Ordination Consecration Progress Report: Fill & Download for Free

There is a lot we do not understand about the Minoans. The written language, Linear A, is not recognised as any known or similar too any archaic language. A few words are recognised (deities and commodities), we don’t understand the language (the wider picture) or candidly its origin, it is a lost language branch, possibly a hugely old one.We can identify a few of the dots from the archaeological record, but how all these connect is very difficult to say. There are too few to make a meaningful assessment. The only word we use today of Minoan origin is ‘purple,’ after the murex dye that they invented, but most think it a Phoenician invention. The Minoans didn’t give away their advantages, so we get little insight from other cultures other than the goods they imported and occasional records usually relating to trade with Minoa.Then there is an abundance of highly concentrated dots from archaeology and we don’t know what they mean! An example is hand-made clay figurines purposeful smashed at peak sanctuaries, we have no idea why.It is not like other civilisations such as the Egyptian, Sumerian or the Classical Greek world where there is a huge body of written work we can refer too which gives context, all their papyrus records are lost to time. In the case of Minoa, it is virtually all based on the archaeological record, it requires analysis (which may not necessarily be correct) and what is mostly found is bric-a-brac, the few fine pieces that are very rare, hint to a sophisticated (for the time) technologically highly progressive society.I would summarise the Minoan society as:1) Organised2) Scientific3) Commercial4) Creative and5) LawfulWhat I have described are the characteristics of their deities, respectively: Mother Earth (1), daughter Moon (2), twin and son, the Sun (3), and his consort Venus (4). The lawgiver is Minos (not shown) and is likely the ultimate authority (even over their deities), the thumb(5)! The fingers of the hand!The Minoans are a new way of thinking that was introduced into Cyclades culture around 2800 BCE. Cyclades culture at least according to the material art(efacts), should be considered Mediterranean island art, it suggests the islands were all trading tool materials in prehistory. Many would consider this a classic example of Cycladic art,this piece is from Sardinia, Ozieri culture. I’ve purposefully included this as perhaps these early Mediterranean island cultures should be considered collectively and allude to established trade networks, which places Minoa in context. This is Cycladic culture, but you can see they are stylistically similar. The figures don’t have mouths (male or female). Mom’s the word. They look so modern and inspired the modern-art movement, these artefacts typically date from 3,200 BCE, just before the Minoans and Dactyls (the fingers) according to oral tradition are its founders, that introducing new practices from around 2800 BCE which define the start of Minoan culture.The islands are moving tool materials such as obsidian (later metals), between islands that are used for distribution to the mainland ports from around 4500 BCE, well before the Minoans.The founders of Minoan Crete according to myth are considered to be the Dactyls (the fingers), that guard the Idaean caves where according to the seal below the metal ingots [metallic money] is kept, and their sisters the Hecaterides (the other hand - Priestess). The thumbs: Herakles (Leader) and Griffon (protecting the Great Year), respectively. They see things in these terms, note they are using unusually base 10 numbers (also used for internal accountancy, decimalised), this I suspect is also related to hexameter verse, used for epics such as Homeric poems and by the Delphic Oracle (likely of Minoan origin), the metered language of statecraft.This seal is important as it puts Minoan society in context. The Minos, top right, is the thumb and law-giver - the ultimate authority according to the seal, the four deities (fingers), top-left branch. The four houses of priestess are shown bottom right which likely have functional duties aligned to their deities, but note there is a Griffon (the thumb). There is a level of speculation in this paragraph! Without doing so, it is difficult to make any progress into how this society is actually structured, which is my main point!An aside, if we assume that The Eleusinian Mysteries: The Rites of Demeter are based on the Bees shown above (Mother Earth and Daughter Moon or in Greek terms Demeter and Persephone/Artemis), then it may explain why initiates had no fear of death after they learned the secret. The Griffon protect long time (the Great Year, a 26,000-year cycle, as mother Earth wobbles backwards throughout the Ages due to precession of the equinox, the pole stars are often presented on the Griffons wing which changes with the Ages), the other deities represent a shorter period of time well within a human lifetime: Earth day, Lunar Month, Solar Year and five visibility cycles of Venus (eight-years plus one or two days, nine using the older system of inclusive counting). People fear the unknown, but the Minoans understand Astronomy, they seek to better understand the cycles of life (nature)! There is nothing to fear, each generation is an integral part of this process (humanity collectively). Do you see a throne or a model of the workings of the (inner) solar system and how this is observed by (Mother) Earth? As this story unfolds the Minoan visual language to express abstract concepts will become more clear.Fig. 27. Photomontage of the north wall of the Throne Room. Prepared by and courtesy of Ute Günkel-Maschek. THE POWER OF IMAGES: RE-EXAMINING THE WALL PAINTINGS FROM THE THRONE ROOM AT KNOSSOSThe Minoans are secretive, they don’t give away their advantage. We can see some technology transfer that occurs around collapse events (likely when some left to set up new colonies).Let's assess each of the four pillars (fingers) and leaders (thumbs) of this society and what we don’t know about each. With a focus on the administrators, the priestess (shown bottom-right) left more in the archaeology record.1). Organisation - The Priestess of Mater Theia (Demeter), Mother Earth - Winter and NorthInternal affairs are managed by the Priestess (bottom-right, far right being the embodiment of Mother Earth: the Mother Superior) with likely corresponding roles to their deities (top-left, second figure), which can express cardinal direction and seasons also, so possibly corresponding duties in this society.The Mother Superior is likely shown behind the altar and possibly partner to the Minos. The etymology of Demeter is interesting, I-DA-MA-TE in linear A, referencing Ida (mountain) and its caves are where they kept the metallic metal ingots as shown above.The Minoans see things in terms of continuing the generations (those shown with upheld hands). This may have been no hereditary King Minos and Queen, but King Minos is referred to in some accounts but maybe how other cultures and city-states describe Minoan leaders (other cultures would not have a term to describe what may have been elected leaders with a limited term in office at this time). Myth hints to this, ‘Minos was last to leave the Arena’ and ‘went to the Caves (Ida) to consult with Zeus every nine years to bring in new laws,’ note the nine Olives of victory, Minos means nine and likely represents an Octaeteris (eight-year plus one or two days) using a much older tradition of inclusive counting nine and possibly a term in office for the War-chief (Minos) and High Priestess (Mother Superior), noting the nine Olives of Victory associated with Minos and the nine ridges on the back of Mother Superiors chair shown below.This may suggest leaders were selected by trial (there is wider iconography that supports a gauntlet of military trails and selection process), both may need to jump the bull to obtain office.Is this a bull-leaper or a potential Mother Superior in charge of the Priestess?If the high priestess, likely to be confident and talented: ‘strong’ leaders of external (Minos) and internal affairs of state (Mother Superior) and would be the world’s first republic, though how each might of been selected is not known. The art alludes to this, it does not concretely confirm it. I get a sense of equality between the sexes, however, each having a clear role. Challenges and life are addressed as a couple. The fresco from Thera tends to suggest each gender were schooled separately, the boys in defence (e.g. boxing) and trade, and girls in nature and organisation. Each seems to excel at what they do. Minoan art and artifacts are just so well executed, they take pride in their ships and the priestess well organised, they are to use a modern-term professional.Minoan accountancy records are reasonably well understood, the Palace set quota for farms (which implies that they survey fields to establish potential crop yields), variance monitored and carry over balances to the next accounting period (harvest). There appears to be a system of credit used by at least the elites, which are calling down commodities from Palaces magazines using personal seals and settled presumably at harvest or on payday.Recall that the four deities also represent periods of time, the Minoans have Palace tokens which are in use from around 1800 BCE. Rosettes are used to represent any one of the four deities but are context-specific, when items are shown at the periphery it means to divide by this number. So 1/2 Lunar month, confirmed by the 14 Earth days on the header: the bees! The deities assist this society in practical matters of everyday life, days, month, years and a term in office for the leaders.Many examples exist showing gold tokens being issued and are found in quantity in hordes, they likely represent work done, in some cases a month's salary (see below). These tokens do seem to be carried on the person but are often presented as jewellery (note the armbands in frescos, they are worn by men and women), I think it likely they are used for payments for big-ticket or capital items or to set up a Palace account at another location, which day to day items can then be called down against using personal seals.An important aspect of this is that the economy is pegged to actual work done by professional classes and value is unwritten in gold bullion, this is a great basis to build an economy, the gold standard. How extensive the use of Palace currency was is difficult to say, however, seems to include the Priestess and possibly the elites, landed and merchant classes.This suggests Palace administration had a basis for converting any commodity into Palace currency (a measure of work done), they are trading in city-state surpluses and these all need metal (see trade, the seven dots in a circle are likely the seven metals of antiquity (metal ingots), you can also see the petal motif (rosette, shown below on the Phaistos Disc, the first example of printing). Archaeologists generally assume that accounting records show quantities for a commodity if we assume that they have a base currency some may be showing a table of equivalence for exchange.These tokens which feature silk moths, bees or rosettes, facilitate quick transactions or could have been used to purchase stock in port to trade at other ports or pay crew! It is a brilliant instrument of trade, no weighing, count the tokens. No material tests are needed and yes it is also likely they had assaying tests as did the Egyptians for gold purity, but you don’t need them with these, they're issued by the Palace, a trusted source.We just don’t know how sophisticated these systems were but allude to banking functions, with some data to support seed-corn loans to set up new production: an organised economy which is modelled on a bee colony, the island their food source, the Palace administration being the hive. The Priestess of Demeter (Queen bee) are likely planning to store sufficient grain to get at least the Palace, but possibly the island through the barren winter months and growing year through to the next harvest. The harvest is likely gathered or overseen by the Priestess of Potnia Theron (also a reference to Autumn, worker bees), collectively the Bees. Shortfalls would need to be made up through trade (Summer) and seed sown (spring), which perhaps is how what appear to be the four houses of priestess may have been organised (keep this in mind as the story unfolds). Each deity can refer to a cardinal direction, season or period of time, the context gives the intended meaning.We can see one of many underground grain silos outside the palace of Knossos and ‘hidden’ underfloor storage for more precious things in banks of palace magazines (two shown, there are many). People will have paid their tax in either goods or produce. The priestess kept Sacred Groves where likely specialist plants were cultivated, in the introduction to the London Medical Papyrus (found in Egypt but thought to be of Minoan origin) suggest healers were from the House of Potnia Theron or reported