the faith not only produced scriptural writing the first century BC, but also established some of Asia's earliest libraries.[61] Mainly housed in temples, these libraries later became known as "Jain Knowledge Warehouses" and is responsible for the preservation of hundreds of thousands handwritten manuscripts. The invention of paper in China allowed the Chinese to create an early form of printing (stone-rubbing). Writings the sixth-century philosopher, Confucius, were originally inscribed on stone tablets. To achieve this early form of printing the Chinese would push soft paper onto the stone, apply ink to the back of the sheet, resulting in a black background with white letters.[61] The Chinese also employed inked carved woodblock to produce printed materials. One the major Buddhist cannons, the Tripitaka, was published in 5,000 volumes using more than 130,000 individual woodblocks.[61] In the eleventh century movable type was developed in China and Koreans established the first foundry for producing movable type. In spite of these developments, woodblock printing remained the norm in China, Korea, and Japan. Each ruler in China compiled its own official written archives. Every emperor decided which philosophical texts, which accounts of history, which rituals of faith, and what poetry and literature would be permitted in the empire; oftentimes chronicling their own version of the previous ruler's history. Confucian and Buddhist writings that were brought to Korea and Japan are directly responsible for the continued development of book publishing and library building in East Asia.[61]Buddhist scriptures, educational materials, and histories were stored in libraries in pre-modern Southeast Asia. In Burma, a royal library called the Pitakataik was legendarily founded by King Anawrahta;[62] in the 18th century, British envoy Michael Symes, on visiting this library, wrote that "it is not improbable that his Birman majesty may possess a more numerous library than any potentate, from the banks of the Danube to the borders of China". In Thailand libraries called ho trai were built throughout the country, usually on stilts above a pond to prevent bugs from eating at the books.European Middle AgesMerton College LibraryIn the Early Middle Ages, monastery libraries developed, such as the important one at the Abbey of Montecassino in Italy.[63] Books were usually chained to the shelves, reflecting the fact that manuscripts, which were created via the labour-intensive process of hand copying, were valuable possessions.[64]Despite this protectiveness, many libraries loaned books if provided with security deposits (usually money or a book of equal value). Lending was a means by which books could be copied and spread. In 1212 the council of Paris condemned those monasteries that still forbade loaning books, reminding them that lending is "one of the chief works of mercy."[65] The early libraries located in monastic cloisters and associated with scriptoria were collections of lecterns with books chained to them. Shelves built above and between back-to-back lecterns were the beginning of bookpresses. The chain was attached at the fore-edge of a book rather than to its spine. Book presses came to be arranged in carrels (perpendicular to the walls and therefore to the windows) in order to maximize lighting, with low bookcases in front of the windows. This "stall system" (i.e. fixed bookcases perpendicular to exterior walls pierced by closely spaced windows) was characteristic of English institutional libraries. In European libraries, bookcases were arranged parallel to and against the walls. This "wall system" was first introduced on a large scale in Spain's El Escorial.Also, in Eastern Christianity monastery libraries kept important manuscripts. The most important of them were the ones in the monasteries of Mount Athos for Orthodox Christians, and the library of the Saint Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt for the Coptic Church.RenaissanceReading room of the Laurentian LibraryFrom the 15th century in central and northern Italy, libraries of humanists and their enlightened patrons provided a nucleus around which an "academy" of scholars congregated in each Italian city of consequence. Malatesta Novello, lord of Cesena, founded the Malatestiana Library. Cosimo de Medici in Florence established his own collection, which formed the basis of the Laurentian Library.[66] In Rome, the papal collections were brought together by Pope Nicholas V, in separate Greek and Latin libraries, and housed by Pope Sixtus IV, who consigned the Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana to the care of his librarian, the humanist Bartolomeo Platina in February 1475.[67]Also the Hungarian Bibliotheca Corviniana was one of the first and largest Renaissance Greek-Latin library, established by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary between 1458 and 1490. In 1490, the library consisted of about 3,000 codices or "Corvinae". Beatrix of Aragon Queen of Hungary encouraged his work with the Bibliotheca Corviniana. Lots of Corvinaes made in Florence and inspired Lorenzo Medici to found his own Greek-Latin library. The Turkish invasion of Hungary in the 16th century destroyed the codices.In the 16th century Sixtus V bisected Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere with a cross-wing to house the Apostolic Library in suitable magnificence. The 16th and 17th centuries saw other privately endowed libraries assembled in Rome: the Vallicelliana, formed from the books of Saint Filippo Neri, with other distinguished libraries such as that of Cesare Baronio, the Biblioteca Angelica founded by the Augustinian Angelo Rocca, which was the only truly public library in Counter-Reformation Rome; the Biblioteca Alessandrina with which Pope Alexander VII endowed the University of Rome; the Biblioteca Casanatense of the Cardinal Girolamo Casanate; and finally the Biblioteca Corsiniana founded by the bibliophile Clement XII Corsini and his nephew Cardinal Neri Corsini, still housed in Palazzo Corsini in via della Lungara. The Republic of Venice patronized the foundation of the Biblioteca Marciana, based on the library of Cardinal Basilios Bessarion. In Milan Cardinal Federico Borromeo founded the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.This trend soon spread outside of Italy, for example Louis III, Elector Palatine founded the Bibliotheca Palatina of Heidelberg.These libraries don't have as many volumes as the modern libraries. However, they keep many valuable manuscripts of Greek, Latin and Biblical works. After the invention of the printing press, many Renaissance libraries began to collect printed texts as well as valuable manuscripts. This shift in collection materials took place within a hundred-year period- from 1550 to 1650- where the collection of texts shifted between luxury collectibles to printed texts filled with useful information. The transition of collections during the Renaissance was not just a shift exclusively from manuscripts to printed texts, although this did categorize the shift, but from books as expensive luxury artifacts both in print and in manuscript form to an expenditure on multiple copies of printed texts which held valuable, intellectual practicality.[68] This shift can be seen as one from a textually aesthetic point of view to one where texts held intellectual usefulness. One example is the library at the Ducal Palace in Urbino, Italy. The collection of the Ducal Palace library of Urbino is evidence of two different economies of collecting: luxury and intellectual. The older library served to collect texts which served primarily to memorialize the history of the Duke of Urbino's relations and show his magnificence, while the new library served primarily as an information retrieval system for contemporary scholars to research with and discuss.[69] In addition to manuscripts and information based texts, the Ducal library also housed what we would consider now as archival materials. This included a collection of Renaissance newsletter manuscripts, diplomatic, engineering, military, and other political and moral documents.[70]Tianyi Chamber, founded in 1561 by Fan Qin during the Ming Dynasty, is the oldest existing library in China. In its heyday it boasted a collection of 70,000 volumes of antique booEnlightenment era libraries[edit]Thomas Bodley founded the Bodleian Library in 1602 as an early public library.The 17th and 18th centuries include what is known as a golden age of libraries;[71] during this some of the more important libraries were founded in Europe. Francis Trigge Chained Library of St. Wulfram's Church, Grantham, Lincolnshire was founded in 1598 by the rector of nearby Welbourne.[72] Thomas Bodley founded the Bodleian Library, which was open to the "whole republic of the learned", Norwich City library was established in 1608[73] and the British Library was established in 1753. Chetham's Library in Manchester, which claims to be the oldest public library in the English-speaking world, opened in 1653.[74] Other early town libraries of the UK include those of Ipswich (1612), Bristol (founded in 1613 and opened in 1615), and Leicester (1632). Shrewsbury School also opened its library to townsfolk.[75]The Bibliothèque Mazarine was initially the personal library of cardinal Mazarin (1602–1661), who was a great bibliophile. His first library, arranged by his librarian, Gabriel Naudé, was dispersed when he had to flee Paris during the Fronde. He then began a second library with what was left of the first, assisted by the successor to Naudé, François de La Poterie. At his death he bequeathed his library, which he had opened to scholars since 1643, to the Collège des Quatre-Nations which he had founded in 1661. The Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève was also founded in Paris, the Austrian National Library in Vienna, the National Central Library in Florence, the Prussian State Library in Berlin, the Załuski Library in Warsaw and the M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library in St Petersburg.[76]But this golden age was not just some prosaic period of great expansion to the number and accessibility of the libraries of Europe; it was also a period of great conflict. The Reformation did not just inspire a redistribution of power but also a redistribution of wealth and knowledge. While the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) decimated the population of Europe (from 21 million at the beginning of the conflict to 13 million by the end) it also aided in the redistribution of this wealth and knowledge.[61]:116Often the plunder of this conflict included the recovery of books from looted monasteries and libraries.