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Gateway of IndiaGateway of India is the major landmark of Mumbai City. Built in the 20th Century to commemorate the visit of King George V and Queen Mary to Mumbai. Located at the tip of Apollo Bunder, the gateway overlooks the Mumbai harbour that is bordered by Arabian Sea in the Colaba district. Gateway of India is constituted of a large arch, with a height of 26m and is done in Indo-Saracenic style. However, if one looks closely, traces of Muslim architectural styles can also be seen in the edifice. Another important attraction in Mumbai, Elephant Caves are located close to the Gateway of India, and tourists can travel on motor boats to reach there. Also, Taj Mahal Hotel, which is India’s most prestigious and luxurious hotel is situated close to the Gateway of India. Therefore along with visiting Gateway of India, one can catch up on two other important tourist attractions in Mumbai.Also Read: 40 Best Options for Weekend Holidays Near MumbaiElephanta CavesSituated at a 10 km radius from Gateway of India is one of the major tourist places in Mumbai, the Elephanta Caves. The caves are said to be one of the oldest rock cut structures in the country and is a perfect example of archaic Indian art associated to the cult of Lord Shiva. It is reckoned that the caves were adorned with sculptures between in 6th or the 8th century. The island on which the caves are built was originally known as Gharapuri and is a quiet and picturesque island with green foliage and harmless primates. The three-headed Shiva sculpture called Maheshmurti is the main attraction of this island. Apart from it the sculptures of Shiva, in the ‘Shiva Nataraja’ and ‘Ardhanarishvara’ forms are also worth seeing in Elephanta Caves.Note: To go to Elephanta Caves, one have to go to the Gateway of India in Mumbai and take a boat/ferry ride from there. The journey takes one hour by sea.Also Read: Spending One Day in MumbaiColaba Causeway MarketAn ideal place for street shopping in Mumbai, Colaba Causeway Market has ion offer cheap clothes, fashionable boutiques, British era buildings and of course good food. Everything that you can name can be found in this old market in Mumbai.Also Read: Top Rated Hotels for a Luxury Stay in MumbaiJuhu BeachProbably one of the most visited places in Mumbai, Juhu Beach is situated in Ville Parle. Juhu Beach comes to life mostly in the evening, when people from all walks of life visit here to enjoy sunset, play in the water and treat their taste buds with street food like Bhel Puri and Pav Bhaji.Also Read: 12 Beaches You Must See in MaharashtraVictoria TerminusAlso known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST), this Victorian Gothic style edifice is situated in the heart of Mumbai City. Just like the Gateway of India, CST is an important landmark of Mumbai. Declared a ‘World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2004, Victoria Terminus was built in 1888 and till today stand as one of the best examples of Gothic style architecture in India. It is also one of the busiest railway station in Mumbai.Similar Destination: 35 Awesome Tourist Attractions in BangaloreFilm CityLocated near Sanjay Gandhi National Park in the vicinity of Aarey Colony in Goregaon is probably the most famous place in Mumbai. Also known as Dada Saahab Phalke Chitranagri, Film City is spread across 520 acres and is abslolutely a dream world. It is said that the place is so large that almost 1000 sets can be put simultaneously here. The main highlight of the Film City are real-like sets, which include fake lakes, fountains, mountains, gardens houses, picnic spots, cities and villages.Note: One should has to take prior permission to visit Film CityAlso Read: Top 15 Hill Stations Around MumbaiHaji AliOne of the most important religious places in Mumbai. Haji Ali Dargah is truly a must-visit. The whitewashed structure is spread in an area of 4,500 meters and is flanked by marble pillars. Haji Ali is said to have miraculous powers and that whoever prays here gets his wish fulfilled. Therefore, throughout the year the place can be seen crowded by the believers. The location of this religious shrine is another highlight, this holy place for Muslim is situated in the middle of the sea and is attached to the land through a 700yard pathway that gets submerged in water during the evening high tide.Also Read: Top 10 Things You Must Do in Delhi on WeekendsBanganga TankBanganga Tank is one of the prominent tourist attractions in Mumbai. It forms a part of Walkeshwar temple complex in Malabar Hill. As the water in the tank is regarded as the subsidiary of Holy Ganges, it is considered sacred and is believed to have healing powers. The tank is visited by thousands who wish to take a dip in the holy water and offer flowers at the Banganga Temple.Also Read: 10 Affordable Things You Must Do in MumbaiMahalaxmi Dhobi GhatBelieve or not but this 140 years old Dhobhi Ghat (laundromat) is amongst one of the most popular places to see in Mumbai. Travellers actually make sure that they visit Dhobi Ghat on their trip to Mumbai. Mahalaxmi Dhobi Ghat is Mumbai’s biggest human-powered washing machine, where every day hundreds of people beat the dirt out of soiled Mumbai clothes and linen in 1026 open-air troughs. The best view is from the bridge across the railway tracks near Mahalaxmi train station.Similar Destination: Spending 48 Hours in ChennaiDharavi SlumIt really takes heart to visit a place like this. But if once you make up your mind to visit Dharavi, which is apparently one of the biggest slums in the world you would be paradigm shift. The narrow lanes, congested houses, dirty vicinity, children playing barefoot and other heartbreaking conditions prevalent in this place will not only make you to be grateful for what you have.However, a Dharavi Tour is not about witnessing how a lower class of the society lives amidst poor conditions so that one can be thankful for his life and facilities he has, but it is to understand how these people living with no amenities at all are hereos in their own way.Note: No photography and videography are allowed during the tour.Also Read: 15 Amazing Places to See in GoaMarine DriveKnown as Marine Drive, this tourist spot has also been called Sonapur by the locals of the city. Marine Drive is a 3km long stretch that