into these priestesses (and not Apollo which is normally associated with healing and medicine, unless it is those of Apollo which are the medical practitioners and those of Potnia Theron that are responsible for the medicine cabinet - sacred groves, which were likely, not dissimilar to Kew Gardens, that gather seeds and plants from around the world and cultivate them and NO-ONE is allowed to harm them, they are sacred, it's the islands medicine cabinet). What shown below is commodity storage (grain bulks) and more precious things in magazines, but they seem to value (exotic) growing things just as much, such as saffron, murex for dyes, sea silk, honey (some of the first beehives) and controversially opium poppies.Artifacts and frescos suggest at least a very good understanding of Astronomy (the Minoans have already defined most of the periods used on the much later Antikythera mechanism which can be inferred by fresco borders, here is a quick example: 49 lunar months are shown in the horizontal border, a four year Olympiad when they add an intercalated 13th month to keep the solar and lunar calendar aligned, possibly referred to as Ophiuchus (the Snake bearer constellation). The 14 verticle devices are likely referring to years, collectively a Saros cycle of 18 years (when all the celestial bodies return to their original position, useful to predict eclipses, which other artifacts suggest they could do).Ophiuchus is likely represented by the so-called ‘snake goddess’. Would you call the month the Olympic games celebrated a goddess? It's likely a symbol representing this celebration and likely used as a navigational constellation also (the snake bearer's elbow is similar to Orion’s belt but on the opposite side of the night sky). One male the other female, the Minoan seem to have this balance between genders but with clearly defined roles.In my opinion, the so-called Minoan snake goddess is Ophiuchus representing the 13th intercalated ‘leap’ month inserted each fourth year, giving an Olympiad. Similarly, the so-called Poppy goddess is also another symbol associated with I-DA-MA-TE (Demeter), resource storage.2). Science/Technology (the art of Science) - Autumn, West - The Priestess of Potnia Theron (Artemis)There are certain things in the archaeological archive which allude to the study of nature (Physics), we don’t know how scientific this was?There are NO written documents that record astronomy. There are myths of Herakles (thumb) and his brother (the fingers) introducing running races to the mainland, but that is all. There is a story behind the games, it's based upon an improved understanding of time using this visual language (it's difficult to ignore once you know it exists). Boy, I can’t wait for the next Olympics to celebrate!Astronomy is all shown in artwork and artifacts, so what they actually know about astronomy can’t easily be concretely confirmed. The artifacts suggest it may be very advanced for the time, Minoans have devices to calculate astronomical periods, including eclipses using Saros cycles with 94% accuracy in the 16th century BCE. This is a casting stone to make many copies in likely bronze. The lunar device is shown on the right, noting the first recorded use of a seven-day week (moon phase), that flip-flops before advancing a position on the solar device on the left (allowing a 29.5day month to be maintained), a full rotation being a four year Olympiad.It is likely observations were made at peak sanctuaries and if you look carefully note the measuring devices. Poles to align astronomical targets (stars) and mark their passage for timekeeping (this method also being used in Egypt). Peak sanctuaries have a commanding view of the shipping lanes and farms which area could be measured to set quota (and tax) confirmed by records (oddly the numbering system and commodities are reasonably well understood in Linear A although the language is not). Geometry in its first form is the study (measurement) of land area.There is a sense that Minoans wanted to understand the underlying rules of nature. It's extraordinary what they seem to know, changes in magnetic declination are recorded in building orientation (this alludes to Earth Science), this is confirmed by oral tradition the Dactyls are accredited with discovering the lodestone (compass) and magnetite is available on the island of Skyros. There are 34 markings on the periphery, using their convention it can mean to divide by the number shown, so 1/34 is 10.6 degrees. This is the magnetic declination to true north when the Kernos is dated to 1800 BCE [1] [2]. The main marking is orientated West to indicate the offset to True North. There is a significant change around this time and likely why this was being monitored, to inform maritime high sea navigation. This is what we would call today, Earth Science and it's being studied in a scientific manner in 1800 BCE! The Minoans were purposefully orientating their building to monitor changes in magnetic declination from around 1900 BCE[3].Inspection of the Bulgarian ARC shows a large and rapid declination amplitude swing of about 16, from ~ 1850 BC, Declination = +18.56 0 to ~1770 BC. Declination = +2.580 (Kovacheva et al, 1998).http://maajournal.com/Issues/2011/Vol11-1/2_Downey.pdfMinoans had optical instruments. These lenses were found in a mountain top cave (Ida). There understanding of physics (an example of Minoan optics show below) may well be comparable to that of the time of Newton, I would argue it could have been better, they will have been considering the motion of the planets for many centuries, not a single lifetime. They preserve a hugely old tradition of astronomy first recorded by artifacts from Çatalhöyük, founded in the seventh millennium BCE, yes, this tradition is that old and they use some of the same symbols recorded on some of the oldest stone tablets found at this site too, which are present in Vinca symbols (split wood was used to record linear incisions which are very similar to Linear A and with some identical symbols) and used around the Balkans around 5000 BCE which may be the parent writing system to Linear A and Aegean numerals.In any event, they have the most advanced theoretic model of the solar system for the time. This point can NOT be understated and is difficult to ignore, although a degree of interpretation is required in evaluating Minoan art (which seem to refer to precise astronomical periods), some appear to greater accuracy than in the classic Greek period and arguable is comparable to that of the time of the enlightenment in Newton’s time. Conventions such as a week (lunar phases) and hours all seem to be shown way before history records they are ‘first’ defined, not by the written record but in Minoan art!The device below often features in fresco borders and on altars of peak sanctuaries, it summarises their observable solar model, it has 12 petals (hours) on each side, 24 hours in the day, the spirals represent solstices (top and bottom) and equinox (middle spiral), there are 12 marks (hours) at equinoxes. A careful review of Tell el-Daba fresco fragments alludes to further subdivision into 5. This precedes the conventionally attested dating of the “Egyptian 24-hour” established in 127 BCE and the minute attested to Ptolemy in the 2nd century[4]. The Minoans have a visual language to express astronomical concepts defining time. There are no written works to confirm this, just what appears at first glance to be ‘pretty” borders.What did they think was keeping the celestial bodies in orbit? They hint to gravity in family relationships, one deity (celestial body) is bound to the other (in orbit), maiden daughter Moon to mother Earth, consort Venus to the Sun. Note the deities are expressed backwards, they do this when referred to the deities as celestial bodies (the organised ones) which do rotate and orbit counterclockwise confirmed in the frieze spirals (outwards) above. You can only tell the story chronologically, mother Earth then daughter Moon (with bow), son (Sun) and his lady consort (Venus), as per the myth of the founding of Delos. The artist usually give hints but if they want to, for example, refer to seasons they would place the deities in calendar order. There must have been entire codex of mathematics, the study of the celestial bodies and astronomy and we know next to NOTHING of this. What we have is art that confirms the correct number counts for astronomical periods without written proof of how this was determined.Mother Earth giving a DAY, daughter Moon giving a Lunar MONTH, son giving a Solar Year and consort an eight-year Octaeteris of Venus.What is presented as the Minoan religion, is based on observation (good science) and their deities are practical and underpin society, they are the celestial bodies and they are more regular than clockwork, they define time (keeping).Their belief system is possibly based on a hugely old one, which can be traced back to the first calendar used at Göbekli Tepe and better qualified by artifacts from Çatalhöyük, alluded to by symbols used for Mother Earth (shown on the blouse tapes in the Demeter Fresco, shown later) and ‘H’, serif ‘I’, that may represent solstice and equinox, sometimes shown as reversed parenthesis )(, endure to Minoan times and are presented herein, in Luwian, its meaning is thought to be ‘god’ but the original meaning may be more; ‘natural order’, the repeated and observable cycles of life.Another example is the Labrys - Wikipedia, it could well be a symbol of Minoan power, but it looks like an instrument to me, one can trace the technology transfer to Phoenicia which becomes straight-edged and eventually led to the Jacob's staff (the first recognised marine sextant).The axe heads can slide on the shaft which as you can see below have markings. The original device is more useful it can signal (flat copper plates riveted together, gold in some cases for smaller devices). Many have postulated its use, it both reflects light and casts a shadow. It may have been used for timekeeping and navigation, as well as having ceremonial significance, my own view is it became culturally significant as it was a useful tool.There is line-of-sight between peak sanctuaries, Ladyrs likely did have many functions, not least providing navigational fire beacons at night for the small wooden boats (less than ten oars, see below, Minoan white hulled ships are likely produced by Palace controlled workshops and licensed, plain wooden hulls (non-Minoan) would be easy to identify to potentially duty levied on shipping coming through their territorial waters - those with plain wooden hulls). The later Greeks did have signalling systems[5] (by example the fall of Troy is communicated to Argos by island fire signals within hours) and these may have earlier origin using simple flashes from these reflective copper mirrors (that are substantially flat being gravity cast into a thin sheet, they would be hopeless when used as an actual axe).Today, the association of Zeus with lightning bolts is one of myth, however in a Minoan context, possibly identifies a) a critical process: lightning striking magnetite to make it magnetised, a lodestone (compass) and b) possibly a reference to Minoan maritime law, the peak sanctuaries had all the optical tools to identify plain hulls on the horizon and if they are flashing signals to Minoan vessels to intercept, board and secure a proportion of cargo (duty), it could explain the myth. Peak Sanctuaries have often over 200kms unobstructed line of sight to the horizon (and to other peak sanctuaries) from a ships deck 4kms. If the boarded were given a token so duty is only levied one, it may explain why Zeus became so revered, he’s taxing everyone passing through territorial waters. Like lightning, a ship sees a flash of light from a peak, the next thing they know a white hull intercepts and there is the thunder of a boarding party inspecting the cargo (somewhat god-like power). Lightning can be read as star-axe. The etymology of Labrys alludes to this ‘narrow street’ a beam of (reflected) sunlight.Signally over huge distances may seem to advanced for the time but there are early written accounts of this [5]:Then the lovely goddess wrapped his head up in a golden cloud, so from hima fiery light blazed out. Just like those times when smoke from a city stretches all the way to heaven, rising in the distance from an island under siege by an enemy, where men fight all day long in Ares' hateful war, struggling for their city then at sunset, they light fires one by one, beacons flaming upwards to attract attention from those on near-by islands, so their ships will come to save them from [the] destruction that's how the light blazed then from Achilles' head right up to heaven.Iliad Book 18Aeschylus writes in Agamemnon that fire signals were used to send the message from Troy to the city Argos of the victory by the Greeks (1184 BC ?). Only after a few hours the message reached the c. 600 km distant city of Argos.Evidence of the use of fires outside peak sanctuaries is widely reported. Large labrys of 3m in height are found and