[61]:116 Given the large cost associated with the creation of the codex it should come as little surprise that books would be seen as a prize of both pecuniary and scholastic wealth, enough that a Bavarian noble sent the captured contents of the Palatine Library of Heidelberg to the Vatican as a trophy to the Pope.[61]:118–119 On the other side of the conflict, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden specifically targeted Jesuit schools and seminaries and had wagon loads of loot (seized books and manuscripts) returned to the libraries of his home.[61]:118 Large volumes of books changed hands during the Thirty Years War and eventually found their way across Europe where new libraries sprang up to house these redistributed treasures.In addition to stores of knowledge being shuffled around as spoils of war, the printing press created economies of scale that allowed for the exchange of books to become more commonplace.[61]:119–120 Book fairs were the most merchants most common choice of sale and catalogs were their most common choice of organization.[61]:120The collectors of this period helped shape the 'form' of libraries. We can see echoes of many of their innovations in the tropes of today's libraries. As noted previously, influenced by the ideals of Gabriel Naude, Cardinal Jules Mazarin proclaimed his library "open to everybody without exception".[61]:122 Also, possibly inspiring a trope, Sir Robert Bruce Cotton organized his library with the placement of busts of ancient Romans at the tops of his shelves and cataloged his contents alphanumerically based on the name of the shelf (bust) and the books physical position on the shelf (by number of books preceding it).[61]:123–124At the start of the 18th century, libraries were becoming increasingly public and were more frequently lending libraries. The 18th century saw the switch from closed parochial libraries to lending libraries. Before this time, public libraries were parochial in nature and libraries frequently chained their books to desks.[77] Libraries also were not uniformly open to the public.[78]Even though the British Museum existed at this time and contained over 50,000 books, the national library was not open to the public, or even to a majority of the population. Access to the Museum depended on passes, of which there was sometimes a waiting period of three to four weeks. Moreover, the library was not open to browsing. Once a pass to the library had been issued, the reader was taken on a tour of the library. Many readers complained that the tour was much too short.[79]Subscription librariesMain article: Subscription libraryThe British Museum was established in 1751 and had a library containing over 50,000 books.At the start of the 19th century, there were virtually no public libraries in the sense in which we now understand the term i.e. libraries provided from public funds and freely accessible to all.[80] Only one important library in Britain, namely Chetham's Library in Manchester, was fully and freely accessible to the public.[80] However, there had come into being a whole network of library provision on a private or institutional basis.The increase in secular literature at this time encouraged the spread of lending libraries, especially the commercial subscription libraries. Many small, private book clubs evolved into subscription libraries, charging high annual fees or requiring subscribing members to purchase shares in the libraries. The materials available to subscribers tended to focus on particular subject areas, such as biography, history, philosophy, theology, and travel, rather than works of fiction, particularly the novel.Unlike a public library, access was often restricted to members. Some of the earliest such institutions were founded in late 17th century England, such as Chetham's Library in 1653, Innerpeffray Library in 1680 and Thomas Plume's Library in 1704. In the American colonies, the Library Company of Philadelphia was started in 1731 by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia, PA.The increasing production and demand for fiction promoted by commercial markets led to the rise of circulating libraries, which met a need that subscription libraries did not fulfil. William Bathoe claimed that his commercial venture was 'the Original Circulating library', opening doors at two locations in London in 1737.[81][82] Circulating libraries also charged subscription fees to users and offered serious subject matter as well as the popular novels, thus the difficulty in clearly distinguishing circulating from subscription libraries.[83]Biblioteka Załuskich, built in Warsaw in the mid 18th century.Subscription libraries were democratic in nature; created by and for communities of local subscribers who aimed to establish permanent collections of books and reading materials, rather than selling their collections annually as the circulating libraries tended to do, in order to raise funds to support their other commercial interests. Even though the subscription libraries were often founded by reading societies, committees, elected by the subscribers, chose books for the collection that were general, rather than aimed at a particular religious, political or professional group. The books selected for the collection were chosen because they would be mutually beneficial to the shareholders. The committee also selected the librarians who would manage the circulation of materials.[84]In Britain there were more than 200 commercial circulating libraries open in 1800, more than twice the number of subscription and private proprietary libraries that were operating at the same time. Many proprietors pandered to the most fashionable clientele, making much ado about the sort of shop they offered, the lush interiors, plenty of room and long hours of service.[81] "These 'libraries' would be called rental collections today."[85]Private libraries[edit]The Linen Hall Library was an 18th-century subscription library. Pictured in 1888, shortly before its demolition.Private subscription libraries functioned in much the same manner as commercial subscription libraries, though they varied in many important ways. One of the most popular versions of the private subscription library was a gentleman's only library. Membership was restricted to the proprietors or shareholders, and ranged from a dozen or two to between four and five hundred.[86]The Liverpool Subscription library was a gentlemen only library. In 1798, it was renamed the Athenaeum when it was rebuilt with a newsroom and coffeehouse. It had an entrance fee of one guinea and annual subscription of five shillings.[87] An analysis of the registers for the first twelve years provides glimpses of middle-class reading habits in a mercantile community at this period. The largest and most popular sections of the library were History, Antiquities, and Geography, with 283 titles and 6,121 borrowings, and Belles Lettres, with 238 titles and 3,313 borrowings.[88][89]Circulating library and stationery shop, Gulgong, Australia 1870.Private subscription libraries held a greater amount of control over both membership and the types of books in the library. There was almost a complete elimination of cheap fiction in the private societies.[90] Subscription libraries prided themselves on respectability. The highest percentage of subscribers were often landed proprietors, gentry, and old professions.[91]Towards the end of the 18th century and in the first decades of the nineteenth the need for books and general education made itself felt among social classes created by the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution.[92] The late 18th century saw a rise in subscription libraries intended for the use of tradesmen. In 1797, there was established at Kendal what was known as the Economical Library, "designed principally for the use and instruction of the working classes".[93] There was also the Artizans' library established at Birmingham in 1799. The entrance fee was 3 shillings. The subscription was 1 shilling 6 pence per quarter. This was a library of general literature. Novels, at first excluded, were afterwards admitted on condition that they did not account for more than one-tenth of the annual income.[86]National libraries[edit]Main article: National libraryOrigins[edit]The Lindisfarne Gospels is but one of the treasures collected by Sir Robert Cotton.The first national libraries had their origins in the royal collections of the sovereign or some other supreme body of the state.One of the first plans for a national library was devised by the Welsh mathematician John Dee, who in 1556 presented Mary I of England with a visionary plan for the preservation of old books, manuscripts and records and the founding of a national library, but his proposal was not taken up.[94]In England, Sir Richard Bentley's Proposal for Building a Royal Library published in 1694 stimulated renewed interest in the subject. Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington, a wealthy antiquarian, amassed the richest private collection of manuscripts in the world at the time and founded the Cotton Library. After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, many priceless and ancient manuscripts that had belonged to the monastic libraries began to be disseminated among various owners, many of whom were unaware of the cultural value of the manuscripts. Sir Robert's genius was in finding, purchasing and preserving these ancient documents.[95] After his death his grandson donated the library to the nation as its first national library. This transfer established the formation of the British Library.[96][97]National libraries[edit]Sir Hans Sloane's collection of books and manuscripts was bequeathed to the British Museum.The first true national library was founded in 1753 as part of the British Museum. This new institution was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public and aiming to collect everything.[98] The museum's foundations lay in the will of the physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who gathered an enviable collection of curiosities over his lifetime which he bequeathed to the nation for £20,000.[99]Sloane's collection included some 40,000 printed books and 7,000 manuscripts, as well as prints and drawings.[100] The British Museum Act 1753 also incorporated the Cotton library and the Harleian library. These were joined in 1757 by the Royal Library, assembled by various British monarchs.