links Nariman Point to Babulnath, and is situated at the foot of Malabar Hill. Large crowds of people come to this place to stride along the walkway and to view the setting sun at dusk.Marine Drive is also referred to as ‘Queen’s necklace’, because the street lights make the road look like a string of pearls and create an illusion of a necklace, when viewed at night from an elevated point. Towards the northern end of Marine Drive lies one of the oldest beaches in Mumbai, Chowpatty Beach, which is famous for its bazaars and fast food and snacks such as Bhel Puri, Paav Bhaji, etc.Similar Destination: Top Historical Attractions of DelhiPrince of Wales MuseumAlso known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, the museum is one of the most popular places to see in Mumbai. Prince of Wales Museum was built in the early 20th century and showcases several collections of ancient artworks, sculptures and artifacts in its galleries. Regular exhibitions and lectures on several topics are held inside here. The museum is done in Indi-Saracenic style of architecture and is bordered by lavish green gardens. There are three different parts of the museums: Natural history section, Archaeology section and Art section where innumerable forms of art and artifacts from India, Tibet, Nepal and other far eastern countries are preserved. Also, there are collection of 2000 rare miniature paintings from several art schools in India; decorative artworks made from wood, metal, jade and ivory; rare archeological artifacts dating back to the ‘Indus Valley’ civilization in the 2000 B.C can be seen in the museum. Remnants from the Mauryan as well as Gupta periods are displayed in the museum. There is a section in the museum that includes a collection of reptiles, mammals, amphibians, birds and fishes. On the other hand, another section in the museum displays Indian arms and armor, weapons, swords, shields. The museum has a section comprised of European oil paintings as well.Also Read: 25 Fantastic Beaches of IndiaSiddhivinayaka TempleProbably one of the most beautiful temples situated in Mumbai, the Siddhivinayak temple is definitely a must see in the city. Every day, more than 20000 devotees throng the temple to offer their prayers at the temple and on Tuesday special ‘puja’ and ‘darshan’ takes place. Bollywood celebrities too, visit Siddhivinayak to seek blessings. When one visits this place, they can admire the temple’s ancient style of architecture and its many features.Also Read: 30 Resorts for a Perfect Holiday Near MumbaiEssel WorldReckoned to be one of the first amusement parks in India, Essel world in Mumbai is a place for everyone. Situated in the Gorai Island, Essel World is one of the biggest amusement parks with its colossal infrastructure and several exciting dry and wet rides. The park remains open all year round and fun activities that can be enjoyed here include ice skating, dancing and bowling. The park has several rides that cater to all age groups and also there are avenues for shopping and food courts for people looking for a holistic experience.Also Read: 15 Interesting Places to Visit with Your KidsChor BazaarOne of the oldest markets in Mumbai, Chor Bazaar (Thieves’ Market) has a fascinating history that dates back to over 150 years. Located in South Mumbai, Chor Bazaar is a place to find stolen goods, just as the name suggests. You will usually find shopaholics thronging here as the goods can be bought here at throwaway prices. From antiques to Victorian furniture and fashion to electronics, a wide array of goods are available in this fascinating market.Note: On Fridays the market remains closedAlso Read: 20 Superb Places to See in JaipurSanjay Gandhi National ParkSituated within Mumbai, Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) has the distinction of being a wildlife reserve in a metropolitan . The national park is spread over an area of 104 sq km, andis popular among wildlife and nature enthusiasts. It is also the most visited places in Mumbai , and get about two million people annually. The park was earlier known as Borivali National Park and was renamed in 1990 after Congress leader and late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s son Sanjay. Ashok Van and Gaumukh are the trails commonly used by the trekkers. Whereas, the View Point trail is the most ambitious which takes you to the highest point in the park and offers a panoramic view of Mumbai and Tulsi, Vihar and Powai lakes. Barking deer, Hanuman langur and Indian flying fox, birds like jungle owlets, golden orioles among many others can be spotted here.Also Read: 15 Exceptional Tourist Spots in AhmedabadKanheri CavesNestled in the Sanjay Gandhi National Park at Borivali, the Kanheri Caves also known as the ‘lungs of Mumbai’ is amongst the best places to see during your holiday in the city. It is saide to be the only place in the city with the maximum amount of greenery and consequently, a lot of fresh air. Kanheri Caves premises offers a pleasant escape from the pollution and the bustling city life. The caves date back to 1st century BC and are reckoned to be one of the oldest caves in India. Kanheri Caves are renowned for their natural Basalt formations, ancient Indian styled architecture and the 109 special entrances to the caves. These caves were once a distinctive Buddhist institution for congregational worship, study and meditation.Also Read: 20 Resorts for an Unforgettable Family Outing Near HyderabadMahalakshmi TempleDedicated to honor ‘Goddess Mahalaxmi’, this is an ancient temple in Mumbai. A large number of believers throng this temple on Fridays. Also, during the days of ‘Navaratri’ festival, thousands of devotees throng this shrine to witness the celebrations. It is one of the major Hindu religious places in Mumbai.Also Read: 25 Temples in Delhi that You Must VisitMount Mary ChurchAn ancient church, built in 1640 and then rebuilt in 1761, The Basilica of Our Lady of the Mount is also an important religious place in Mumbai. What adds to the charm of this church even more is that it is sited on top of a hill known as ‘Sunderban Bandra’, which overlooks the mighty Arabian Sea. It is believed that the church has healing powers and for this reason, the church is often flocked by devotees. It is also said that those who sincerely pray at the Mount Mary Church often get