could have been rested on so-called ‘horns of consecration’, wear and repair is present on the below example. The archaeology seems to confirm these early accounts of mirror signalling and fire beacons. This is what the military call today C4ISTAR and I recognise it as I’ve worked for MOD labs.This curious device once again ‘alludes’ to Labyrs being used as instruments as dots of light project through the device to illuminate the altar table shown at peak sanctuaries. Although I have not determined the exact function, we can see the use of 6 holes on the outside edge of one side, which could be counted on the front of the altar table, there are then 6 horizontal markers to the centre giving 12 dots on what I think is likely illuminating dots on the top of the table to midday, the other side giving 24 total references throughout the daylight hours in half-hour increments. This could be very clever and simply give the correct level of illuminated dots on the altar table (front and top) for any given day of the year. The difference to 24 could then be confirmed at night from the passage of reference stars to the horizon. Although there is a degree of speculation this seems plausible. If this is correct, it summarises the Minoan technology, it elegantly simple but hugely capable. Simple is hard! The first example of a digital clock could well be this, count the illuminated dots on the altar table you have the time of day using sunlight!Sunshine & Daylight Hours in Heraklion, Crete, Greece. The longest day of the year is 14:23 hours long and the shortest day is 9:36 hours long. [6]The markings at least seem to confirm the longest day by 14 (hours) by the vertical chevrons in the middle. The 8 horizontal chevrons allude to the shortest day. Its function is hinted but not sufficiently articulated to be easily understood (very Minoan).It is NOT entirely clear what is being practised, peak sanctuaries markers seem to be constructed to measure. Monitoring coast approaches, surveying field areas to establish farm quota (tax) and astronomical observation are possibilities. This is likely one of their functions but how are they achieving this? One gets a sense of this from mythology: Rhea who lived on Crete is the wife to Chronos and her offspring was Zeus, bring in the age of the Olympians.3). Trade and Commerce - Summer - The Master of Animals (Apollo, the Sun)External affairs (such as trade and defence) are managed by the men in this society, this civilisation imported raw materials from three continents (ivory from Africa, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, obsidian, metals from all four corners) and produced high-value trade goods, that everyone desired. It is likely that the Priestess of the Master of Animals (Apollo) are co-ordinating the production of these goods in workshops, delivery to port for exchanges with city-states in the Aegean and wider Mediterranean.I’m a technologist and I get a sense of look at this and this (cool tech), in their frescos around this time, they are really going places. These ships are excellent (deployable freestanding masts, what may be devices that deflect in wind to give an indication of crosswinds).The fleet is not hanging around, they drop off and pick-up goods in port (ideally islands, as evident in the islet port at the mouth of the Nile in Egypt), it is local merchants that likely organise the exchange with the mainland.Token markers MAY have been used as a form of ticket for tradespeople or evidence of the fulfilment of contracts, there is evidence that Minoans were supplying engineers and architects for large projects (such as palaces) in the wider region, we can see some of these trades above (hammer - mason, set square - architect, saw - woodworker). Also perhaps used as a receipt when commodities were supplied to the port authority for shipping and the suppliers account credited when the imprinted receipt presented to the Palace.The issue is that no papyrus records survive to confirm the quantum of transactions, it is suspected significant Palace accounts existed on papyrus (the main writing medium), as clay nodules are found with multiple seal marks (sealing the palace transactional accounts), it is the equivalent of audited accounts, signed off by the administrators (priestess). There is evidence of shipping inventories with KU-RO (checksum) totals for the complete manifest. I find it interesting that the Papyrus symbol is also shown with magazines on the Phaistos disc, possible Knossos and Naxos where commodities were traded with warehousing and the transaction would need to be recorded. We really just have bits (dots) of the total picture.4). Creation - workshops - Spring, Priestess of A-SA-SA-RA-ME (the ‘Lady’, Venus - consort to the Master)Minoans are producing some of the best goods available at this time, masterly crafted, but even the everyday items are very well made. This is just a wonderfully simple product, nothing it doesn’t need and this embodies the previous Cycladic culture, representing the essence, removing the unnecessary. A perfect piece of product design.The production of these may have been managed by the young priestess (acolytes, the little fingers), before progressing to the more senior ranks, the iconography would suggest that many left to have families. If they progress then they first learn how things are made (4), how to exchange them (3), how things work (2) and how to organise (1).The more sophisticated pieces are jaw-droppingly good, such as the Pylos Combat Agate - Wikipedia (calliper compass and 0.06mm milling bits are used to create this seal), it is the finest seal seen before the enlightenment.Mythology tells us that the dividing calliper (the geometric compass) was invented by Perdix/Talos (Daedelus’ nephew) which seems to be confirmed by archaeology. The creator is using reference marks and many are referencing the first joint of the thumb if the Minoans organised themselves into disciplines (fingers) and ranks (joints of the digits), the top job is being referred too. Wax will not reproduce this find detail, the clever-maker elects to not grind out these details which would only be known to the seal-holder when using a magnifying lens.There are accounts of automatons (machines) but no examples survive, there is an interesting account of Palace doors which opened by fire (steam). The myth of Daedalus use of mercury is most interesting, mercury is 13.5 times denser than water to do substantially more work, that could both sequence timings, perform work and draw air through a whistle as the mercury escaped from a sealed container, which summarises what these automatons could according to accounts do. From what I have seen they didn’t have gears, they likely used pulleys and weights as a power source, but are possibly exploring the use of steam. None of these early machines survived, there are however mythical accounts of them. When one looks at the precision of the above seal, they have credibility.We only see the artifacts that survive, largely those in stone and clay, we don’t know much at all of the goods that will have been crafted in wood, leather and cloth. In some cases, we can see that their clothing is hugely sophisticated for the time from frescos and it is now known they developed murex dyes (blue to red tones through purple, depending on how it is processed). Textile technologists have speculated that they may have ‘printed’ some of these more complex repeated patterns. The embodiment of Mother Earth (Demeter) shown below. Look how good the textiles actually are. The fashion industry today recognizes it. I’ve just noticed this, I look all the time at Minoan art and I’ve missed this, they are using vail or gauze (semi-transparent on the outer edges of the flounced skirt, the very finest weave, erm, I’ve been wondering about the materials they had, wool for the masses, some linen and I think this is silk (from moths or seasilk are the likely sources, these were known in Cos around Minoan collapse, this is not unusual if Minoans find something new and useful they seem to cultivate it or import it), I can’t now think of a material known at this time that they didn’t have, this is not just silk, its the finest weave, Organza before 1628 BCE and the Chinese couldn’t dye it blue!The Minoans are really good at all the creative pursuits and are excellent designers generally (and engineers, a topic on its own).I find this jaw-dropping! The artefacts below are from Anatolia (over a six millennia before the above fresco is made). Note the use of this symbol.Linear A symbol 122 shown on the tape sections of the bodice above. See the bottom-left tablet (middle symbol), the same. The symbol on the right of this tablet is likely shown upside down, the ‘V’ is likely a reference to grain between years (shown by snakes - they have approximately this number of ribs as days in the year, a natural abacus). It also contains a Linear A syllabary sign for RE (upside down), possibly a reference to Rhea. These symbols are also shown on the body of the bodice above. This sign also appears in Vinča symbols (ca. 5000–4000 BCE) and there is a very good match for the symbols generally as well as Aegean numerals used in Linear A.The Minoan belief system seems to be based on a hugely old one isolated on the islands! These symbols are not writing, but they do explain that ancient people had signs to express ideas and this is at the time of transition from hunting and gathering to farming. Update: the tablet on the right is showing grain, the snakes I think mean years, so this could be read as stored grain in-between years, Demeter. These symbols are being used in the same contextual context. Further details here. This is shown on the sleave of Demeter's bodice in red. There aren’t many of these tablets found in Anatolia, but they use seems to continue and are used in old European proto-scripts too. These tablets are 6000 years old when the above fresco was made and they use the same symbols and critically in the same context. It's not writing (a few symbols) but may well have led to a proto-writing system a few millennia later and this it would appear does leads to Linear A!Returning to Minoa, this is a rare example of a wooden table trapped in the pumice from Thera, it is Chippindale quality (some of the fidelity is lost in the plaster cast). It’s not found in a palace, it is from an everyday dwelling on Thera.There is some evidence of batch production, a master craftsperson makes the former that the appendices could hammer to shape, silver cups illustrate the point. They are at the cusp of industrializing (but never quite got there, due to calamities, note the ladies with third legs (walking sticks) to climb up the mountains to peak-sanctuaries where they can observe the coastal approaches), the female hand supports the other and visa versa.5). Minos - the lawgiver - the thumbThere is so little that is known about the Minos and the little that is known is myth. There is an interesting linear A text which refers to the Minos, it is an accountancy record of his staff: three! Though to be a batman (cleans clothes), a stable master and a craftsman (Daedalus which I believe is a position, there is just too much invention for one man). Not many staff, the Minos may have been a job rather than an inherited title (royalty).What campaigns did the many Minos take on? What were the laws of the Sea and of Trade? What were their law treatise? We have no idea.They must have been quite good as a later Spartan lawgiver sent an emissary to learn how the Cretan (and Egyptians) govern when considering reform of the Spartan state.I’ve tried to give a sense in this post of where the edges might be so the reader can see how little we actually know about the Minoans, compared to say Egypt and Sumer, which candidly we know much more about as there are entire libraries of documents, which include such things as their favourite recipes. Compared to the entire body of Linear A which can be reduced to 2 pages (at normal type size) and is undeciphered. We have to look at things like this and imagine what the recipe might be. One can hazard a guess and I would agree with you, but we can’t be entirely sure! My money is with you on something like meat in a flat pitta bread though (Souvlaki)!What I do find remarkable, is the Minoans seem to have a knack for firsts, by example archaeologist, use white and black checked rules to give the scale in picture, look at the pictorial representation for a peak sanctuary (shown below) and there it is which suggests they were measuring in a scientific manner, they are shown to be using modern conventions and it alludes to a learned society and we know almost NOTHING of what they knew, which might be and likely was a substantial body of knowledge. Peak Minoan is before the Thera eruption (1628 BCE), they try to recover, but they never resume their dominant position in trade.This summarises the Minoans for me, if they want to observe something they find a way, its as if they challenge the workshop and they seem to come up with the goods. They don’t have optical