[101]The first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759,[102] and in 1757, King George II granted it the right to a copy of every book published in the country, thereby ensuring that the Museum's library would expand indefinitely.Montagu House, seat of the British Library, founded in 1753.Anthony Panizzi became the Principal Librarian at the British Library in 1856, where he oversaw its modernization. During his tenure, the Library's holdings increased from 235,000 to 540,000 volumes, making it the largest library in the world at the time. Its famous circular Reading Room was opened in 1857. Panizzi undertook the creation of a new catalogue, based on the "Ninety-One Cataloguing Rules" (1841) which he devised with his assistants. These rules served as the basis for all subsequent catalogue rules of the 19th and 20th centuries, and are at the origins of the ISBD and of digital cataloguing elements such as Dublin Core.As librarian of the Bibliothèque Mazarine, Jacques Auguste de Thou transformed it into the largest library in the world at the time.In France, the first national library was the Bibliothèque Mazarine, which evolved from its origin as a royal library founded at the Louvre Palace by Charles V in 1368. At the death of Charles VI, this first collection was unilaterally bought by the English regent of France, the Duke of Bedford, who transferred it to England in 1424. It was apparently dispersed at his death in 1435.[103][104] The invention of printing resulted in the starting of another collection in the Louvre inherited by Louis XI in 1461.[105] Francis I transferred the collection in 1534 to Fontainebleau and merged it with his private library.The appointment of Jacques Auguste de Thou as librarian in the 17th century, initiated a period of development that made it the largest and richest collection of books in the world.[104] The library opened to the public in 1692, under the administration of Abbé Louvois, Minister Louvois's son. Abbé Louvois was succeeded by the Abbé Bignon, or Bignon II as he was termed, who instituted a complete reform of the library's system. Catalogues were made which appeared from 1739 to 1753 in 11 volumes. The collections increased steadily by purchase and gift to the outbreak of the French Revolution, at which time it was in grave danger of partial or total destruction, but owing to the activities of Antoine-Augustin Renouard and Joseph Van Praet it suffered no injury.[104]The library's collections swelled to over 300,000 volumes during the radical phase of the French Revolution when the private libraries of aristocrats and clergy were seized. After the establishment of the French First Republic in September 1792, "the Assembly declared the Bibliotheque du Roi to be national property and the institution was renamed the Bibliothèque Nationale. After four centuries of control by the Crown, this great library now became the property of the French people."[103]Expansion[edit]In the newly formed American republic, James Madison first proposed instituting a congressional library in 1783.[106] The Library of Congress was established on 24 April 1800, when president John Adams signed an act of Congress providing for the transfer of the seat of government from Philadelphia to the new capital city of Washington. Part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 "for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress ..., and for fitting up a suitable apartment for containing them...." Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol.[107]The Załuski Library of Poland was taken by Russia after the country's partition, and the collection formed the nucleus of the Russian Imperial Public Library, established in 1795.The Imperial Public Library was established in 1795 by Catherine the Great, whose private collections included the domestic libraries of Voltaire and Diderot, which she had purchased from their heirs. Voltaire's personal library is still one of the highlights of the collection. The plan of a Russian public library was submitted to Catherine in 1766 but the Empress did not approve the project for the imperial library until 27 May [O.S. 16 May] 1795, eighteen months before her death. The cornerstone of the foreign-language department came from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the form of Załuski's Library (420,000 volumes), nationalized by the Russian government at the time of the partitions.[108] The Polish-language books from the library (numbering some 55,000 titles) were returned to Poland by the Russian SFSR in 1921.[109]Although Germany was only constituted as a state in 1871, the first national library was set up in the context of the German revolutions of 1848. Various booksellers and publishers offered their works to the Frankfurt Parliament for a parliamentary library. The library, led by Johann Heinrich Plath, was termed the Reichsbibliothek ("Reich library"). After the failure of the revolution the library was abandoned and the stock of books already in existence was stored at the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg.[110] In 1912, the town of Leipzig, seat of the annual Leipzig Book Fair, the Kingdom of Saxony and the Börsenverein der Deutschen Buchhändler (Association of German booksellers) agreed to found a German National Library in Leipzig. Starting 1 January 1913, all publications in German were systematically collected (including books from Austria and Switzerland).Modern public libraries[edit]United Kingdom[edit]James Silk Buckingham led the campaign for public libraries in the mid 19th century.Although by the mid-19th century, England could claim 274 subscription libraries and Scotland, 266, the foundation of the modern public library system in Britain is the Public Libraries Act 1850. The Act first gave local boroughs the power to establish free public libraries and was the first legislative step toward the creation of an enduring national institution that provides universal free access to information and literature. In the 1830s, at the height of the Chartist movement, there was a general tendency towards reformism in the United Kingdom. The Capitalist economic model had created a significant amount of free time for workers, and the middle classes were concerned that the workers' free time was not being well-spent. This was prompted more by Victorian middle class paternalism rather than by demand from the lower social orders.[111] Campaigners felt that encouraging the lower classes to spend their free time on morally uplifting activities, such as reading, would promote greater social good.[112]In 1835, and against government opposition, James Silk Buckingham, MP for Sheffield and a supporter of the temperance movement, was able to secure the Chair of the Select Committee which would examine "the extent, causes, and consequences of the prevailing vice of intoxication among the labouring classes of the United Kingdom" and propose solutions. Francis Place, a campaigner for the working class, agreed that "the establishment of parish libraries and district reading rooms, and popular lectures on subjects both entertaining and instructive to the community might draw off a number of those who now frequent public houses for the sole enjoyment they afford".[113] Buckingham introduced to Parliament a Public Institution Bill allowing boroughs to charge a tax to set up libraries and museums, the first of its kind. Although this did not become law, it had a major influence on William Ewart MP and Joseph Brotherton MP, who introduced a bill which would "[empower] boroughs with a population of 10,000 or more to raise a ½d for the establishment of museums".[114] This became the Museums Act 1845.The turn of the 20th century witnessed a tremendous expansion in the provision of public libraries in the English-speaking world. Pictured, the Peter White Public Library built in 1905.The advocacy of Ewart and Brotherton then succeeded in having a select committee set up to consider public library provision. The Report argued that the provision of public libraries would steer people towards temperate and moderate habits. With a view to maximising the potential of current facilities, the Committee made two significant recommendations. They suggested that the government should issue grants to aid the foundation of libraries and that the Museums Act 1845 should be amended and extended to allow for a tax to be levied for the establishment of public libraries.[115][116][117] The Bill passed through Parliament as most MPs felt that public libraries would provide facilities for self-improvement through books and reading for all classes, and that the greater levels of education attained by providing public libraries would result in lower crime rates.The earliest example in England of a library to be endowed for the benefit of users who were not members of an institution such as a cathedral or college was the Francis Trigge Chained Library in Grantham, Lincolnshire, established in 1598. The library still exists and can justifiably claim to be the forerunner of later public library systems. The beginning of the modern, free, open access libraries really got its start in the UK in 1847. Parliament appointed a committee, led by William Ewart, on Public Libraries to consider the necessity of establishing libraries through the nation: In 1849 their report noted the poor condition of library service, it recommended the establishment of free public libraries all over the country, and it led to the Public Libraries Act in 1850, which allowed all cities with populations exceeding 10,000 to levy taxes for the support of public libraries.Salford Museum and Art Gallery first opened in November 1850 as "The Royal Museum & Public Library", as the first unconditionally free public library in England.[118][119] The library in Campfield, Manchester was the first library to operate a free lending library without subscription in 1852.[120] Norwich lays claims to being the first municipality to adopt the Public Libraries Act 1850 (which allowed any municipal borough with a population of 100,000 or more to introduce a halfpenny rate to establish public libraries – although not to buy books). Norwich was the eleventh library to open, in 1857, after Winchester, Manchester, Liverpool, Bolton, Kidderminster, Cambridge, Birkenhead and Sheffield.Another important act was the Education Act 1870, which increased literacy and thereby the demand for libraries. By 1877, more than 75 cities had established free libraries, and by 1900 the number had reached 300.[121] This finally marks the start of the public library as we know it. And these acts influenced similar laws in other countries, such as the US.United States[edit]The first tax-supported public library in the United States was Peterborough, New Hampshire (1833) first supported by state funds then an "Act Providing for the Establishment of Public Libraries" in 1849.