their wishes fulfilled. The ‘Bandra Fair’ or the ‘Feast of Mount Mary’ is a week-long celebration held every September at the Mount Mary Church and is the best time to visit.Similar Destination: 25 Ways to Explore the Best of PuneRajabai Clock TowerLocated in South Mumbai, Rajabai Clock Tower stands in Mumbai University Fort Campus located next to the High Court. The tower is modelled on the Big Ben in London and has become one of the major tourist destinations in Mumbai. The tower holds a big clock which plays melodic tunes at fixed intervals. It has many impressive features as well and has been beautifully embellished with oriental figures.Also Read: 20 Incredible Tourist Spots in UdaipurKamla Nehru ParkSituated at Malabar Hill, Kamla Nehru Park is named after the wife of first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. The park is spread in an area of about 4,000 square feet and provides a great sight of Chowpatty Beach and also Marine Drive (Queen’s Necklace). Kamala Nehru Park has widespread verdant green surroundings. It is one among the most commonly visited places by children in Mumbai. The park has a diverse range of flowers and is famous for a unique structure, called the Old Woman’s Shoe or Boot House, that majorly attracts kids.Veermata Jijabai UdyanFormerly known as ‘Rani Bagh’ and ‘Victoria Gardens’, Veermata Jijabai Udyan is located in Byculla, which by the way isin the heart of Mumbai. The garden is also considered to be one of the oldest zoos of India. Another major attraction of this garden is the Bhau Daji Lad Museum, which is located in the same premises with the purpose of enhancing industrial as well as agricultural interests. There is an ancient statue of an elephant near the museum, which is believed to have been found at the Elephanta Caves. The garden is spread over 48 acres and also has a clock tower located near the entrance.Also Read: Discover Goa with these Best WaysDr. Bhau Daji Lad MuseumEarlier called the Victoria and Albert Museum, Dr Bhau Daji Lad Museum iwas built in 1872 and is one of Mumbai’s oldest museum. One can find a great number of archaeological findings, photographs, maps and relics that are extremely rare and that relate to Mumbai’s glorious history. The museum also displays over 4000 manuscripts and reference books along with several clay models, costumes, beautifully shaped silver and copper. Bronze sculptures, weapons, ivories, fossils, and decorative metal ware can also be found in this rich museum.Also Read: 10 Most Famous Museums in IndiaAksa BeachDotted with private cottages and hotels, Aksa Beach is a popular spot in Mumbai. Situated in Malad, the beach is a base of the Indian Navy. There is another small beach called Dana Paani, which is ideal for beach holiday in Mumbai. On Sundays and holidays, Aksa is packed with vacationing families and students. However during the week, it remains mostly silent and as well as clean. The place is ideal to sun bathe, watch sunrise and sunsets and to relax. After all there are very few place in the bustling metropolis of Mumbai where tranquility can surround one.Also Read: 14 Beaches in India that are Best for Family HolidaysSt. Thomas CathedralThe Cathedral of St. Thomas is one of the major landmarks in Mumbai. Built in 1718, the cathedral is the highlight of the early British settlement. In fact, St Thomas Cathedral was the first Anglican Church in the city and that is why it held tremendous religious significance for the Christian population of Mumbai. The Cathedral is a towering monument representing peace and is named after St. Thomas, one of the 12 Disciples of Jesus who also visited India.Also Read: 25 Churches in India that You Must VisitCrawford MarketCrawford Market is another popular spot in Mumbai. It is said to be one of the best places to buy household items. The market was the main wholesale market till 1966. and was spread in 72000 sq. Yards. What catches the eyes the most here is the this splendid architecture of Norman and Flemish styles. It is a place for those who want to savour different flavours as the market is replete with an array of dazzling fruits, vegetables and poultry along with aromas of the fresh cheese and homemade chocolate.Also Read: Top 10 rural bazaars in IndiaPowai LakePowai is an artificial lake situated in the Powai Valley in the northern suburbs of Mumbai which was named after Framaji Kavasji Powai Estate. This lake is one the beautiful places in the city and should not be on your visit to Mumbai. Located on the Salsette Island, next to the Powai village, Powai Lake is a calm and soothing spot where one can enjoy nature at its best. To the east of this lake is Indian Institute of Technology (IIT Mumbai) and National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE). There are also various luxurious hotels and housing complexes around the area of the lake.Also Read: 30 Mesmerizing Lakes You Must See in IndiaJehangir GalleryOne of the venues of the famed Kala Ghoda festivals, Jehangir Art Gallery was founded by Sir Cowasji Jehangir in 1952. This gallery is situated at Kala Ghoda, behind the Prince of Wales Museum, in South Mumbai near the Gateway of India, and has four exhibition halls. Over the years, this area has evolved as the center of art activity in the city and a place where artists, patrons and art lovers can meet and share their passion for art. The gallery is recognized nationally and internationally as a centre of contemporary Indian art. This interesting gallery hosts shows by local artists and the occasional big names and is also home to Samovar Café.Also Read: 15 Magnificent Architectural Sites in IndiaSt. George FortSt. George Fort or Fort George stands in the Fort area of Mumbai. Named after King George III, the fort was built in 1769 at the site of the Dongri Fort, as an extension of the fortified Bombay region. The reason behind its construction was to provide defence against an expected attack by Napoleon Bonaparte. The fort was also used as a storehouse of arms and ammunitions. Between 1889 and 1892, St. George Hospital was constructed at the fort site and its remains can still be seen. Rest, most of the fort is in ruins and travellers visit here to find the rich history that is hidden still in its arches and walls.Also Read: 15 Marvellous Forts in IndiaKhotachiwadi VillageKhotachi Wadi is like a tiny