filters but want to observe the organise ones, the celestial bodies: including Venus passing in front of the Sun, so they use the gentle reflection from a water bowl to observe this, simple effective techniques. They know where the celestial bodies will be, but they're constantly checking and measuring, just to make sure!Did some of this knowledge survive by oral tradition after the bronze age collapse, did others write down the bits that could be remembered?Update: the Minoan Priestess’ Greatest AchievementI struggled to conclude this article and have just discovered this.I have suspected that the meaning of the Griffons in Minoan iconography was to symbolise the Great Year, a period which according to modern knowledge is 25,772 years as mother Earth wobbles backwards due to Axial precession. Which was hypothesized by Plato that predicted this to be 36,000 years and attested to 2nd-century-BC astronomer Hipparchus of not less than 1 degree each century.What I did not realise is they appear to have worked it out! I was looking for Aegean numerals! They're showing it symbolically. Each Griffon has two paws on the table 10 and 3 is marked on the griffon's wing, 13. There are two Griffons 26 (thousand) years. They are within 0.8% of the actual figure! N.B. Lions have 8 digits on their rear feet (4 claws per paw) which are usually shown planted on the ground, an Octaeteris, the other (main) long unit of time. The eagle is the master of the sky and the lion the Earth, the hybrid griffon protect the region that mother Earth wobbles back within throughout the ages.This seems to be confirmed by the depiction of Demeter from Thera. Can you see it?26 ‘V’ are shown on the Griffon's wing. Confirmation that the Minoans are the first to estimate the Great Year, 1400 years before Hipparchus and too far greater accuracy. This is also confirmed on the collar of the Griffons shown in the so-called throne room at Knossos and in Minoan genius iconography also. This was not known to this accuracy until the time of Newton! The same count of 26 is shown on the collar of the Griffons flanking the Throne (room) at Knossos. A modern understanding of long astronomical periods hidden in plain view.The lady that measures got it right!Footnotes[1] https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Secular-Variation-Curve-for-Declination-Relevant-section-of-the-archaeomagnetic_fig4_273125430[2] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273125430_The_Cretan_middle_bronze_age_'Minoan_Kernos'_was_designed_to_predict_a_total_solar_eclipse_and_to_facilitate_a_magnetic_compass[3] http://maajournal.com/Issues/2011/Vol11-1/2_Downey.pdf[4] Ancient Egyptian units of measurement - Wikipedia[5] Ancient Greek Communication Methods[6] Sunshine & Daylight Hours in Heraklion, Crete, Greece

There is opposition, absolutely!Free agency must be allowed. We are a Church that refuses to show proof. We are a Church that allows it's members to speak their opinion. We have made covenants. Most members don't know these covenants because somehow their blinded to them.Abrahamic Covenant -Obey the laws and ordinances of the gospel of Almighty God through Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit.Baptismal Covenant -Covenant to take upon yourself the name of Jesus Christ, to keep God's commandments, and serve Him to the end.Oath and Covenant of the Holy Priesthood -Eternal Father gives you His oath that you can have the power and blessings of the priesthood if you covenant with Him to do whatever He asks of you.Endowment -To prepare yourself to become a king, and priest in the afterlife.To yield your heart to Eternal Father and His son Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit.To receive your Holy Melchizedek Priesthood vestments, the garments commanded by Eternal Heavenly Father for you to wear at all times. You must wear the garment as an expression of how much you feel about the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and everything that relates to it. It is a measure of your worthiness and devotion to God.To serve a full-time Mission.To be married for all time and eternity.The Covenant of Consecration -(a spiritual law that helps members grow spiritually and prepare for eternal life)To consecrate your time, talents, and possessions to the Church.To build the Lord’s kingdom and serve His children.To show your love for others.To care for the poor and needy.To pay tithing and fast offerings and give generously in other ways to those in need.To purchase lands, build houses of worship, and build the New Jerusalem.To be completely submissive to the Lord’s will.To give up selfish things, such as “your roles, your time, your preeminence, and your possessions.To not let hobbies and preoccupations with less important things become too consuming.To serve willingly in the Church.To help the Lord’s people overcome pride.To help the Lord’s people be industrious and avoid idleness.To help the Lord’s people be one.To make the Lord’s people equal in earthly things and help them receive a place in the celestial kingdom.To help the Church stand independent above all other creatures.To help the Lord’s people improve their talents for the good of all.To seek the interest of your neighbor, and do all things with an eye single to God’s glory.The Law of the Gospel -To embrace all laws, principles, and ordinances necessary for your exaltation.I agree to exercise faith in Jesus Christ with sincere repentance borne out of a broken heart and a contrite spirit. As I comply with the ordinances of baptism and confirmation, and continue in faith and prayer, the power of the Savior's atoning sacrifice covers my sins and I am cleansed from all unrighteousness. I partake of the ordinances and the sealing powers culminating in myself being sealed up unto eternal life.The Law of Sacrifice -I have decreed in my heart, saith the Lord, that I will prove you in all things, whether you will abide in my covenant, even unto death, that you may be found worthy. For if ye will not abide in my covenant ye are not worthy of meThese are our covenants. We fail, we repent, we succeed, we fail, we repent, we succeed.The Prophet Joseph Smith“I teach them correct principles, and they govern themselves.”"To govern yourself" is a phrase that can be cliché. Like Obi Wan Kanobi; who says to Luke Skywalker, "you must do what you think is right, of course". Governing yourself should not be mistaken for control because control is someone's imagination projected onto others as a form of manipulation. To govern yourself you need to conduct yourself in a manner that is pleasing or accountable.We must have compassion when governing ourselves because a person is never perfect. All Children of God have some form of sin or transgression that cripples them. If we as the Children of God were to be pure then no one would ever be able to use Spiritual power, Priesthood power, or Priesthood authority. So governing ourselves requires patience along with compassion for yourself and for others. Humans are frail, and most especially we are limited. The Lord has set us up to work wonders together and for each other. We are taught to seek out and learn perfection, not to be perfect. Each individual should feel the need to shed their negative energies and mental shackles. The carnal man or the natural man is an enemy to God. Governing ourselves leads to Spiritual power and if in one's life the individual feels the Light of Christ then according to our Eternal Heavenly Father the promptings of the Holy Spirit and the Truth and Light will lead the individual to Priesthood power, and Priesthood authority.Priesthood power is given to all disciples. My mother for example can use my Father's Melchizedek priesthood in the name of Jesus Christ. She can use my oldest brother's Melchizedek Priesthood power in the name of Jesus Christ, my third to the youngest brothers Melchizedek priesthood power in the name of Jesus Christ, or my own Melchizedek priesthood power can assist her in the name of Jesus Christ. She can use the Bishopric, the Elders Quorum or Stake Presidency. She can use the General authorities, the Apostles, and lastly the First Presidency. Every person has Spiritual power. Every disciple has Priesthood power, and every man who makes an oath and Covenant to the Holy Priesthood will receive Priesthood authority. The Spirit of Christ, the Light of Christ, are some other terms people use when referring to Spiritual power.Doctrines of the student manualChapter 16; the Gift of the Holy GhostOur understanding of the Light of Christ is limited. Finite powers and capacities cannot comprehend that which is infinite. But we do know certain basic principlesD&C 88:12...light proceedeth forth from the presence of God to fill the immensity of spaceThis Light to those inclined for such power can tap into it very easily. Others work harder for it, and to some its unreachable. The Lord Has designs for us all. There is also the power of the Holy Ghost, Truth and Light, the Spirit of Truth, Intelligence or the Wisdom of God. For example.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day SaintsBible Dictionarythe power of the Holy Spirit:The third member of the Godhead and a personage of Spirit, not possessing a body of flesh and bones.The Holy Ghost is manifested to men on the earth both as the power of the Holy Ghost and as the gift of the Holy Ghost.The power can come upon one before baptism and is the convincing witness that the gospel is true. By the power of the Holy Ghost a person receives a testimony of Jesus Christ and of His work and the work of His servants upon the earth. When a person speaks by the power of the Holy Ghost that same power carries a conviction of the truth unto the heart of the hearer. The Holy Ghost knows all things and can lead one to know of future events. The fire of the Holy Spirit purifies you that you can retain a remission of sins.The gifts of God come from Christ through the power of the Holy Ghost. The gift of the Holy Ghost is for those who have been baptized by those in authority. It is conferred by the laying on of hands as is priesthood. Whenever one is worthy, asking God to purify and cleanse yourself by the Holy Spirit it actually cleanses you becoming a purifying agent. One is sanctified from all sin. It is referred to as “fire”.Doctrines of the student manualChapter 16; the Gift of the Holy GhostThe Holy Spirit is an intelligent being, the second counselor in Eloheim. He is in the image of God and from what we are told possesses every organ, attribute, sense, sympathy, affection, that is possessed by God himself. These attributes are in embryo, and are to be gradually developed. They resemble a bud, a germ, which gradually develops into bloom, and then, by progress, produces the mature fruit after its own kind. The gift of the Holy Ghost adapts itself to all these organs or attributes. It quickens all the intellectual faculties, increases, enlarges, expands, and purifies all the natural passions and affections, and adapts them, by the gift of wisdom, to their lawful use. It inspires, develops, cultivates, and matures all the fine-toned sympathies, joys, tastes, kindred feelings, and affections of our nature. It inspires virtue, kindness, goodness, tenderness, gentleness, and charity. …Throughout history and in our day and age there is known to be cases outside of Christianity, and Judaism where other forms of power are or have been used. There has been good and evil witnessed causing much confusion. What is evil power? What is good power? For Christians mostly they feel anything outside Christianity is evil, however; even then, the accepted powers vs unaccepted is vague. For instance:There are cases where Christian's turn up having these abilities and it's taken as the power of the devil. People have died. There has been mass killing. Even genocide. This Light is misunderstood power as stated above. Our understanding is limited that the adversaries of God use for their advantage.Those not brought up within the Abrahamic covenants, and Baptismal covenants wouldn't know they are doing wrong. They're ignorant of Almighty God and his grace. Eloheim sees this. Eloheim decides how power is used, when, and where as long as it meets the Plan of Salvation. If it is Eloheims will that evil power is used to move the plan forward just remember God has allowed planets and galaxies to die. There is no telling how many nations, civilizations, and beings have died in this divine process. We cannot think for one moment that as a galaxy collides into another that God is evil. Never. Good and Evil must be balanced. Their number is known to Eloheim and our glimpse into this much larger plan is like infants.Only Eloheim knows the full design of the plan and how it works for mankind and the universe. Almighty God promises that He will bless us if we do all he asks even if you don't know or believe in him. He will use others for His Purposes to fulfill the plan of salvation. It has been done all along. Spiritual power Is in nature, all around us. Anyone with spiritual power can use it. Spiritual power is used for the Children of God and gentile alike. There are resources that can be accessed by men and women with this power. This is why Holy men and pagan alike can bless or use power for their people.The priesthood power is conferred authority from God to act for God, speak for him, and perform for him in his Son Jesus Christ's name. Its power given to mankind to confirm ordinances upon the Children of God. To use this power mentioned we must purify and cleanse ourselves before God. This is also done by the power of the Holy Spirit. A balance must be met between the Light and the Dark or else God will cease to be God. Eloheim sees the destination, the end result of the plan. Eloheim knows the finish line. Eloheim is preparing a place, our home, which will allow us to return if we so choose.There is always opposition and the Kingdom must face it here on earth. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints we have the restored priesthood power. The authority given to us to represent the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. With this authority we receive and retain gifts or tokens of power above spiritual power. These priesthood powers shape the kingdom all around us. Thus, we are able to govern ourselves accordingly.Relief Society General President Linda K. Burton:“There is a difference . . . between priesthood authority and priesthood power. Priesthood authority is conferred by ordination, but priesthood power is available to all.”With the acceptance of Almighty God, "El", as the one true God, the supreme being, we worship him and only him. This worship gives God glory and He governs us accordingly through His first counselor Jesus Christ, and His second counselor the Holy Spirit. We are to worship God only, not the counselor's. This is Eloheim. The Godhead. The free agency we receive and the ability we have as His sons to govern ourselves accordingly with either the Aaronic Priesthood or the Melchizedek priesthood allows us to govern ourselves upon God's precepts and principles. Those that take on them the name of Jesus Christ must have priesthood authority conferred upon them after taking on the Oath and Covenant of the Holy Priesthood. This is performed by the laying on of hands by someone holding priesthood keys to perform such an ordination. Jesus Christ is then able to coordinate Eloheims wishes upon the Kingdom of Heaven on earth through those men and women who have the keys.Other Christian's claim this authority. They are from religions of the great apostasy. God wouldn't denounce them as long as their requests meet the prerequisite of blessings, and ordinances of the plan of salvation. They just lack authority. The great commandment is to love one another. He allows them free agency. He has hope all His children will return. The restored gospel allows us to serve them. An individual in reception of this divine power must have faith, hope, and charity in Jesus Christ so that he or she can be blessed. Our Eternal Father upon reflection of the request, and if He discovers it meets the needs of the plan of salvation, will then bless the individual through his son Jesus Christ.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints claims all officiating keys of the priesthood through the restoration of the gospel. We believe the deaths of the apostles took away the keys of authority in the 1st century. Those institutions that rose from the rubble after the Apostles passed away have spiritual power only. Power that requires faith, hope, and charity. I don't know what the dark powers require. Jesus Christ continues to bless mankind because his mission isn’t over.Exodus 19:6And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation. These are the words which thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel.A priesthood holder cannot bless an individual and expect it to work unless three things occur.1. Eloheim must agree.2. The individual must have faith, hope, and charity.3. The priest must have faith, hope, and charity.(This is regardless of religious organization)Many go through the motions. Bottom line: God will bless men He knows will operate and function faithfully; most especially in the priesthood. It isn’t good for us to look down on other churches and the like who practice and help to fulfill God's plan. They don't have authority, but they do have testimony and faith. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints just claims officiating keys necessary to fulfill all of God the Eternal Father's plans. With that being said, I wonder who we serve at times truthfully. We should as Saints of the most high God understand that the Adversaries of God have been an imminent threat. They have never been lax or dormant in the war against mortality. They attack our principles causing schism in the ability to govern ourselves.The following is real:The adversary has organized and wars against us.They have tokens of power given to them by God, a dark priesthood to teach us good and evil. They hate this bondage. They still fight God continually.They work tirelessly to bind us. They don't sleep.They can blind men and make us oblivious to God's will.They have a perfect knowledge of the language of the people.They have power over our words.They have power over our speech.They can use much flattery, and much convincing according to the power of their priesthood.They have the power to manipulateI must confess there is "confusion" about the principles, precepts, and doctrines within my church due to the above mentioned. I find this with members, ex members, anti-mormons and gentile alike. The adversaries amongst the Saints are vigorous; Most especially between the upper echelon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and between members of the church. There is disbelief, contention, witticism, sarcasm, disillusionment, ignorance, intolerance, contemptuousness, ridicule, cleverness, disappointment, and disgust.The Prophet Joseph Smith“The nearer a person approaches the Lord, a greater power will be manifested by the adversary to prevent the accomplishment of His purposes” (in Orson F. Whitney, Life of Heber C. Kimball, Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1967, p. 132).We feel the rapture of these charismatic individuals giving sermons within the doctrine. Those that disagree aren't mainstream. All use the scriptures to edify the Saints but we fall into the trap of unrighteous dominion.D&C 121:37"...but when we undertake to ...exercise control or dominion or compulsion upon the souls of the children of men, in any degree of unrighteousness, behold, the heavens withdraw themselves; the Spirit of the Lord is grieved; and when it is withdrawn, Amen to the priesthood or the authority of that man".The Spirit of God and the Holy Ghost aren't necessarily being felt by the brethren as you can read, but only the burn from the spinning wheel it seems. The rhetoric causes issues for the church with members and gentiles. Even when it comes to the organization of the First Presidency of the Kingdom of Heaven we find disagreements. It might be Eloheim's characteristics, Eloheim's personalities, or Eloheim's identities causing factions of thought within the church. What the Saints call; Eloheim, is up for grabs. There is doubt, or members under the influence of their parents false beliefs because the parents haven't truly let go of Trinitarianism, or Nicene doctrine. It's not unlike a visiting state fair and your reward for getting the sand balls in a tube is the fluffy bunny. The fluffy bunny isn't what you thought it was when you get it because in all actuality the fluffy bunny is worthless.1887 B. H. Roberts, Letter written November 4, 1887, London, Millennial Star 49. 48 (November 28, 1887): 760-763; a portion of which reads: “Relative to these sermons [Journal of Discourses] I must tell you they represent the individual views of the speakers, and the Church is not responsible for their teachings. Our authorized Church works are the Bible, Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. In the Church very wide latitude is given to individual belief and opinion, each man being responsible for his views and not the Church;☆☆ the Church is only responsible for that which she sanctions and approves through the formal actions of her councils☆☆ So it may be that errors will be found in the sermons of men, and that in their over zeal unwise expressions will escape them, for all of which the Church is not responsible” (762)Nonetheless; what if the sanctions and approval through formal actions of her councils is piling up since 1836?There are differences of opinion as you can tell, and the most recent stuff like the CES letters and the DNA of Americans is causing canyons of distrust. Members falling away. Members find themselves ruined spiritually because they can't get past the rhetorical nonsense. Gentiles find these members and assist their transition out of the church. When you think on it God maneuvers the burnt wild vines and or has these wild vines removed to save the crop. He puts us in motions and directions we're we find ourselves not in control of the situation when we think we are. Which explains the comment I made of governing yourself. It should not be mistaken for control because control is someone's imagination projected onto others as a form of manipulation. However, some disconnect rather than get directions. The devil gets hold of you. Others don't even use the Spirit because their fallen already but still attend church. Or they attend church but they don't believe. Which person are you?I came across a blog the other day reading questions. A member was announcing his doubts about the truthfulness of the restoration of the gospel and his disbelief in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It was based on the fact that not all members are Democrats. He couldn't believe his God would not be Democrat and to hear God may have something to do with the blessing of the other parties of parliament disoriented Him so much He put it out there that He was leaving the church because not all members were Democrats. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has relations with all parties and governments within and outside the US. If he was truly a Saint of Almighty God then he would know about this policy and that God is the Father of all:The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints:The Church’s mission is to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ, not to elect politicians.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is neutral in matters of party politics.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints won't attempt to direct or dictate to a government leader.The Church does:Encourage its members to play a role as responsible citizens in their communities, including becoming informed about issues and voting in elections.Expect its members to engage in the political process in an informed and civil manner, respecting the fact that members of the Church come from a variety of backgrounds and experiences and may have differences of opinion in partisan political matters.Request candidates for office not to imply that their candidacy or platforms are endorsed by the Church.Reserve the right as an institution to address, in a nonpartisan way, issues that it believes have significant community or moral consequences or that directly affect the interests of the Church.I don't think this member studied his scriptures. He believes in his own personal beliefs and constructs over Eloheim who leads the Kingdom of Heaven. He believes in the fluffy bunny. The fluff that all congregations envelope and hold to their bosoms over the real message almost like a film over the eyes. They see, but are blind. Unrighteous dominion comes to us all. None of us can avert it.James E. FaustLet us not become so intense in our zeal to do good by winning arguments or by our pure intention in disputing doctrine that we go beyond good sense and manners, thereby promoting contention, or say and do imprudent things, invoke cynicism, or ridicule with flippancy. In this manner, our good motives become so misdirected that we lose friends and, even more serious, we come under the influence of the devil. I recently heard in a special place, “Your criticism may be worse than the conduct you are trying to correct.”Members that are oblivious to God's doctrine is disheartening. This brings me back to the top statement by President Joseph Smith. It's the main focus and how opposition can deteriorate from there. Its above all the rhetoric. It's a powerful statement that buffets the spirit within you. Such passion and purpose creates a means for you to serve Eloheim. I'm thankful for this declaration. I'm not an individualist nor am I insubordinate. I rely on how my feelings are inwardly and the way my God has set up His communication to mankind. I hate judgements, categories, and labels too, because; its a sign of bureaucracy and intolerance. It's a sign that a leader has stopped listening to you. A point being made to someone who is close minded.D&C 29:39...for if they