[122] The Peterborough Town Library was proposed by Reverend Abiel Abbot as a central collection of books that would be owned by the people and be free to all of the town's inhabitants.[123] The original collection was bought by Reverend Abbot and the library trustees and was housed in Smith & Thompson's general store, which also acted as a post office.[123]Andrew Carnegie played an important role in financing public libraries across the English-speaking world.The year 1876 is key in the history of librarianship in the United States. The American Library Association was formed, The American Library Journal was founded, Melvil Dewey published his decimal-based system of classification, and the United States Bureau of Education published its report, "Public libraries in the United States of America; their history, condition, and management." During the post-Civil War years, there was a rise in the establishment of public libraries, a movement led chiefly by newly formed women's clubs. They contributed their own collections of books, conducted lengthy fund raising campaigns for buildings, and lobbied within their communities for financial support for libraries, as well as with legislatures and the Carnegie Library Endowment founded in the 20th century.[124] They led the establishment of 75–80 percent of the libraries in communities across the country.[125]Philanthropists and businessmen, including John Passmore Edwards, Henry Tate and Andrew Carnegie, helped to increase the number of public libraries from the late 19th century. Carnegie alone built over 2000 libraries in the US, 660 Carnegie Libraries in Britain, in addition to many more in the Commonwealth.[126]African American libraries[edit]Exactly where and when the first publicly supported library for blacks was established is still a question in need of an answer, the history of African Americans and libraries in the United States is one with a rich heritage. The earliest established library started by and for African Americans in the United States was the Philadelphia Library Company of Colored Persons. By 1838, its collection included 600 volumes, as well as pamphlets and maps. Members could read independently, or they could follow a scheduled course of study.Dr. William E. B. Du Bois attributed the movement for Negro libraries to the "natural desire (of the race) for books".[127] The philanthropy of Andrew Carnegie had a tremendous impact upon the ability of "Colored Library Associations" being able to gain access to funding in order to build libraries in and for their communities.South Africa[edit]Beginning in 1910, South Africa's public libraries grew in importance to the country's English settlers. During World War I, South Africa had a total of seventy-one subscription libraries, all governed by the English government.[128] Afrikaners had less libraries at the time with only seven libraries.[128]In 1928, two librarians were appointed by the Carnegie Corporation in New York to survey library resources in South Africa.[129] Their top two concerns were the lack of library use by Afrikaners and creating library provisions and school library services for non-Whites, with the recommendation that they not share the same buildings as White patrons.[129]During the apartheid years (1948–1994), progressive libraries such as the Durban Library, opened branches in Indian and Colored communities, despite government pressure to not do so.[130] The years of apartheid began with the Natal Indian Congress, founded by Gandhi, which called upon the Durban City Council to end the restriction of non-Europeans by opening the library to all sections of the community.[130] The pressure put on the city council by the Natal India Congress forced the council to start a travelling service for non-European patrons.[130]The Afrikaans government during apartheid passed several discriminatory legislative measures including the Separate Amenities Act of 1953, forcing councils to provide separate amenities and services for each race.[130] If the councils were unable to provide these amenities and services to all races, they focused solely on Whites.[131] During this time the Afrikaans government became responsible for Black library provisions while the provinces became responsible for Colored, Indian and White library provisions, a fact that took two years for the South African Library Association to find out.[132]20th century[edit]Wolfsburg Municipal Library by Alvar Aalto, built 1958-62In the 20th century, many public libraries were built in different Modernist architecture styles, some more functional, others more representative. For many of these buildings, the quality of the interior spaces, their lighting and atmosphere, was becoming more significant than the façade design of the library building. Modernist architects like Alvar Aalto put great emphasis on the comfort and usability of library spaces. The Municipal Library he built 1958–62 for the German city of Wolfsburg features a great central room for which he used a series of specially designed skylights to bring in natural light, even though all the walls are covered with books.21st century[edit]In the 21st century libraries are changing and evolving to match modern society. Lots of libraries are facing financial issues and crises.[133] But are finding ways to adapt to people's needs. Such as providing digital services to patrons at home, and creating more user friendly places.As you can see libraries have been around for a very long time. Hope this information, is what you were looking for.

The Mark of the Beast Part IThe Mark of the Beast Part I There is a lot of chatter about receiving the mark of the beast during the current pandemic. Is it a vaccine, an under the skin microchip, or a tattoo? Speculations abo…https://graceintorah.net/2020/05/11/the-mark-of-the-beast-part-i/Luciferase assays to aid in your COVID-19 vaccine researchNEW COVID-19 Research Luciferase assays to aid in your COVID-19 vaccine research Luciferases are enzymes that use a substrate called luciferin, along with oxygen and ATP, in an energetic process that produces light—like the yellow glow of fireflies. The power of luciferase has been harnessed by scientists to devise reactions whose light output is used to monitor biological processes including gene expression, biomolecular binding, and cell viability. Measuring luciferase expression using the SpectraMax® Glo Steady-Luc™ Reporter Assay Kit Dual-Luciferase Reporter (DLR) Assay Monitor NF-κB activation with a sensitive dual reporter assay Detect dual luciferase expression Highly sensitive dual luciferase detection with the SpectraMax® DuoLuc™ Reporter Assay Kit To view application notes related to COVID-19 research? Visit our COVID-19 research site. NEW Customer Spotlight Advancing research into life-changing mRNA therapeutics Based in The Netherlands, the RiboPro team design and produce high-quality messenger RNA (mRNA) for academic and industrial researchers. Discover how they are using the SpectraMax® iD3 Multi-Mode Microplate Reader to advance research into life-changing mRNA therapeutics. NEW Virtual Demo ImageXpress Pico Environmental Control System In this video, cellular imaging application scientist, Matthew Hammer demonstrates on the ImageXpress® Pico Automated Cell Imaging System, how to install and use the Environmental Control System, which is fully integrated to control temperature, humidity, CO 2 , and O 2 allowing users to perform multi-day, live-cell, time-lapse experiments. NEW Application Spotlight High-throughput screening of 3D cell cultures with multiple high density scaffold-free spheroids for cancer toxicity studies Here, we demonstrate the use of the Corning® Elplasia® 96-well plates with a 3D culture workflow that includes spheroid generation, compound treatment, cytotoxicity assay, 3D imaging on the ImageXpress® Micro Confocal High-Content Imaging System, and 3D image analysis using MetaXpress® High-Content Image Acquisition and Analysis Software. Easily increase the number of spheroids per experimental condition Grow, stain, and image large numbers of spheroids simultaneously Use high-content imaging for simultaneous 3D analysis of multiple spheroids or organoids NEW Roundtable Discussion Transitioning high-content assays to 3D: Scientific opportunities and imaging challenges In this roundtable, our panel of experts discuss the benefits and inherent challenges of making the transition from traditional 2D high-content assays to more complex 3D biology. Key highlights: Benefits of using 3D cellular models for high-content imaging Main barriers to entry into using 3D cell models for high-content imaging and analysis Features that will be essential to accelerating high-content imaging of 3D biology NEW eBook Spotlight High-content imaging for diverse 3D cell culture models In this recently published eBook with SelectScience, whttps://www.moleculardevices.com/sites/default/files/en/assets/newsletter/november-2020.htmlThe Path Brightens for Vaccine Researchers: Luminescent Reporter Viruses Detect Neutralizing Antibodies - Promega ConnectionsVaccine developers and researchers have greater access to powerful molecular biology tools, like bioluminescent reporters, that enable quicker testing and development of new vaccines.https://www.promegaconnections.com/luminescent-reporter-viruses/DNA and RNA-based vaccines: principles, progress and prospectsDNA vaccines were introduced less than a decade ago but have already been applied to a wide range of infectious and malignant diseases. Here we review the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the activities of these new vaccines. We focus ...https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1986720/A novel mRNA modification may impact gene expressionResearchers at CCR identified a novel modification in human messenger RNA (mRNA). NAT10, an enzyme that was found to be responsible for the modification, has previously been implicated in cancer and aging. This is one of the first examples of a unique chemical modification to mRNA (a key factor in deciphering the genetic code) that causes an increase in protein production.https://ccr.cancer.gov/news/article/a-novel-mrna-modification-may-impact-gene-expressionHomeSome vaccines contain aborted fetal cell line remains. This has been the case since the 1960s, when Leonard Hayflick developed the first widely used aborted fetal cell line from the lungs of a little girl, and used to it grow viruses in her remains for use in vaccines. The Body of Christ simply has not been adequately and accurately informed on this devastating fact. Pro-life believers have been participating in the abortion industry, most unknowingly. It is time to face that we have been taking part in unfruitful deeds of darkness, to repent, and to come out of sin. Ephesians 5:6-17 Let no one deceive you with empty words, for because of these things the wrath of God comes upon the sons of disobedience. 