hamlet in South Mumbai’s Girgaum district which is famous for a pristine beach, Chowpatty. This is a heritage village has old-Portuguese style houses which have been home to Mumbai’s original inhabitants, the East Indian Christians. Khotachiwadi also offers the most defining image of Mumbai with tall buildings against the Arabian Sea. Most of the houses here are at least a hundred years old and are hand painted in bright colours and are either double or triple storied structures with high ceilings, large rooms and flanked by old-style verandas. This is a place that one must visit to experience an important part of Mumbai city.Also Read: Top Bars, Pubs & Clubs You Must See in Your Goa TripWorli SeafaceWorli Seaface features scenic surroundings that are characterised by endless azure waters of the Arabian Sea and view of distant Haji Ali Dargah. It is a posh and a major residential area in South Mumbai, which is inhabited mostly by affluent people. Extending from the Worli Fort in the north to Narayan Pujari Nagar in the south, this locality is a popular place of interest in the city. Famous for experiencing giant waves during monsoon season, it attracts locals and tourists alike. Worli Sea Face features a number of significant attractions like Worli Fort, Haji Ali Dargah and Bandra-Worli Sea Link (Rajiv Gandhi Sea Link). Besides, there are a number of high-end restaurants and shopping outlets as well.Also Read: Tourist Spots Near Taj Mahal in AgraGlobal Vipassana PagodaGlobal Vipassana Pagoda is a large meditation complex and memorial in Mumbai. It was built to honour Lord Buddha. Completed in 2008, this sacred edifice is counted amongst the biggest stone monuments across the Asiatic continent and houses the sacred bone relics of Gautam Buddha in the main dome. Another prominent highlight of this shrine is that it comprises the largest pillar-less dome in the world and surpasses Bijapur’s Gol Gumbaz in terms of size. Global Vipassana Pagoda mesmerises visitors with its architecture. It has a towering height of about 325 feet and the large meditation hall at the centre of this domed structure has an impressive seating capacity of 8000 people. Main attractions of this complex include the intricately carved Myanmar Gate and a giant marble statue of Buddha. The Bell Tower and its mirror image, Gong Tower depict Burmese architecture and add mote to the architectural charm of the shrine.Also Read: Breathtaking Hill Stations in IndiaNehru Science CentreNehru Science Centre covers various aspects of science and technology that is both interesting and informative. It is an ideal place to take your kids to. A part of the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM), this centre has more than 500 interactive exhibits that are related to various topics, including sound, energy, mechanics and kinetics. To be precise it is a science park and gallery where one can see different aspects of science. A major highlight of Nehru Science Centre is the three-dimensional science show which is named ‘Monsters of the Deep’. It takes people into an underwater world that seems real and where they can witness mythical monsters. A science odyssey named ‘Grand Canyon Adventure’ is also organised at this centre. This 45-minute film is based on the famous Grand Canyons of Arizona and attempts at spreading awareness about saving freshwater resources of the world.Also Read: Top 14 Museums for History LoversTaraporewala AquariumAnother great place to take your kids in Mumbai, Taraporewala Aquarium boasts of rich aquatic life. The kids can enjoy witnessing more than a hundred varieties of sea fish along with seven kinds of coral fish, octopus, shark, sea horse, moray eels, turtles and small starfish. Apart from these, products made using shells and pearls are showcased at the aquarium. Visitors can also visit the room that displays fossils, seashells and fish preserved in bottles.Also Read: Why Every Traveller Must Visit GoaWalk of StarsThe Walk of the Stars is a section of the Bandstand Promenade in Bandra, Mumbai that is built to honour the Bollywood film stars similar to the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The path features about six statues of famous Bollywood actors as well as about 100 brass plates embossed with the handprints and signatures of other Bollywood stars. The walk is 2km long and is definitely a place to visit if you are a Bollywood movies lover.I know the list missed out on some cafes and nightlife places. But we shall surely return with a special blog on it as well. In the meantime, do let us know what you feel about this blog and in case we missed out on some places that should have been here, please let us know in the comment box below. Apart from it, if you want to plan a trip to Mumbai or Maharashtra as a whole, don’t hesitate to reach out to us for best tour packages and deals. You can call us at +91-9212553106/07 or drop us an email at [email protected] with your queries. At Tour My India, we ensure that every trip of yours in India is memorable and hassle free.Click Here to Browse and Book Maharashtra’s Best Travel DealsPublished: August 16, 2016 Last Modified:February 13, 2018Plan Your Next Trip with100+ Travel ExpertsCLICK HERESubscribe NowGet the Latest Updates From TourMyIndia BlogEnter your email address:CategoriesHomeWildlifeAdventureHeritageHill StationsHolidaysHotelsPilgrimageTravel TipsTravel VideosBest DealsAmazing FactsTravel ExperienceInternational Travel BlogRecent PostsFemale Sloth Bear’s Fight with a Tiger in Tadoba Tells So Much About Motherhood5 Prominent Indian States Well-Known for their Customs & CostumesHow Planning a Honeymoon Can Create a Better Bond Between a Couple