never should have bitter they could not know the sweet.The prophet Joseph Smith's statement alone matches the consistency of the era from which He lived and died. Many strong statements and declarations are to be had amongst the Saints from then till now which led me on a search for them. I was going over recent inquiries in chat rooms; most especially in reference to the prophets and apostles of the Church. There seems to be a schism of sorts that as mentioned above. I will provide examples, and give my freedom of thought.My first example (this is just an example because the Apostle Ezra Taft Benson became our prophet and was beloved by all):Ezra Taft Benson as an Apostle said this:"The living prophet is more important to us than a dead prophet".And my second example is from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a manual entitled:“Living Prophets for a Living Church.”"Beware of those who would pit the dead prophets against the living prophets, for the living prophets always take precedence".I don't agree! All prophets take precedence. We must avoid a prophet of old and let a new one have precedence? What is pitting? People called to speak in church use the scriptures to edify the Saints so whose pitting? We're not pitting. You just quote someone to address the congregation with what your talk is about. Pitting is a proclamation that the Saints are rebelling. We're not rebelling because we are studying. We're reading, teaching, and making sermons at church because our Bishop has asked us to. We're making points to fit a topic in class. Pointing out scriptures and quotes we come across isn't individualistic nor is it insubordinate to the upper echelon and far from pitting. So again who pits? Some members study History and discover inconsistencies and contradictions within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the illogical, and misleading is found and they fall hard. They plummet and when they get up off the ground they forget the powers of evil. They forget the war we are in between heaven and the adversaries of God. They, the lost, the members who find their fluffy bunny is just a cheap version decide to join the ranks of these filthy anti-mormons, they knowingly or unknowingly join legion. We come across statements and quotes by them trying to disprove The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The devil has done his best to destroy us hiding this truth that the Adversary is amongst us as he's always been. It shouldn't come as a surprise at all. There's always suffering of faith. It should prove the strength we have as faithful Saints of Almighty God. We have survived no matter what has been thrown at us. The gentiles who buffett us with their complaints, misdirection, and designs against the Kingdom of God on earth should be a sign that God exists. God is real. God hasn't lied to us nor the prophets of old. They all warn us this is what it's like for being the Saints of the most high God. We have a living prophet now. For less sturdy members on the iron rod it can and will draw members away rather than forward. So hold onto the prophets. This still isn't pitting though. We are learning that the ascension of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has led us into the Kingdom it is now. The brethren who have lead the Saints have left a trail. A trail with pitfalls, bumps, ruts, debris, mud, discarded teachings, changes, and alterations which has made us strong. We emulate what all people should emulate. A belief in a living prophet. A dead prophet isn't as important as a living prophet is absolutely wrong to say because if we lived in President Snow's day they could say the same thing. Maybe in President Kimball's day or President Monson's for that matter. It makes everything any of them have said irrelevant. It makes future prophet's irrelevant.The Apostle Ezra Taft Benson also said:"The prophet will never lead the Church astray".And one more:President Heber J. Grant said: “My boy, you always keep your eye on the President of the Church, and if he ever tells you to do anything, and it is wrong, and you do it, the Lord will bless you for it.” Then with a twinkle in his eye, he said, “But you don’t need to worry. The Lord will never let his mouthpiece lead the people astray.” [In Conference Report, October 1960, p. 78]How remarkable and incredulous. Such audacity. Satan isn't chained nor are his minions. That statement is extremely bold and unstable. There are some in the church who feel a fervor for the upper echelon or fervor for one leader. They feel that the leaders or the prophet is inerrant, or possibly infallible. From dictionary definitions infallibility is a stronger term than inerrancy. I'm flabbergasted due to this form of rhetoric. The Spirit of Christ and the Holy Ghost is something all of us need when we wade through rhetoric such as this. There is revelation, divine doctrine and correct paths to tread on things from God. Then there's statements from the board room. Even bureaucratic nonsense. Meetings and councils that feed the hungry bear.Joseph Smith"a prophet is a prophet only when he is acting as such".This is opposite from the above.I guess bad sermons and speeches are made by men and the church is only responsible for that which she sanctions.We reach a dead end here because it's some of the same. Notice the stars.2 Nephi 2:11"For it must needs be, that there is an opposition in all things. If not so, my firstborn in the wilderness, righteousness could not be brought to pass, neither wickedness, neither holiness nor misery, neither good nor bad".Again:1887 B. H. Roberts, Letter written November 4, 1887, London, Millennial Star 49. 48 (November 28, 1887): 760-763; a portion of which reads: “Relative to these sermons [Journal of Discourses] I must tell you they represent the individual views of the speakers, and the Church is not responsible for their teachings. Our authorized Church works are the Bible, Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. In the Church very wide latitude is given to individual belief and opinion, each man being responsible for his views and not the Church;☆☆ the Church is only responsible for that which she sanctions and approves through the formal actions of her councils☆☆So it may be that errors will be found in the sermons of men, and that in their over zeal unwise expressions will escape them, for all of which the Church is not responsible” (762)Joseph Smith"Do not, brethren, put your trust in man though he be a bishop; an apostle, or a president; if you do, they will fail you at some time or place, they will do wrong or seem to, and your support be gone; but if we lean on God, He will never fail us."2 Nephi 28:31“Cursed is he that putteth his trust in man, or maketh flesh his arm, or shall hearken unto the precepts of men, save their precepts shall be given by the power of the Holy Ghost.”The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches righteousness. The Prophet Joseph Smith inspired by the Lord and Angel's of Heaven to President Nelson still speak mightily from the pulpit as if they are with us by our sides. With the Light and Truth, the Spirit of God can alter our direction to get closer to God upon the actions we take to glorify Him. Refrain from fervor, and zealousness. There are times that we as Saints meet this invisible wall of rhetoric between the upper echelon of leaders past or present. What must a Saint do when we are told to be obedient and yet we find ourselves in this muck? What must a Saint do when we are smack dab in the middle of this fluctuating murky fog that causes one's faith, trust, admiration, and belief to go astray.The prophet is the only man who can speak as the Holy Instrument of the Lord we are told. We as priesthood holders upon reflection of our Oath and Covenant can receive personal revelation, but the prophet is given revelation for the whole congregation of the world. That is the difference.The Lord Jesus will reveal what He is advised by Eloheim in His own due time, and season. Under this divine communication from Almighty God the prophet receives light and Truth, what is called the wisdom of the Gods. Under this canopy of revelation the prophet can speak on any subject or act on any matter whilst surrounded by this Light and Truth. Having received such revelation it is vital to name it as such so that future mistakes and concerns can be avoided. The rhetoric needs to be disengaged from revelation when speaking for the church because it can be used as it is now causing schism.So learn the covenants you've made, learn the precepts and principles provided, and hold firm upon the Iron rod that you can govern yourself compelled by Eloheim, the Godhead. Then and only then will the spiritual power you've attained by the Light of Christ, the power of the Holy Spirit, the gifts and companionship of the Holy Spirit, the purifying fire that helps you retain a remission of sins, your patriarchal blessings, and the power of the priesthood will empower you to walk across water.The prophet and apostles are fallible and can find themselves in unrighteous dominion just like you and I.Apostle Dallin H. Oakes"Revelations from God . . . are not constant. We believe in continuing revelation, not continuous revelation. We are often left to work out problems without the dictation or specific direction of the Spirit. That is part of the experience we must have in mortality. Fortunately, we are never out of our Savior's sight, and if our judgment leads us to actions beyond the limits of what is permissible and if we are listening, . . . the Lord will restrain us by the promptings of his Spirit"Light and Truth is ordained upon a prophet of God by Eloheim. The authority, " the will of the Father", the divine assistance and influence of Eloheim is under Jesus Christ's jurisdiction. Paying attention to the Prophet; the act of taking notice of his announcements are important for our salvation and exaltation. A man should take appropriate measures seeking out the Spirit of Truth for the Holy Spirit to comfort us and provide wisdom and understanding. We must be accessible to God so that the second counselor, the Holy Spirit can assist, "the Will of God" to settle within us. The Light of Christ, and the gift of the Holy Spirit can edify our minds putting at rest our inquiries to Almighty God with answers as to whether these announcements are from Eloheim. We must really desire the answer or we become as sheep unable to govern ourselves, allowing zeal and fervor to enter in causing worship of our brethren. Look at the following teachings and scriptures:Elder D. Todd Christofferson Of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles"… The Church will know by the testimony of the Holy Ghost in the body of the members, whether the brethren in voicing their views are ‘moved upon by the Holy Ghost’; and in due time that knowledge will be made manifest.”President Joseph F. Smith; as quoted by Elder Samuel O. Bennion, April 1941 General Conference, p. 32“Men and women should become settled in the truth and rounded in a knowledge of the Gospel, depending upon no person for borrowed light, but trusting only upon the Holy Spirit, who is ever the same.”Elder S. Dilworth Young, First Council of the Seventy, 1945; quoted here, p. 17"You must work through the Spirit. If that leads you into conflict with the program of the Church, you follow the voice of the Spirit."Proverbs 15:2The tongue of the wise useth knowledge aright: but the mouth of fools poureth out foolishness.Ether 12:6"And now, I, Moroni, would speak somewhat concerning these things; I would show unto the world that faith is things which are hoped for and not seen; wherefore, dispute not because ye see not, for ye receive no witness until after the trial of your faith".Amen.