7 Therefore do not become partners with them; 8 for at one time you were darkness, but now you are light in the Lord. Walk as children of light 9 (for the fruit of light is found in all that is good and right and true), 10 and try to discern what is pleasing to the Lord. 11 Take no part in the unfruitful works of darkness, but instead expose them. 12 For it is shameful even to speak of the things that they do in secret. 13 But when anything is exposed by the light, it becomes visible, 14 for anything that becomes visible is light. Therefore it says, “Awake, O sleeper,    and arise from the dead,and Christ will shine on you.” 15 Look carefully then how you walk, not as unwise but as wise, 16 making the best use of the time, because the days are evil. 17 Therefore do not be foolish, but understand what the will of the Lord is.  COVID-19 VACCINESABORTED FETAL CELL USE IN COVID-19 VACCINES Featured Article Mandatory Vaccine LawsDOES THE CHURCH HAVE THE RIGHT TO BAR CHILDREN FROM CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS FOR VACCINE REFUSAL, OR A BIBLICAL OBLIGATION TO DISCIPLE THEM? Learn More Learn More Learn More Featured Video Christian Parents IT IS TIME TO HAVE THIS CONVERSATION !function(r,u,m,b,l,e){r._Rumble=b,r[b]||(r[b]=function(){(r[b]._=r[b]._||[]).push(arguments);if(r[b]._.length==1){l=u.createElement(m),e=u.getElementsByTagName(m)[0],l.async=1,l.src=https://rumble.com/embedJS/uhh7a9+(arguments[1].video?'.'+arguments[1].video:'')+/?url=+encodeURIComponent(location.href)+&args=+encodeURIComponent(JSON.stringify([].slice.apply(arguments))),e.parentNode.insertBefore(l,e)}})}(window, document, script, Rumble); Rumble(play, {video:vb9uwv,div:rumble_vb9uwv}); Featured Sermon Dr. Jason Garwood VACCINES: THE GOSPEL IMPERATIVE TO END THE SILENCE Listen A sermon on the dangers of vaccines and the worldviews behind the idol of Statism. Scripture References: Ephesians 5:11, Job 14:4, Romans 3:8 —————————————————————————–Participation in the abortion industry, and injection of products containing aborted fetal cell line remains, including blood proteins and DNA, are now legal requirements to receive a formal Christian ehttp://nodeception.org/I think it might be linked to something far more unexpected. The mark of the beast has gained much popularity but we are closer now than ever before to knowing exactly what the mark is…Look at how quickly and easily everything has changed. We are now in lockdown, the economy has been crashed, and nearly the entire works has been quarantined. With each passing day, it becomes clearer and plainer to those of us who are spiritually minded that we are living in a very unique time period. So unique, in fact, that we just might be witnessing the kingdom of the Antichrist and the Mark of the Beast system being assembled before our very eyes.Something ominous is coming upon the world: it is Satan's final effort in the battle to destroy the image that man was created in, which has been raging since the beginning of time. If Satan can destroy the image, then he can avert his own destruction. The prophecy of Genesis 3:15 states the serpent will one day mix his seed with humanity as a counterfeit of the Messiah. Yeshua told us that the last days will be like the days of Noah when fallen angels mixed their seed with humanity. In the Book of Daniel we read that "they" will again mingle with the seed of men. How so? Satan will use man's desire to be his own god to deceive him into believing the ultimate lie—that his fallen messengers are both the creators and saviors of man.1. The Number of the BeastThere is also a number associated with the mark of the Beast, which is cryptically referred to as the “number of the Beast” which is plainly given to us by the Apostle known as John of Patmos in Revelation 13. The original Greek text gives us a numerological sign, read as ΧΞϚ´｜600+60+6｜. In both ancient Greek and Hebrew letters are used as numerals, each letter having a numerical value. The UBS IV edition presents the number as ἑξακόσιοι ἑξήκοντα ἕξ which is just the number six hundred and sixty-six spelled out in words.However, this might be better understood in a Hebraic context. In Jewish Torah studies there is a thing which is known as Gematria, an alphanumeric code of assigning a numerical value to a name, word or phrase based on its letters. A single word can yield multiple values depending on the cipher used. It can also be used as an interpretive method that first circulates the numerical number of a particular word and then matches it with another word with exact same numerical value, showing a connection. Although it is often associated with Kaballah and Jewish mysticism, Gematria is not witchcraft. It has very practical uses and Jews implement it for counting the years.Few people understand how numbers in Hebrew work, for example some Evangelicals have claimed that the logo for the Monster Energy brand allegedly contains the Hebrew letter Vav (which has the value of six) three times...and supposedly that makes 666. However, this can objectively be shown to be directly incoherent. The main problem with claims like this is that the value of ווו wouldn't be six hundred and sixty-six..not even close. Three letter vavs equal 6+6+6, so this would be 18. Not to mention three vavs in Gematria would have to have a gershayyim in-between the last vav, i.e. וו״ו. However, what's even worse is that this is completely incoherent in Hebrew! You see, 18 should be י״ח, which has the value of 10+8. Three vavs doesn't even make sense, it comes out as complete gibberish.Because of certain numerical rules the only correct way to render the number of the Beast in Hebrew is תרס״ו, i.e. Taf Resh Samech Vav, and the we happen to find quite a few interesting things that who up. Primarily the Hebrew word תָס֗וּר ｜tāsûr｜, which is a verb conjugated specifically to mean “will be an apostate”, is numerologically tied to the number. So what this might be telling us is that the number of the beast is tied to apostasy…or specifically the Great Falling Away. The numerical value is calculated as shown below:2. The Great DeceptionMany people will argue that you can't be tricked into taking the mark. Is this true? If you think about it that hardly makes sense. Why would anyone agree to be marked with a number that has evil implications if it's going to be so obvious? Even people who have never read the Bible are generally uneasy with the number 666 because of the press it receives. Films and novels use it to invoke terror and mystery. Some even make jokes about the mark, so it's only logical that when the actual mark arrives it will be far less recognizable. Otherwise, how else could the elect potentially be deceived?Look up the word deceive. You'll find that deception is an act of or statement which misleads, hides the truth or promotes a belief, concept or idea that is not true is often done for personal gain or advantage. Deception is often performed using subtle manipulation or an underhanded tactic.The Devil is known to use various methods in order to deceive the masses. This can involve dissimulation, propaganda and sleight of hand as well as distraction, camouflage or concealment. Magicians make a great living mastering the art of deception. They’re entertainers because they can create deception and cause you to believe one thing while they’re actually doing another. But, the scary thing about true deception is that you can fall into it and not even realize it. Deception is one of the reasons why the Hebrew writer wrote in Hebrews 10: 24-25, he said:“And let us consider how we may spur one another on toward love and good deeds, not giving up, meeting together as some are in the habit of doing, but encouraging one, one another, and all the more as you see the day approaching, as you see the day approaching as the great day of HaShem, the return of the Messiah approaches.”Jesus likewise was very concerned about deception when he spoke about his coming in Matthew 24:4. We read:“Watch out that no one deceives you.”Essentially Jesus is telling us to watch out. Never assume but stay vigilant. In Matthew 24, Jesus warned his disciples about deception three times in 20 verses and he was saying it’s going to be so widespread and convincing that even my elect could be taken by it. Deception. So where will this end time, deception come from?Many Christians are surprised to learn that the mark of the Beast will not be implemented personally by the Antichrist—the Beast that arises from the sea (Revelation 13:1). Later in the same chapter, John explains that this mark will be initiated by a second beast, the "beast coming up out of the earth" who is later identified as the False Prophet (Revelation 16:13). As the word prophet indicates, the False Prophet will be a religious leader, the kind Jesus warned of when He said, "Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves" (Matthew 7:15). Many false prophets have come and gone, but none have had the devastating impact on the world's population that the False Prophet of Revelation will inflict. He will use religion to deceive the world, and once deceived, he will use the mark of the Beast to enslave all people economically.This fusion of government and religion will put the squeeze on rebels, leaving them nowhere to turn. Those who refuse the mark will be shut out of society altogether. No one will buy their products or services. Barred from employment and from shopping in stores or online, they will face bankruptcy and starvation. As the enemy of God, the Antichrist Beast would naturally want to replace the mark of God that goes on the hand and head of the worshiper with his own mark, thus defiling the body which is God's temple.Thus when the mark comes we would expect ministries, preachers, and pastors all across the globe to immediately begin promoting it and trying to lead their flocks towards it through deceitful means. Please keep that in mind.3. The Abomination of Desolation: Alteration of the DNA & the Human Temple of BaalHow the Mark of the Beast Will Rewrite the Human Genome (part one) Corrupting the ImageThe mark of the Beast will not merely be the implantation of a computer chip but will be the the rewriting of the human genome! The Genesis 3:15 prophecy speaks of two seeds: the seed of the woman (her seed) and the seed of Satan (your seed). Jewish and Christian interpreters were convinced thathttps://www.douglashamp.com/how-the-mark-of-the-beast-will-rewrite-the-human-genome-part-one/mRNA Vaccines makes You a Nephilim in ZionOur bodies is a Temple of God, 1 Cor. 