The Spanish occupation by the Moors began in 711 AD when an African army, under their leader Tariq ibn-Ziyad, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from northern Africa and invaded the Iberian peninsula “Andalus” when Spain was under the Visigoths rules.The existence of a Muslim kingdom in Medieval Spain where different races and religions lived harmoniously in multicultural tolerance is one of today’s most widespread myths. University professors teach it. Journalists repeat it. Tourists visiting the Alhambra accept it. It has reached the editorial pages of the Wall Street Journal, which sings the virtues of the “pan-confessional humanism” of Andalusian Spain (July 18, 2003).The Economist echoes the belief: “Muslim rulers of the past were far more tolerant of people of other faiths than were Catholic ones. For example, al-Andalus’s multi-cultural, multi-religious states ruled by Muslims gave way to a Christian regime that was grossly intolerant even of dissident Christians, and that offered Jews and Muslims a choice only between being forcibly converted and being expelled (or worse).” The problem with this belief is that it is historically unfounded, a myth. The fascinating cultural achievements of Islamic Spain cannot obscure the fact that it was never an example of peaceful convivencia.The history of Islamic Spain begins, of course, with violent conquest. Helped by internal dissension among the Visigoths, in 711 A.D. Islamic warriors entered Christian Spain and defeated the Visigothic king Rodrigo. These Muslims were a mixture of North African Berbers, or “Moors,” who made up the majority, and Syrians, all led by a small number of Arabs proper (from the Arabian peninsula). The Crónica Bizantina of 741 A.D., the Crónica mozárabe of 754 A.D. and the illustrations to the thirteenth-century Cantigas de Santa María chronicle the brutality with which the Muslims subjugated the Catholic population. From then on, the best rulers of al- Andalus were autocrats who through brute force kept the peace in the face of religious, dynastic, racial, and other divisions.These divisions, and the ruthless methods of dealing with them, were not unique to Muslim Spain. The jihad launched around 634 against the then-Christian Middle East by the successors of Muhammad was marked by internal conflict after the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman (644-656). The founder of the Emirate of Cordoba, Abd al-Rahman I (734?-788), “The Emigrant,” had to flee Syria to avoid the extermination ordered against his Umayyad family by the rival Abassids.Allied with Berbers from North Africa and helped by Yemenite and Syriansettlers in Spain willing to betray their masters, he proceeded to enter Spain from Africa, defeat the governor of al- Andalus in 756, and make himself Emir. He kept peace among Muslims and between Muslims, Catholics, and Jews by means of an army of more than 40,000 soldiers. It was he who ordered the demolition of the ancient Catholic church of Cordoba to build the much admired mosque. During his reign and that of Abd al-Rahman II (822-852), the conqueror of Barcelona, Catholics suffered confiscations of property, enslavement, and increases in their exacted tribute, which helped finance the embellishment of Islamic Cordoba.Under Abd al-Rahman II and Muhammad I (822-886), a number of Catholics were killed in Cordoba for preaching against Islam, while others were expelled from the city. Among these victims was Saint Eulogio, beheaded by the Islamic authorities. Muhammad I ordered that “newly constructed churches be destroyed as well as anything in the way of refinements that might adorn the old churches added since the Arab conquest.”Abd al-Rahman III (912-961), “The Servant of the Merciful,” declared himself Caliph of Cordoba. He took the city to heights of splendor not seen since the days of Harunal- Rashid’s Baghdad, financed largely through the taxation of Catholics and Jews and the booty and tribute obtained in military incursions against Catholic lands.He also punished Muslim rebellions mercilessly, thereby keeping the lid on the boiling cauldron that was multicultural al- Andalus. His rule presumably marks the zenith of Islamic tolerance. Al-Mansur (d. 1002), “The One Made Victorious by Allah,” implemented in al-Andalus in 978 a ferocious military dictatorship backed by a huge army. In addition to building more palaces and subsidizing the arts and sciences in Cordoba, he burned heretical booksand terrorized Catholics, sacking Zaragoza, Osma, Zamora, Leon, Astorga, Coimbra, and Santiago de Compostela. In 985 he burned down Barcelona, enslaving all those he did not kill.By 1031 the internal divisions of al- Andalus had caused its fragmentation into several tyrannical little “kingdoms,” the socalled taifas.Between 1086 and 1212, new waves of Islamic jihadists from North Africa washed over the land. The first wave were the almoravides, fundamentalist warriors invited by the taifa rulers to help them against the growing strength of the Catholic kingdoms.With the support of the Muslim Andalusian masses and of Muslim legal scholars, who resented the heavy taxation and what they regarded as the debauched and impious life of their princely rulers, the almoravides deposed the taifa kings and unified Andalusia.They pushed back the Catholic advances and made the life of both Catholics and Jews much more difficult than before. By 1138, however, their empire was falling apart under pressure from the Catholic kingdoms and another wave of North African fundamentalist Muslims, the almohades. The almohades thought that the almoravides had become too lax in their practice of Islam—perhaps, one may surmise, because of contagion from the Catholics.By 1170 the almohades had taken control of Andalusia and unleashed new horrors on Catholics, Jews, and other Muslims. That the ruthless almohades also produced marvelous architecture and were responsible for the beauty of some mozarabic buildings, such as Santa María la Blanca in Toledo, captures nicely the true nature of Andalusian Spain. But the almohades were decisively beaten by the allied kings of Castile, Aragon, and Navarra at Navas de Tolosa in 1212. From then on the Catholics kept the military initiative, finally defeating the last Muslim kingdom, Granada, in 1492.The early Muslim invaders were relatively small in numbers, so it was politically prudent to grant religious autonomy to Catholics, while trying to protect themselves from the “contagion” of Catholic influence by segregating themselves from the subject majority. Therefore they maintained the Catholics in a state of dhimmitude —as a “protected” class curtailed from any possibility of sharing political power or compromising the hegemonic position of Islam. In times of war or political turmoil, the Catholics’ freedom was further restricted. Catholics fleeing Muslim rule lost all “protection,” and their property was confiscated by the conquerors. “Tolerance at this extreme,” notices historian Robert I. Burns, “is