Ashoka (English: /əˈʃoʊkə/; IAST: Aśoka, Brāhmi: ),[4]sometimes Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperorof the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent fromc.268 to 232 BCE.[5][6]The grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka promoted the spread of Buddhism. Considered by many to be one of India's greatest emperors,[according to whom?]Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire to reign over a realm stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Patna), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern Odisha),[7]which he conquered in about 260 BCE.[8]In about 263 BCE, he converted to Buddhism[7]after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he had waged out of a desire for conquest and which reportedly directly resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations.[9]He is remembered for the Ashoka pillars and edicts, for sending Buddhist monks to Sri Lanka and Central Asia, and for establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.[10]Beyond the Edicts of Ashoka, biographical information about him relies on legends written centuries later, such as the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Ashoka", a part of the Divyavadana), and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. His Sanskrit name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" (the a privativum and śoka, "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "the Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or "Ashoka tree", is also referenced in the Ashokavadana. In The Outline of History, H.G. Wells wrote, "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."[11]ContentsBiographyAshoka's early lifeThe name A-so-ka(, Ashoka) in the Maski Minor Rock Edict, c.259 BCE. Brahmi script.Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and Subhadrangī (or Dharmā).[12]He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya dynasty, who was born in a humble family, and with the counsel of Chanakya ultimately built one of the largest empires in ancient India.[13][14][15]According to Roman historian Appian, Chandragupta had made a "marital alliance" with Seleucus; there is thus a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother.[16][17]An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, also described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus.[18][19]The ancient Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain texts provide varying biographical accounts. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī. According to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa.[20][21]:205She gave him the name Ashoka, meaning "one without sorrow". The Divyāvadānatells a similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.[22][23]Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of his father Bindusara. Ashoka was given royal military training.[24]Rise to powerThe Buddhist text Divyavadana describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times. Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, Bindusara's chief advisor, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt.[20]Governor of UjainThe commemorative inscription from Saru Maru, Madhya Pradesh.Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujain, the capital of Malwa, as governor.[20]A commemorative inscription found in Saru Maru, Madhya Pradesh, mentions the visit of Piyadasi (honorific name used by Ashoka in his inscriptions) as he was still an unmarried Prince.[25][26]This inscription confirms Ashoka's presence in Madhya Pradesh as a young man, and his status while he was there.[27]Piyadasi nama/ rajakumala va/ samvasamane/ imam desam papunitha/ viahara(ya)tay(e).The king, who (now after consecration) is called "Piyadasi", (once) came to this place for a pleasure tour while still a (ruling) prince, living together with his unwedded consort.—Commemorative Inscription of the visit of Ashoka, Saru Maru. Translated by Falk.[27]Bindusara's death in 272 BCE led to a war over succession. According to the Divyavadana, Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found Susima to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them.[28]A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindusara would determine his successor. Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the Ashokavadana, would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne. The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Vitashoka or Tissa,[3]although there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). The coronation happened in 269 BCE, four years after his succession to the throne.[29]Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the Deer Park. Sanchi relief.[2]Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was bad-tempered and of a wicked nature. He built Ashoka's Hell, an elaborate torture chamberdescribed as a "Paradisal Hell" due to the contrast between its beautiful exterior and the acts carried out within by his appointed executioner, Girikaa.[30]This earned him the name of Chanda Ashoka (Caṇḍa Aśoka) meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends tend to dramatise the change that Buddhism brought in him, and therefore, exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[31]Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day Assam in the East to Balochistan in the West; from the Pamir Knot in Afghanistan in the north to the peninsula of southern India except for present day Tamil Nadu and Keralawhich were ruled by the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.[23][32]MarriageFrom the various sources that speak of his life, Ashoka is believed to have had five wives. They were named Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), the second queen, Karuvaki, Asandhimitra (designated agramahisī or "chief queen"), Padmavati, and Tishyarakshita.[33]He is similarly believed to have had four sons and two daughters: a son by Devi named Mahendra (Pali: Mahinda), Tivara (son of Karuvaki), Kunala (son of Padmavati, and Jalauka (mentioned in the Kashmir Chronicle), a daughter of Devi named Sanghamitra (Pali: Sanghamitta), and another daughter named Charumati.[33]According to one version of the Mahavamsa, the Buddhist chronicle of Sri Lanka, Ashoka, when he was heir-apparent and was journeying as Viceroy to Ujjain, is said to have halted at Vidisha (10 kilometers from Sanchi), and there married the daughter of a local banker. She was called Devi and later gave Ashoka two sons, Ujjeniya and Mahendra, and a daughter Sanghamitta. After Ashoka's accession, Mahendra headed a Buddhist mission, sent probably under the auspices of the Emperor, to Sri Lanka.[34]Conquest of Kalinga & Buddhist conversionAshoka's empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal to southern India. Several modern maps depict it as covering nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, except the southern tip.[35]Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka's empire did not include large parts of India, which were controlled by autonomous tribes.[35]While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teachings after his conquest of the Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over 150,000 were deported.[36]Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:Directly after the Kalingas had been annexed began His Sacred Majesty’s zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered the Kalingas, because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty.[37]Legend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. The lethal war with Kalinga transformed the vengeful Emperor Ashoka to a stable and peaceful emperor and he became a patron of Buddhism. According to the prominent Indologist, A. L. Basham, Ashoka's personal religion became Buddhism, if not before, then certainly after the Kalinga war. However, according to Basham, the Dharma officially propagated by Ashoka was not Buddhism at all.[38]Nevertheless, his patronage led to the expansion of Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule, and worldwide from about 250 BCE.[39]Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda (Mahendra) and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).[40]The Diamond throne built by Ashoka at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, at the location where the Buddha reached enlightenment.Death and legacyAshoka's Major Rock Edict at Junagadh contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.Ashoka ruled for an estimated 36 years and died in 232 BCE.[41]Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.[42]After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years until his empire stretched over almost all of the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. His chief consort (agramahisi) for the majority of his reign was his wife, Asandhimitra, who apparently bore him no children.[43]In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka heard Kunala's song, and realised that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself. He condemned Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does not respond with the same forgiveness.[30]Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, who ruled for 50 years until his death.[citation needed]The reign of Ashoka Maurya might have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, had he not left behind records of his reign. These records are in the form of sculpted pillars and rocks inscribed with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published under his name. The language used for inscription was in one of the Prakrit "common" languages etched in a Brahmi script.[44]In the year 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Shunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty (185-75 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.[citation needed]King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, is also considered as one of the most exemplary rulers who ever lived.[45]Buddhist kingshipThe Major Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka, mentions the Greek kings Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magasand Alexander by name, as recipients of his teachings.Main article: Buddhist kingshipFurther information: History of Buddhism, History of Buddhism in India, Buddhism in Nepal, Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and Buddhism in BurmaOne of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Emperor Ashoka was seen as a role model to leaders within the Buddhist community. He not only provided guidance and strength, but he also created personal relationships with his supporters.[46]Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkorkingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately led to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.[citation needed]According to the legends mentioned in the 2nd-century CE text Ashokavadana, Ashoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism). On complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.[21][47]Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.[47]He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.[21]However, for several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.[47][48][49]Historical sources"Devānampiyasa Asoka", honorific Devanampiya (in the adjectival form -sa) and name of Asoka, Brahmi script, in the Maski Edict of Ashoka.Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa, and DipavamsaAshoka had almost been forgotten, but in the 19th century James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. After deciphering the Brahmi script, Prinsep had originally identified the "Priyadasi" of the inscriptions he found with the King of Ceylon Devanampiya Tissa. However, in 1837, George Turnour discovered an important Sri Lankan manuscript (Dipavamsa, or "Island Chronicle" ) associating Piyadasi with Ashoka:"Two hundred and eighteen years after the beatitude of the Buddha, was the inauguration of Piyadassi, .... who, the grandson of Chandragupta, and the son of Bindusara, was at the time Governor of Ujjayani."—Dipavamsa.[50]The Minor Rock Edict of Maskimentions the author as "Devanampriya Asoka", definitively linking both names, and confirming Ashoka as the author of the famous Edicts.Since then, the association of "Devanampriya Priyadarsin" with Ashoka was confirmed through various inscriptions, and especially confirmed in the Minor Rock Edict inscription discovered in Maski, directly associating Ashoka with his regnal title Devanampriya ("Beloved-of-the-Gods"):[51][52][A proclamation] of Devanampriya Asoka.Two and a half years [and somewhat more] (have passed) since I am a Buddha-Sakya.[A year and] somewhat more (has passed) [since] I have visited the Samgha and have shown zeal.Those gods who formerly had been unmingled (with men) in Jambudvipa, have how become mingled (with them).This object can be reached even by a lowly (person) who is devoted to morality.One must not think thus, — (viz.) that only an exalted (person) may reach this.Both the lowly and the exalted must be told : "If you act thus, this matter (will be) prosperous and of long duration, and will thus progress to one and a half.—Maski Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka.[53]Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.[citation needed]The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual inscription (in Greek and Aramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered at Kandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan).Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Ashoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarshi—'He who regards everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Maurya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.[citation needed]Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by Ashoka during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.[54]Ashokavadana – The Aśokāvadāna is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text, and its world is that of Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashoka's conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka's character that are not available in the widely known Pali records.