3:16, Acts 17:24. Satan wants in to sit on its Throne (2 Thessalonians 2:4), replace God and Jesus Christ. We come into the World as humans, potential Temples …https://www.riksavisen.no/mrna-vaccines-makes-you-a-nephilim-in-zion/Dr. Corrie Madej DO on Covid 19 & Official SourcesThis REAL Doctor from Georgia tells the truth about the Covid 19 vaccine! Luciferase, Hydrogel, Nanotechnology, Genome Editing, “Gene Drive” & “Gene Extinction” technology.https://www.hiswordheals.com/dr-corrie-madej-covid-19/I believe the End Time deception may have something to do with the transhumanist movement—particularly to do with reordering or tampering with the human genome. Restriction Enzymes Recombinant DNA The technology known as recombinant DNA in fact now makes it possible for a grown man or woman to be altered at the genetic level. If a non-human gene were introduced into the human genome then the person would no longer be fully human. This could be done through the use of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of synthesizing a protein. RNA is short for ribonucleic acid, which is a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins, although in some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information.In October 2018, Forbes contributor Neil Sahota, who is a United Nations artificial intelligence adviser and UC Irvine professor, warned that transhumanism is fast approaching and likely faster than you think:“In the past few years, there has been considerable discussion around the idea we are slowly merging with our technology, that we are becoming transhuman, with updated abilities, including enhanced intelligence, strength, and awareness.”This is useful for vaccines because scientists can easily reconstruct specific genetic sequences that encode for proteins that are unique to the invading virus. In the COVID case, this is the familiar spike protein that enables the coronavirus to enter human cells. Many of the COVID-19 vaccines currently being fast-tracked are not conventional vaccines. Their design is aimed at manipulating your very biology, and therefore have the potential to alter the biology of the entire human race. Conventional vaccines train your body to recognize and respond to the proteins of a particular virus by injecting a small amount of the actual viral protein into your body, thereby triggering an immune response and the development of antibodies. This is not what happens with an mRNA vaccine. The theory behind these vaccines is that when you inject the mRNA into your cells, it will stimulate your cells to manufacture their own viral protein. The mRNA COVID-19 vaccine will be the first of its kind. In fact, no mRNA vaccine has ever been licensed prior and strangely enough they are forgoing the mandatory animal testing.I believe that the mark has a direct effect on your DNA. When Adam and Eve sinned their entire genome was corrupted which was what caused the original sin. How else could it affect all of humankind? This is why we need to be covered by the blood of Jesus, because his blood actually rewrites our DNA, making it pure again.Thus our bodies become temples of God, the Son glorifies the Father and the Holy Spirit sets us camp. What the enemy has done is he has mimicked this. When one takes the mark they become a temple of Baal, the Antichrist glorifies the Dragon and an Unholy Spirit takes root, thereby defiling the DNA and making it desolate. Just like how during the Maccabean revolt the little horn of the Beast known as Antiochus Epiphanes went into the temple in Jerusalem, set up a statue of Zeus and sacrificed a pig in the holy of holies thereby causing God to leave the temple desolate, the vaccine will likewise put up an image of Baal in the DNA and insert the sacrificed blood of aborted babies into the temple which is your body, causing the Holt Spirit to no longer dwell in it. Your DNA is your book of life and Satan wants to write his name in it. If he get what he wants you cannot be saved. You are dead to God.Jesus said that the last days will be like in the days of Noah. What happened during the days of Noah was that the fallen angels came down and tampered with the DNA of humans and even the beasts of the earth. Noah and his family were the only ones who were not affected. The Hebrew word used literally means undefiled, pure, or uncorrupted. We know that Noah was not perfect in his actions. He had drinking problems and was found naked. God didn't chose him because of his character but rather his DNA.Interestingly enough, the Deccan Herald, which is an English language daily newspaper published from the Indian state of Karnataka by The Printers Private Limited, a family business run by the Nettakallappa family, recently announced that the Covid 19 vaccine is our “long awaited Messiah.” I kid you not:Coronavirus: Awaiting the messiahNever in history has mankind so desperately awaited a Messiah so unanimous that the arrival will be acceptable to all, irrespective of religion nation creed or caste-- the Covid 19 vaccine messiah. Explanations and conspiracy theories abound for the pandemic, astrologers suggest the malevolent alignment of six planets or is it the ubiquitous cloud of 5G? China’s creation to gain global control?https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.deccanherald.com/amp/opinion/right-in-the-middle/coronavirus-awaiting-the-messiah-900689.htmlAlmost as if on cue, Pastors and ministries around the globe have been telling everyone to go out and spread this new “vaccine Gospel” and to take this vaccine which is our savior, defending it as though it were more important than Jesus himself:To Save Their Communities, Black Ministers Preach the Gospel About the COVID-19 VaccineCity calls on churches to preach the gospel of vaccineThe role of church leaders in vaccination efforts (ABC news)What are the odds? This is really happening. Madej reviews some of the background of certain individuals participating in the race for a COVID-19 vaccine, which include Moderna co-founder Derrick Rossi, a Harvard researcher who successfully reprogrammed stem cells using modified RNA, thus changing the function of the stem cells. Moderna was founded on this concept of being able to modify human biological function through genetic engineering, Madej says. Now, let's turn our attention to Revelation 13:16-18 which reads:And he causes all, both small and great, rich and poor, free and bond, to receive a Mark in their right hand or in their foreheads: And that no man might buy or sell except he that had the mark or name of the beast or the number of his name. Here is wisdom! Let him that has understanding calculate the number of the beast: for it is the number of a man; and his number is six hundred and sixty-six.Is the Mark the Beast really an outward mark? The Greek word used is χάραγμα (Strong's Greek #5480), a scratching, etching or a sign. However, the root is quite interesting. In the Bible, when we study the root of the word 'mark of the beast', we learn that the mark #5480 is from the same as #5482, which means to sharpen to a point; a stake, a palisade, or a puncture.Here is what a stake looks like:Here is what a palisade looks like:Likewise, here is what the tip of a hypodermic needle looks like:It would appear as though a hypodermic needle and a stake or a palisade are somewhat identical in nature. What are the odds that a palisade and a stake closely resemble a hypodermic needle and an RFID microchip? Coincidence? Or is John trying to tell us something? Imagine someone from thw 1st century trying to describe a needle or a microneedle patch without ever having seen one before. What are the odds?What's more is that Bill Gates is developing something called the Human Implantable Quantum Dot Microneedle Vaccination Delivery System, and it is composed of multiple things. I want to draw your attention to one component, the quantum dot microneedles that will deliver the vaccines, and a very, very unique biochemical that makes it all work. If you’re standing up while reading this, you might want to sit down. The gates foundation brings to you ‘near infrared bioluminescence enzyme luciferase’ which is the chemical that will make the quantum dot vaccination readable through a special mobile device app. That’s right, the enzyme that will light up Bill Gates Human Implantable Quantum Dot Microneedle Vaccination Delivery System is called Luciferase, that’s what makes the vaccination readable long after the victim has been injected.It is composed of multiple things. At its center we have the COVID-19 vaccination that he wants to give every human on earth, there will be quantum dot microneedles, a digital identification mark from ID2020 and a human implantable device for buying and selling cryptocurrency with a patent number of #060606. The digital ID will come in the form of something called an Immunity Passport. All of these things, and all being funded by one man, Bill Gates, represents in total at the very least a stunning forerunner to the Mark of the Beast world system. That’s at the very least estimation, taken to its logical end, it very well could be the actual Mark of the Beast system.That’s right, the enzyme that will light up Bill Gates Human Implantable Quantum Dot Microneedle Vaccination Delivery System is called Luciferase, that’s what makes the vaccination readable long after the victim has been injected, and what allows a mere vaccination to function as a mark. Luciferase. Want to see what Luciferase does? Well, let's rake a look:Mark of the Beast, Luciferase and Oxford's New Rapid Covid19 TestCovid19 vaccines and digital certificates are explained with their implications for humanity.https://issuu.com/vjidr/docs/luciferase_articleThePlatform.ieThePlatform.ie – Ireland’s Solutions Resource. by Cathal Spelman | Oct 23, 2020 | Covid-19, Vaccines | 80% of the reported cases are actually asymptomatic, and non infective, Read morehttps://theplatform.ie/Scientists have also designed a vaccine delivery patch which is coated in microneedles modeled after the fangs of a viper to deliver liquid medicines through the skin. Rear-fanged venomous snakes, such as vipers and cobras, grow a grooved tooth that injects prey with venom as the predator bites down. Microneedles of a similar shape quickly delivered lidocaine and an inactivated influenza virus into mice and guinea pigs, the researchers reported July 31 in Science Translational Medicine. The vaccine bolstered the rodents’ immune systems against a lethal dose of the influenza virus, and the authors hope to next test their invention in large animal models.