not easily distinguished from intolerance.”For similar reasons of strategy, not “tolerance,” the invaders obtained the help of Jewish leaders unhappy with their treatment under the Visigoths. Contrary to popular opinion, Jews were not very numerous, either in Andalusia or in Catholic Spain, but for a time Jewish garrisons kept an eye on Catholics populations in key cities like Cordoba, Granada, and Toledo. Jewish leaders achieved positions of power, as visirs (prime ministers), bankers, and counselors. Others wrote brilliant literary works, mostly in Arabic. Jews thus formed for a time an intermediary class between the hegemonic Muslims and the defeated Catholics. This was the so-called “Spanish Jewish Golden Age.” But Jews remained dhimmi, a group subject to and serving the Muslim rulers.These presumably “best of times” ended in any event with the arrival of the jihadist almoravides and almohades. Jews as well as Catholics fell victim to their religious zeal. Many Jews migrated to Catholic lands, where some became important writers (the author of the Zohar) and men of influence (diplomats, bankers, tax collectors, finance ministers to kings). They participated in the achievements of the reign of Alfonso X “The Learned” of Leon and Castile (1221- 1284), who gathered in Toledo speakers of many languages and ordered the translation of Arabic moral works such as the Calila e Dimna along with the production of Spanish scientific, legal, and historical treatises, and who himself wrote lyric poems in Spanish and a classic of Galician literature, the Cantigas de Santa María.Upon conversion, some members of formerly Jewish families (conversos) reached important positions within the government (the wealthy Luis de Santangel, tax collector and financial officer to Ferdinand and Isabella, and Gabriel Sanchez, treasurer of the kingdom of Aragon) and the church (bishop Pablo de Santa María, and Tomás de Torquemada), and even intermarried with the nobility.They also suffered periodic bloody persecutions at the hands of peasants and the urban lower classes while being generally protected by the upper nobility and the higher echelons of the church, in a way reminiscent of Islamic “protection.”This pattern had been evident under Muslim rule as well: in Granada in 1066—before the arrival of the almoravides—rioting Muslim mobs assassinated the rabbi and visir Joseph Ibn Naghrela and destroyed the entire Jewish community; thousands perished—more than those killed by mobs in the Rhineland at the beginning of the First Crusade.Commenting on these events, the memoirs of king Abd Allah of Granada (c. 1090) muster familiar anti-Jewish accusations against the visir: avarice, deception, treason, and favoritism toward coreligionists.Muslim suspicion of the Jewish community lasted until the end of Islamic rule: before surrendering Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, Muslims inserted a clause in the peace treaty protecting themselves fromfeared Jewish hegemony: “their Highnesses [the Catholic monarchs] will not allow Jews to lord or be tax collectors over Moors.”“The Golden Age of equal rights was a myth,” writes historian Bernard Lewis, “and belief in it was a result, more than a cause, of Jewish sympathy for Islam.” Nevertheless, some writers continue to insist that “Jews lived happily and productively in Spain for hundreds of years before the Inquisition and the Expulsion of 1492.”Let us then consider more closely the evidence for the supposed Andalusian multicultural harmony. This enlightened state presumably culminated under the exemplary reign of Abd-al-Rahman III, “The Servant of the Merciful” (912-961).The admiring words of the contemporary Muslim historian Ibn Hayyan, however, reveal a different picture: Abd-al-Rahman III, we are told, kept Islam safe from religious dissension, “saving us from the trouble of having to think for ourselves”; under him “the people were one, obedient, quiet, submissive, not self-sufficient, governed rather than governing”; he succeeded by applying religious inquisition efficiently, “persecuting factions by all means available…chastising the innovations of those who drifted away from the views of the community.”This tenth-century ruler, long before the almoravids and almohads, was as effective as he was at maintaining control, thanks to the thoroughness so admired by his chronicler, which included the exhumation of the muladí (a Muslim of partly or wholly Catholic ancestry) rebel Omar ben Hafsun and his son—in order to prove that both had died as Catholics and thus justify the public desecration of their bodies. With the money collected from the taxation of Catholics and Jews and from the booty and tribute obtained through military incursions into Catholic lands, Abd-al-Rahman III not onlyembellished Cordoba, but built for his favorite female slave a splendid palace, Medina-Zahara. It contained 300 baths, 400 horses, 15,000 eunuchs and servants, and a harem—not a Catholic institution— of 6,300 women. In 1010 the Berbers destroyed the palace in the course of their jihad and knifed all its occupants.In the eleventh century, again before the invasion of almoravides and almohades, the man of letters Ibn Hazm saw his books burned and was imprisoned several times. And long after almoravid and almohad rule, the fourteenth-century thinker Ibn al-Jatib was persecuted, exiled to Morocco, and assassinated in prison. Indeed, already in the first century after the conquest, the malikite way of Islam “configured a closed society in which alfaquis, muftis, and cadis exercised an iron control over the Muslim and non-Muslim population.”No wonder that when political correctness did not yet exist, the great historian of Islam Evariste Lévi-Provençal observed: “The Muslim Andalusian state appears from its earliest origins as the defender and champion of a jealous orthodoxy, more and more ossified in a blind respect for a rigid doctrine, suspecting and condemning in advance the least effort of rational speculation.”Of course, such official injunctions were not always obeyed. But laxity of enforcement was not unique to Andalusia. It has existed also in other societies, most often for the powerful or rich. As Ibn Abdun again wisely writes, “No one will be absolved because of a transgression against religious law, except in the case of people of high social