[30]A punch-marked Coin of Ashoka[55]A silver coin of 1 karshapana of the empire Maurya, period of Ashoka Maurya towards 272-232 BC, workshop of Mathura. Obv: Symbols including a sun and an animal Rev:Symbol Dimensions: 13.92 x 11.75 mm Weight: 3.4 g.Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of Ashoka.[citation needed]Dwipavamsa -The Dwipavamsa, or "Dweepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believed to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century CE. King Dhatusena (4th century) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda festival held annually in Anuradhapura.[citation needed]SymbolismCaduceus symbol on a punch-marked coin of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE.The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "Mudra".[56]This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.[57]Perceptions and historiographyThe use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics."[58]The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".[59]However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."[58]Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.[60]The Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the familiar Ashoka; one in which his conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core, from a wellspring inside himself rather than spurred by a specific event. It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. This Ashoka is very different from the "shadowy do-gooder" of later Pali chronicles.[30]Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[61]These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BCE. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back), which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some events ever actually happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.[citation needed]Focus of debateFront frieze of the Diamond throne, built by Ashoka at Bodh Gaya.Recently scholarly analysis determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism; and what is referred to in the Inscriptions as dhamma or dharma, which connotes goodness, virtue, and charity.[62]Some historians[who?]have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire, while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated". The dhamma of the Edicts has been understood as concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."[63]Legends of AshokaAshoka and his two queens, in a relief at Sanchi. The identification with Ashoka is confirmed by the similar relief from Kanaganahalli inscribed "Raya Asoka".[64][2]Ashoka with his Queens, at Sannati (Kanaganahalli Stupa), 1st-3rd century CE. The inscription "Rāya Asoko" ( , "King Ashoka") in Brahmi script is carved on the relief.[64][65]Until the Ashokan inscriptions were discovered and deciphered, stories about Ashoka were based on the legendary accounts of his life and not strictly on historical facts. These legends were found in Buddhist textual sources such as the text of Ashokavadana. The Ashokavadana is a subset of a larger set of legends in the Divyavadana, though it could have existed independently as well. Following are some of the legends narrated in the Ashokavadana about Ashoka:1) One of the stories talks about an event that occurred in a past life of Ashoka, when he was a small child named Jaya. Once when Jaya was playing on the roadside, the Buddha came by. The young child put a handful of earth in the Buddha's begging bowl as his gift to the saint and declared his wish to one day become a great emperor and follower of the Buddha. The Buddha is said to have smiled a smile that “illuminated the universe with its rays of light”.[20]These rays of light are then said to have re-entered the Buddha's left palm, signifying that this child Jaya would, in his next life, become a great emperor. The Buddha is said to have even turned to his disciple Ananda and is said to have predicted that this child would be “a great, righteous chakravarti king, who would rule his empire from his capital at Pataliputra”.2) Another story aims to portray Ashoka as an evil person in order to convey the importance of his transformation into a good person upon adopting Buddhism.[20]It begins by stating that due to Ashoka's physical ugliness he was disliked by his father Bindusara. Ashoka wanted to become king and so he got rid of the heir by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. He became famous as “Ashoka the Fierce” because of his wicked nature and bad temper. He is said to have subjected his ministers to a test of loyalty and then have 500 of them killed for failing it. He is said to have burnt his entire harem to death when certain women insulted him. He is supposed to have derived sadistic pleasure from watching other people suffer. And for this he built himself an elaborate and horrific torture chamber where he amused himself by torturing other people. The story then goes on to narrate how it was only after an encounter with a pious Buddhist monk that Ashoka himself transformed into “Ashoka the pious”. A Chinese traveler who visited India in the 7th century CE, Xuan Zang recorded in his memoirs that he visited the place where the supposed torture chamber stood.3) Another story is about events that occurred towards the end of Ashoka's time on earth. Ashoka is said to have started gifting away the contents of his treasury to the Buddhist sangha. His ministers however were scared that his eccentricity would be the downfall of the empire and so denied him access to the treasury. As a result, Ashoka started giving away his personal possessions and was eventually left with nothing and so died peacefully.[20]At this point it is important to note that the Ashokavadana being a Buddhist text in itself sought to gain new converts for Buddhism and so used all these legends. Devotion to the Buddha and loyalty to the sangha are stressed. Such texts added to the perception that Ashoka was essentially the ideal Buddhist monarch who deserved both admiration and emulation.[20]Ashoka and the relics of the BuddhaAccording to Buddhist legend, particularly the Mahaparinirvana, the relics of the Buddha had been shared among eight countries following his death.[66]Ashoka endeavoured to take back the relics and share them among 84,000 stupas. This story is amply depicted in the reliefs of Sanchi and Bharhut.[67]According to the legend, Ashoka obtained the ashes from seven of the countries, but failed to take the ashes from the Nagas at Ramagrama. This scene is depicted on the tranversal portion of the southern gateway at Sanchi.King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the Nagas, but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, Sanchi.[2]ContributionsApproach towards religionsAshoka's title "DevanaṃpiyenaPiyadasi" ( ) in the Lumbini Minor Pillar Edict.According to Indian historian Romila Thapar, Ashoka emphasized respect for all religious teachers, and harmonious relationship between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees.[68]Ashoka's religion contained gleanings from all religions.[citation needed]He emphasized the virtues of Ahimsa, respect to all religious teachers, equal respect for and study of each other's scriptures, and rational faith.[citation needed]Global spread of BuddhismStupa of Sanchi. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the Sungas, but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the Satavahanas.As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of stupas, Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddha's relics.[69]In the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, Ashoka takes offerings to each of these stupas traveling in a chariot adorned with precious metals.[70]He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni).According to the Mahavamsa (XII, 1st paragraph),[71]in the 17th year of his reign, at the end of the Third Buddhist Council, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to nine parts of the world (eight parts of Southern Asia, and the "country of the Yonas(Greeks)") to propagate Buddhism.[72]The word Upāsaka (, "Buddhist lay follower", in the Brahmi script), used by Ashoka in his Minor Rock Edict No.1 to describe his affiliation to Buddhism (circa 258 BCE).Ashoka and Monk Moggaliputta-Tissa at the Third Buddhist Council. Nava Jetavana, Shravasti.Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism.[73]Ashoka helped and respected both Shramanas (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council (c.250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna), conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa.[74][75]Emperor Ashoka's son, Mahinda, also helped with the spread of Buddhism by translating the Buddhist Canon into a language that could be understood by the people of Sri Lanka.[76]It is well known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his dhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[77]Hellenistic worldDistribution of the Edicts of Ashoka, and location of the contemporary Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.[78]Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[79][80]In his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remains:Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochosrules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.—Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika)[81]It is not too far-fetched to imagine, however, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).[77]Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus,[82]who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.[83]The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII[84]).Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.[85][86]As administratorMauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.Ashoka's military power was strong, but after his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with three major Tamil kingdoms in the South—namely, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas—the post-Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi. His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common people.[61]Animal welfareAshoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be sacrificed for slaughter.[87]However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.[88]He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.[89][90]Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.[91]Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".[92]Ashoka ChakraMain article: Ashoka ChakraThe Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)"The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (the Wheel of Dharma). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnathand The Ashoka Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of the Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.[citation needed]The Ashoka Chakra was created by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or "self-repeating process". The process it signifies is the cycle of time—as in how the world changes with time.[citation needed]A few days before India became independent in August 1947, the specially-formed Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.[93]Stone architectureThe Pataliputra capital, a 3rd-century BCE capital from the Mauryan palace in Pataliputra, displaying Hellenistic designs.Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two "flame palmettes"framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers.Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great.[94]Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch.[94][95]Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone,[96]and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.[97]Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)Main article: Pillars of AshokaThe Ashokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal, Buddha's birthplaceThe pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastikastands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.[citation needed]Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra)Main article: Lion Capital of AshokaAshoka's pillar capital of Sarnath. Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, Mauryan polish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface. This sculpture has been adopted as the National Emblem of India. 3rd century BCE.The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four lions standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Ashoka Column, is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel ("Ashoka Chakra") from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.[citation needed]The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on a short cylindrical abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra"). The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of monks."[citation needed]The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life.[citation needed]The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb.The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life.The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha.Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.