[Remember the Palisade?]Although the ancient Greeks and Romans first studied the snake bite method for injecting material into the human body this, however, is different in it's innovative attention to detail. The device circumvents the pumping systems and extra drug preparation steps associated with previous microneedle patches, indicating it could serve as a flexible and easy-to-use drug delivery platform. Medicinal liquids and vaccines are usually delivered with hypodermic needles, but needles carry a risk of infection and are frequently painful.Devices that use patches of microneedles are an attractive alternative for simple and pain-free drug delivery, but existing approaches require taking additional steps to prepare medications and cannot yet effectively deliver liquid formulations of drugs. Here, Won-Gyu Bae and colleagues took inspiration from rear-fanged venomous snakes, which are equipped with a special grooved fang that can quickly inject venom into their prey. They created a patch of microneedles that contain up to six similar grooves and can deliver a variety of liquids by being applied to the skin with gentle pressure from the thumb. Importantly, their patch takes advantage of a form of liquid flow called capillary action, foregoing the need for a complicated pumping system. The team found their device could quickly deliver doses of lidocaine or an inactivated influenza virus through the skin of mice and guinea pigs, resulting in measurable immune responses that protected the animals from subsequent lethal doses of influenza virus. Bae et al. say further studies in large animal models and human volunteers testing a wider variety of liquids are needed before clinical trials can take place.DARPA is working closely with the Department of Defense and Department of Health and Human Services, in addition to its academic and industry partners, to provide technical and scientific solutions to address the COVID-19 pandemic. They have been instrumental in the development 3d printing of Biocompatible Shape-Memory Double Network Hydrogel which implements soft nano technology:https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acsami.8b04250#What's more, the nanobot technology for the hydrogel produced by DARPA eerily resembles the image of Baal's wife Tanit. Can you see the resemblance:Tanit, also spelled Tinith or Tinnit, was one of the chief goddesses in ancient Canaanite religions, equivalent to Astarte. Although she seems to have had some connection with the heavens, she was also a mother goddess, and fertility symbols often accompany representations of her. She was probably the consort of Baal Hammon (or Amon), the chief god of Carthage, and was often given the attribute “face of Baal.” He was equivalent to Saturn or Chronus in Greco Roman lore. Although Tanit did not appear at Carthage before the 5th century BC, she soon eclipsed the more established cult of Baal Hammon and, in the Carthaginian area at least, was frequently listed before him on the monuments. In the worship of Tanit and Baal Hammon, children, probably firstborn, were sacrificed. Ample evidence of the practice has been found west of Carthage in the precinct of Tanit, where a tofet (a sanctuary for the sacrifice of children) was discovered. Tanit was also worshiped on Malta, on Sardinia, and in Spain. See:Did the Carthaginians Really Practice Infant Sacrifice?What are the odds that the nanobot technology is literally made in the image of Baal's wife? Kind of like how we are made to be the bride of Christ, what if those who take the mark are to become the bride of Baal Hammon, a.k.a Saturn or The Devil?! Earlier we noted that the Carthaginian goddess tanit is considered equivalent to the goddess Astarte, otherwise known as Ishtar. Guess who the harlot of Babylon who opposes the bride of Christ happens to be connected to? Astarte. Coincidence? Or maybe those who take on the image of Baal's wife become part of the great harlot of Babylon…In various stages of vaccine development and manufacturing, some of the COVID-19 vaccines used cells isolated from fetal tissue (often referred to as fetal cells), many of which were derived from an aborted fetus. To clarify, no vaccine to date contains any stem cells from aborted fetuses. Stem cells are cells that can develop into many different types of other cells or tissues. The first type of stem cells that were found were embryonic stem cells coming from embryos. Scientists have now figured out how to make other cells into stem cells, which are called iPS or 'induced pluripotent stem cells', meaning that embryos do not have to be used.However, some vaccines are developed with cells that came from fetuses, although those cells are not classified as stem cells. This is given in the form of cell-lines, which are cultures of human or animal cells that can be propagated repeatedly and sometimes indefinitely. They arise from primary cell cultures. Primary cultures are initiated directly from the cells, tissues, or organs of animals and are typically used in experiments within a few days.It is a historical fact that fetal cell lines were derived in the 1960’s and 1970’s from two elective abortions that have been used to create vaccines for diseases such as hepatitis A, rubella, and rabies. Abortions from which fetal cells were obtained were elective and were not done for the purpose of vaccine development. The fetal cell lines being used to produce some of the potential COVID-19 vaccines are from two confirmed sources, although there could be others which we are not told about :● HEK-293: A kidney cell line that was isolated from a fetus in 1973 (undisclosed origin, from either a spontaneous miscarriage or an elective abortion)● PER.C6: A retinal cell line that was isolated from an aborted fetus in 1985To develop and manufacture some vaccines, pharmaceutical companies prefer human cell lines over other cells because 1. viruses need cells to grow and the viruses tend to grow better in cells from humans than animals (because they infect humans), 2. fetal cells can be used longer than other cell types, and 3. fetal cells can be maintained at low temperatures, allowing scientists to continuing using cell lines that were extracted decades prior.Early in the development of mRNA vaccine technology, fetal cells were used for “proof of concept” (to demonstrate how a cell could take up mRNA and produce the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein) or to characterize the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. The particular cells that are involved in the Johnson & Johnson vaccine are called PerC6 cells. These are retinal cells that came from a fetus that was aborted in 1985 in the Netherlands, which were treated in the lab to allow them to reproduce in lab settings since that time, according to Brianne Barker, PhD, associate professor of biology at Drew University in New Jersey. The Pfizer and Moderna vaccines are different—they involve HEK293 cells, which also came from an aborted fetus in the Netherlands (in 1973). These cells have also been reproducing in lab settings since that time.It's an inactivated virus vectored vaccine, which means that it is a disabled virus called adenovirus 26 that contains the DNA to make the Spike protein in addition to some portions of the adenovirus genome. In order to make the vaccine, the scientists give PerC6 cells DNA so that they can make the parts of the virus and build that molecular machine—basically the PerC6 cells are the factories that make the vaccine for us.A video overview of the COVID-19 vaccine label for AtraZeneca’s vaccine reveals that it’s made with MRC-5, a strain of aborted human fetal tissue. The video was originally posted to Instagram. It walks the viewer through a closer look at the packaging labeling of the AtraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, beginning with the ChAdOx1-S(recombinant) designation on the label. This ingredient leads the viewer down a rabbit hole of online research, eventually discovering that recombinant strains used in the vaccine are grown from the aborted fetal tissue of a 14-week-old aborted human baby.Coronavirus vaccines contain aborted human fetal tissue - right on the labelCoronavirus vaccines contain aborted human fetal tissue - right on the labelhttps://www.brighteon.com/ee4f2073-5b3b-482c-8a89-cb33230f1965The foundational basis for the development of many Covid-19 vaccines has been the CoV-2 spike glycoprotein, developed in HEK 293 cells.“These expression vectors were used to transiently transfect FreeStyle293F cells (Thermo Fisher) using polyethylenimine.”Supplementary Materials for Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation, Published 19 February 2020 on Science First Release DOI: 10.1126/science.abb2507FreeStyle293F cells are human embryonic kidney cells taken from a girl aborted in the Netherlands in 1973.“Cell Type: Kidney (Embryonic).”Expi293F™ Cells Catalog number: A14527“HEK 293 cells were generated in 1973 by transfection of cultures of normal human embryonic kidney cells with sheared adenovirus 5 DNA in Alex van der Eb‘s laboratory in Leiden, the Netherlands.”HEK 293 cellsThus any Covid-19 vaccine developed using the SARS-Cov2 spike glycoprotein is an aborted fetal cell vaccine.4. Questions that must be asked…Could it be possible that we've had too limited a view of the Mark of the Beast, thinking that it was only about a monetary system and the exchange of goods and services? Could it be that the Bible is specifically revealing the Mark to be a form of ID that says you have to be deemed "safe" to enter a building of service in order that you may buy and sell? Could it be that vaccine refusers will be considered "unsafe" and a threat to society and, therefore, the image of the Beast (artificial intelligence?) will make the decision to eliminate the threat? Also, take note, what the Bible says, “And that no man might buy or sell," and what it does not say is, “And man uses it TO buy or sell." So, based on current developments in light of the Word, we see that without the Mark, people will be restricted or punished for not having an ID of some kind under the skin to get approval to buy or sell.Additionally, there is one element that seems out of place, if the Mark is purely monetary: Why does everyone that is bonded or in jail need to take it? What are they going to buy or sell in jail? The plot thickens, there must be something more going on here...For example, did you you know that there is a biological response to taking the Mark?