position, who will be treated accordingly, as the Hadith stipulates: ‘Forgive those in elevated social position,’ since for them corporal punishment is more painful.”Let us next examine racial tolerance. The Quran does not proclaim the innate superiority of any racial group. But the enslavement of black Africans was an entrenched part of the culture of Andalusia. So was racial prejudice. In his Proverbs, al-Maydani (d. 1124) wrote, “the African black, when hungry, steals; and when sated, he fornicates.”Traveling through Africa, Ibn Battuta (1207-1377?) claimed that blacks were stupid, ignorant, cowardly, and infantile. These attitudes could be found throughout the Islamic world. Early in the wonderful Arabian Nights, the worst thing about the adultery of the wives of kings Sahzman and his brother Shariyar is that their infidelity was with blacks. In Nights 468, a black slave is rewarded for his goodness by being transformed into a white man. A similar case occurs in the eleventhcentury “Epistle of the Pardon” by al- Ma’arri, where a black woman, because of her good behavior, ends up as a white huri in Paradise.In 1068, before the arrival of the almoravids, the cadi of Muslim Toledo, the Arab Sa’id Ibn Ahmadi, wrote a book classifying the nations of the world. In it he accounted the inhabitants of the extreme North and South as barbarians, describing Europeans as white and mentally deficient because of undercooking by the sun, and Africans as black, stupid, and violent because of overcooking. In contrast, Arabs were done just right. Racial self-consciousness led the Andalusian Ibn Hazm to insist that the Prophet Muhammad, his family, and his predecessors, were all white and ruddy-skinned.What about the claim regarding the “progressive” status of women in Andalusia? Muslim treatises tell a different story. Ibn Abdun lists numerous rules for female behavior in everyday life: “boat trips of women with men on the Guadalquivir must be suppressed”; “one must forbid women to wash clothes on the fields, because the fields will turn into brothels. Women must not sit on the river shore in the summer, when men do”; “one must especially watch out for women, since error is most common among them.” Elsewhere he also condemns wine drinking, gambling, and homosexuality, following the Quran and the Hadith.22 Truly “liberated” women like the now much admired Wallada bint al-Mustafki (994-1091) were exceptions.The average woman inAndalusia was treated much the same as elsewhere under Islamic sharia, with practices like wearing the hijab (following Quran S. xxxiii. 59), separation from men, confinement to the household, and other limitations that did not exist in Catholic lands. Even the much praised poetry of El collar de la paloma displays attitudes that would be called misogynistic today.What misleads some observers is a phenomenon occurring in many societies: on the one hand, men treat their wives, sisters, and daughters as worthy of respect in certain ways the men consider well-intentioned, which may include sheltering them in the house, keeping them away from opportunities to have sex outside accepted channels, or even hiding their faces and the contours of their bodies; on the other hand, the same men grant much “freedom” to women they do not consider worthy of respect, such as dancers, singers, concubines, mistresses, slaves, or prostitutes, who may display greater “knowledge” and “intellectual sophistication” than their more respected sisters.This was the case, for example, in ancient Greece, where Pericles could have his mistress, the hetaira Aspasia, participate in areas of public life unthinkable for a proper Greek wife, sister, or daughter. Yet no one speaks of the remarkable freedom granted by ancient Greece to its women. This difference in treatment was in fact noticed by Muslim writers, such as al- Yahiz in the ninth-century Middle East; and after three hundred years, the great Andalusian philosopher Averroes observed that things had not changed: the lives of free women, he noticed, were plant-like, revolving around birthing and caring for the family.23 Averroes deplored the situation, but such disagreements were precisely what contributed to his persecution and eventual banishment from al-Andalus.The justly celebrated artistic achievements of Islamic Spain suffer from relatedlimitations. The lack of a central authority in Sunni Islam, the ruling form in al- Andalus, has allowed clerics a range of interpretation that runs from looking down upon certain activities to rejecting them altogether. Thus, artistic representations of Muhammad and of the human form in general have been almost unanimously rejected throughout Islam—although one finds exceptions in some countries at some point or another, for example in Persia and Turkey. This fundamental prohibition has curtailed the artistic range of Islam, with the human body finding no representation and painting confined to abstract lines and curves.An even greater problem exists with music. Islam does not forbid the creation of music. And again, greater freedom has been enjoyed by the powerful and the wealthy, who could at times patronize musicians and singers who in al-Andalus pleased rich and poor alike. But the dominant religious position has been to impede the existence of music as much as possible.Malik ben Anas (713-795), founder of the Sunni malikite Islamic “way,” to which a majority of Andalusian Muslims belonged, considered music an enemy of piety. Hence Ibn Abdun: “musicians must be suppressed, and, if this cannot be done, at least they must be stopped from playing unless they get permission from the cadi.”Even today, some Islamic ascetics forbid the use of music in religious acts. In fact, the music one hears in mosques does not go beyond the sound of tambourines, an instrument not conducive to the creation of great musical scores. The curious result was that, in Andalusia, the best “Arabic” music turns out to be mozarabic— that is, the music of Catholics under Muslim domination: Catholics could and did adapt “Muslim” sounds to a religious ritual—the Mass—which had no problems with using music for spiritual purposes and which as a result has produced impressive orchestral and choral compositions.Similarly, other violations of Muslim practices (such as the prohibition on drinking wine) by the powerful of Andalusia, often pointed out as proof of the unique tolerance of Muslim Spain, resulted from the corrupting influence of Catholics, who drank wine liberally. Such exceptions were not unique to Andalusia.They can also be found in other Muslim communities along the Mediterranean where historic Catholic influence has remained relatively strong, such as Tunisia. The influence of non-Muslim civilizations may account also for other deviations from orthodoxy, not only in Andalusia, but in places like Persia (Iran) and India. The risqué quality of many tales in the Arabian Nights may well trace its origin to the pre-Muslim Persians and even the Christian Byzantines. The Muslim poet Omar Khayyam sang the beauties of wine, song, and sex, but he was Persian. Another instance is the Andalusian poet Ibn Quzman, much praised today for his singing of eroticism and homosexuality: his admirers overlook that he was blond and blue-eyed, and that these facts, together with a name like Ibn Quzman (Guzmán or Guttman), mean that he was of Hispanic (indeed Visigothic, that is, Germanic) origin.In fairness to Islam, it must be said that convivencia was not furthered by the other two religious groups of al-Andalus either. The Catholic lower classes did not harbor much good will toward Muslims, Jews, or those of their own who converted to Islam— whom they called “renegades.”Their position on the Andalusian totem pole prevented their acting on these feelings, which they at times vented amply in Catholic lands; but in Andalusia Catholics were an integral part of a multicultural social system characterized by “group isolation, superficial contacts, and reciprocal hatreds.”True, the Quran claims that Christians are dearer to Muslims than are Jews (S. v. 82), but this theoretical advantage was not of much help in practice. Catholics even suffered mass deportations: at the beginning of the twelfth-century, Muslims expelled the Catholics (mozarabs) of Malaga and Granada en masse to Morocco. Muslims rarely authorized the building of new churches, the repair of old ones, or the tolling of bells. In twelfth century Granada, Muslims destroyed the entire Catholic population. Even the muladies, unhappy with their inferior status, revolted against their rulers (cf. Omar ben Hafsun), while the mozarabs also resented their condition and occasionally colluded with their brethren in the Catholic kingdoms.The Spanish Jewish community was not much more harmonious, perhaps because of “contagion” from the zeal of Spanish Muslims and Catholics.The autonomy granted by their dhimmi status in Andalusia may also have favored intolerance. In Granada, rabbi and visir Ibn Naghrela “The Prince” boasted that “[Andalusian] Jews were free of heresy, except for a few towns near Christian kingdoms, where there is suspicion that some heretics live in secret. Our predecessors have flogged a part of those who deserved to be flogged, and they have died from flogging.”In Catholic lands in the eleventh century, Orthodox Jews persecuted the then thriving Karaite Jewish community, which rejected the authority of the Talmud, and expelled it. Spanish Jewish literature was not averse to showing hostility towards Muslims and Catholics: Abraham bar Hiyya (d. c. 1136) concentrated on the Catholics, while the Cancionero of Antón de Montoro preferred to satirize the mudéjares.Both the Muslims and the Catholics were treated harshly in some of the works of the Andalusian Talmudic commentator and philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135-1204). His views could have been affected by his unhappy experiences: the almohades’ enforced conversions caused Maimonides and his family to escape first to the Catholic kingdoms and later to Morocco and Egypt. No wonder that in a letter to Jewish Yemenites he wrote that no “nation” compared to Islam in the damage and humiliation it had inflicted on “Israel.”By any objective standards, then, and in spite of its undeniable artistic, literary, and scientific accomplishments, and of modern wishful “let-us-all-get-along” thinking that tries to gloss over evidence to the contrary, Islamic Spain was not a model of multicultural harmony. Andalusia was beset by religious, political, and racial conflicts controlled in the best of times only by the application of tyrannical force. Its achievements are inseparable from its turmoil.How then can one explain the persistence of the belief that Andalusia was a land of peaceful coexistence? The historian Richard Fletcher has attempted one possible explanation: “[In] the cultural conditions that prevail in the West today the past has to be marketed, and to be successfully marketed it has to be attractively packaged. Medieval Spain in a state of nature lacks wide appeal. Self-indulgent fantasies of glamour…do wonders for sharpening up its image. But Moorish Spain was not a tolerant and enlightened society even in its most cultivated epoch.”Another explanation could be what one might call Spanish self-hatred, the obverse of what once was Spanish self-aggrandizement. Such a view allies itself effortlessly with many non-Spaniards’ hatred of CatholicSpain, in an attitude that sooner or later brings up Las Casas’ condemnation of the Spanish conquest of the Americas—while ignoring the question of why there was not an English, Dutch, or French Las Casas to criticize the English, the French, and the Dutch. As if these nations carried out conquests that left undisturbed the native populations of their colonial lands.A more convincing explanation may be that extolling al-Andalus offers the double advantage of surreptitiously favoring multiculturalism and deprecating Christianity, which is one of the foundations of Western civilization. This mechanism is not unlike that in the mind of those who dislike Western culture intensely, but who with the fall of Communism find themselves without any clear alternative and so grab Islam as a castaway grabs anything that floats. So anyone who dislikes Western culture or Christianity—for any reason, be it religious, political, or cultural—goes on happily pointing out, regardless of the facts, how bad Catholic Spain was when compared to the Muslim paradise.SOURCE:Fernández Morera: “The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise: Muslims, Christians, and Jews Under Islamic Rule in Medieval Spain”. ISI Books, 2016. ISBN-13: 978-1610170956