“And the first went away, and poured out his bowl into the earth, and there came a sore—bad and grievous—to men, those having the mark of the beast, and those worshiping his image.” (Revelation 16:2)The sores are so bad they will blaspheme or slander the God of heaven, because of their pains and their sores, and they will not repent of their deeds (Revelation 16:11). What is interesting is that many who have taken part in the vaccine trials have come up with what is known as Bell's Palsy, ironically Bel is one of the names for Baal, the God to whom the ancient Canaanites would sacrifice their children. Maybe there are clues to help us identify the Mark by what God tells them to repent of:“And the rest of mankind, who were not killed in these plagues, neither converted from the works of their hands, that they may not worship the demons, and idols, those of gold, and those of silver, and those of brass, and those of stone, and those of wood, that are neither able to see, nor to hear, nor to walk, indeed they did not convert from their murders, nor from their sorceries, nor from their whoredoms, nor from their thefts.” (Revelation 9:20-21)Let’s dive into sorceries: In the Greek, the word is φαρμακεία pharmakeía. This is the root word from which we get pharmacy... Coincidence? No, actually. Modern medicine and pharmaceutics originally arose out of alchemy. That's what they used to call it. For those of you who don't know, that's full fledged witchcraft. Now, that's not to say that modern medicine is bad, however, the people who tend to run the show are often into the occult, which is why they named it that—in honor of the occult. Also, maybe we have a clue that the Mark might be tied to what they should repent of. He that hath an eye let him read, ‘The pharmaceutical companies are directly involved with the technology that creates the Mark.' So, what is the punishment surrounding the entity that requires people to take the Mark?“And there was given to it to give a spirit to the image of the beast, that also the image of the beast may speak, and [that] it may cause as many as will not worship the image of the beast, that they may be killed.” (Revelation 13:15)Side note: What happens to the people that do not take the Mark and worship the Beast?“And I saw thrones, and they [that] sat on them, and judgment was given to them, and the souls of those who have been beheaded because of the testimony of Jesus, and because of the word of God, and who did not worship the beast, nor his image, and did not receive the mark on their forehead and on their hand, and they lived and reigned with the Christ one thousand years...” (Revelation 20:4)So then, the ones who will be killed are those who will not worship the Beast and take his Mark. The ones in Revelation 9:20-21 who "repented not of their murders," are the same ones who are guilty of mass execution and the beheading of the saints... How in the world would a group of people justify the killing of a large swath of the population? Perhaps when one rejects the cure, that person is deemed a public safety hazard? Revisiting Revelation 13:18: Did you notice that we need wisdom and understanding to COUNT the number? The word for COUNT in Greek is ψηφίζω｜psēphízō｜, and it is where we get the idea of a calculator. So let us calculate a number.Remember the 400-needle skin patch they are planning to use?Let’s do some math: 400 / 6 = 66.6666667. I find this very interesting. Do you?Next question: Why would taking the Mark disqualify you for salvation (Revelation 14:10-11)? Let’s recall what Jesus said, “And as the days of Noah—so will also be the coming of the Son of Man” (Matthew 24:37). If we recall Genesis 6, there was some funny business with the fallen angels and the daughters of men. These offspring had to be destroyed. They were genetic abominations, and they were not 100% human. Do we see DNA manipulations in the current iteration of the Covid-19 vaccine? What is the Beast going to tell the public? For every problem there is a solution. What is the problem they are facing in the 70th week of Daniel? Isn't it plagues and other extreme bio-hazards? What is a good solution? We have to evolve past our humanity to overcome the apocalypse. We were made in the Image of God. Not in the Image of the Beast. Therefore, it is not a good idea to become the Image of the Beast by receiving his Mark into your body, as doing so would also cause you to forfeit your humanity and thereby your salvation.Now, there are first going to need multiple steps in order to condition the population. Kind of like the boiling frog analogy, by the time people realize what's going on it will be too late. Here, lets begin with:Past: No Shoes, No Shirt, No Service—Well, that sounds reasonable.Present: No Shoes, No Shirt, No Mask, Fever, No Service—Okay, just regular safety precautions.Near Future: No Shoes, No Shirt, No Vaccine Proof, No Service (…and you lose your job and will alao likely get fined or jailed)—Now we might just have a problem.Future: No Shoes, No Shirt, No Mark, Congratulations you get Capital Punishment!—Now we are under a dictatorship.Is it that difficult to project a future when everyone will need to be scanned for some reason or another before they are allowed to enter a place of business to buy or sell? And what about the attack on the physical monetary system? What's up with that? “Exact Change Required...” are you kidding me?COVID-19 vaccine packed into skin patch shows promise in miceVaccinology: Bioluminescent quantum dot tattoos (peer-reviewed paper)A nanoluciferase SARS-CoV-2 for rapid neutralization testingVenomous snake fangs inspire new microneedle drug-delivery systemA DNA-modified hydrogel for simultaneous purification, concentration and detection of targeted cfDNA in human serumMessenger RNA regulation: to translate or to degradeUse of human diploid cell MRC-5, for production of measles and rubella virus vaccinesWO2020060606 - CRYPTOCURRENCY SYSTEM USING BODY ACTIVITY DATAA Military-Funded Biosensor Could Be the Future of Pandemic DetectionInjectable Body Sensors Take Personal Chemistry to a Cell Phone Closer to RealityVaccine Information on Covid19, nanotechnology, smart phone health apps, rDNA, rRNA, patenting GMOID2020 has been around since 2016, talking about how to create digital identities for everyone on earth:ID2020 | Digital Identity AllianceMIT explores the possibility of storing medical information underneath the skin using an type of dye that is only vision under a scan:MIT: Storing medical information below the skin’s surfaceBioOptics explains how the dye works. They want to create an on-patent, decentralized medical record that uses quantum dots to emit light in the near-IR spectrum. This means the tattoo is invisible to the naked eye:BioOptics: Near-infrared quantum dot dye stores vaccination history under the skinScientific American discuses Genetically Engineered Vaccines. We have to worry about GMO, and now we have to worry about GEV? This isn't GMOing humans yet, but how much closer are we to editing our DNA to be immune to the virus? Let's take a look:Scientific America: Genetic Engineering Could Make a COVID-19 Vaccine in Months Rather Than YearsMore than 7 billion doses are needed to dose the entire population multiple times. Did you catch that? It says that we need to vaccinate the entire global population more than once:CBSN: Multiple vaccine doses could be necessary to protect from coronavirus, Bill Gates saysCTV reports that the Pope calls for everyone, not just the rich to have priority (Revelation 13:16). It looks like vaccination will be a worldwide humanitarian effort. When the Vatican is involved that should immediately be a red flag:CTV News: Pope calls for social justice and vaccines for allThen we have a very ominous article talking about revoking access to goods and services if a person does not have proof that they are vaccinated (a.k.a. "safe"). This is interesting:Doctors lay out plan to ‘punish’ people who refuse coronavirus vaccine: ‘There is no alternative’Here are even more government attempts to punish anti-vaxxers and censor information that could lead to such views:Decision to punish anti-vaxxers under regional administrationEmergency laws to "stamp out dangerous" anti-vaccine content online should be introduced, Labour has saidEveryone is lining up to punish parents who are anti-vaccination. Isn't that worrying?Global assessment of national mandatory vaccination policies and consequences of non-compliance (Science Direct)But most alarming is that which is going on in the land of Israel, which is central to Bible prophesy. New government and business initiatives are moving in the direction of a two-tier system for the vaccinated and unvaccinated, raising legal, moral and ethical questions. It has been legislated by the Israeli government that anyone who is not vaccinated will be unable to buy or sell anything:As Israel Reopens, ‘Whoever Does Not Get Vaccinated Will Be Left Behind’'We won't force vaccine; but here's what we will do'Bill Gates explains, "You Don't Have A Choice". No one is exempt? Sound familiar...Steps to make things mandatory. There is a religious opt-out for now... Although, the exact type of punishment is unknown:Virginia Health Commissioner says he’ll mandate a COVID-19 vaccine; bill could allow some to opt-outHydrogel is a nanotechnology whose inventor early on boasted that “If [it] pans out, with approval from FDA, then consumers could get the sensors implanted in their core to measure their levels of glucose, oxygen, and lactate.” This contact lens-like material requires a special injector to be introduced under the skin where it can transmit light-based digital signals through a wireless network like 5G.Once firmly implanted inside the body, human cells are at the mercy of any mRNA program delivered via this substrate, unleashing a nightmare of possibilities. It is, perhaps, the first true step towards full-on transhumanism; a “philosophy” that is in vogue with many powerful and influential people, such as Google’s Ray Kurzweil and Eric Schmidt and whose proponents see the fusion of technology and biology as an inevitable consequence of human progress. See:A DARPA-Funded Implantable Biochip To Detect COVID-19 Could Hit Markets By 2021Revelation of Jesus Christ Ministries recently uploaded the full length back-to-back version of their emergency conference dealing with the possibility that the vaccine might very well be the mark of the Beast, they have 5 broken down segments underway, their part 1 of the series which is titled ‘Antiochus Epiphanes (The BEAST which was)’ has already been uploaded, for now here's the full length version:Can YOU face the TRUTH (the ABOMINATION)You can learn more here:The Church on Haunted Hill (Explosing the Vatican)Roman Catholicism fully refuted#REVELATIONSOFJESUSCHRIST -- BitchuteROJC SermonsDid Nephilim exist? Are there arguments for and against the existence of these biblical creatures? What is the evidence, if any, supporting these claims?Do fallen angels exist?Biblical Archaeology series