A Comparison Of Four Tests Of Temporal Resolution: Fill & Download for Free

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /ˈɪsroʊ/) is the space agency of the Government of India headquartered in the city of Bengaluru. Its vision is to "harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration."[6]Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was established under the DAE in 1962 by the efforts of scientist Vikram Sarabhai recognizing the need in space research. INCOSPAR grew into ISRO in 1969 also under the DAE.[7][8]In 1972 Government of India setup a Space Commission and the Department of Space (DOS)[9], bringing ISRO under the DOS. The establishment of ISRO thus institutionalized space research activities in India.[10]It is managed by the Department of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of India.[11]ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975.[12]It was named after the mathematician Aryabhata. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.[13][14]ISRO sent a lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan-1, on 22 October 2008 and a Mars orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, on 5 November 2013, which entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its first attempt to Mars, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world as well as the first space agency in Asia to reach Mars orbit.[15]On 18 June 2016, ISRO set a record with a launch of twenty satellites in a single payload, one being a satellite from Google.[16]On 15 February 2017, ISRO launched one hundred and four satellites in a single rocket (PSLV-C37) and created a world record.[17][18]ISRO launched its heaviest rocket, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle-Mark III (GSLV-Mk III), on 5 June 2017 and placed a communications satellite GSAT-19 in orbit. With this launch, ISRO became capable of launching 4-ton heavy satellites into GTO.Future plans include the development of Unified Launch Vehicle, Small Satellite Launch Vehicle, development of a reusable launch vehicle, human spaceflight, controlled soft lunar landing, interplanetary probes, and a solar spacecraft mission.[19]Contents1 Formative years2 Goals and objectives3 Organisation structure and facilities 3.1 Research facilities 3.2 Test facilities 3.3 Construction and launch facilities 3.4 Tracking and control facilities 3.5 Human resource development 3.6 Commercial wing (Antrix Corporation) 3.7 Other facilities4 Launch vehicle fleet 4.1 Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) 4.2 Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) 4.3 Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) 4.4 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) 4.5 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III)5 Satellite programmes 5.1 The INSAT series 5.2 The IRS series 5.3 Radar Imaging Satellites 5.4 Other satellites 5.5 South Asia Satellite 5.6 GAGAN satellite navigation system 5.7 IRNSS satellite navigation system6 Human Spaceflight Programme 6.1 Technology demonstrations 6.2 Astronaut training and other facilities 6.3 Crewed spacecraft7 Planetary sciences and astronomy 7.1 Astrosat8 Extraterrestrial exploration 8.1 Lunar: Chandrayaan-1 8.2 Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalayaan)9 Future projects 9.1 Forthcoming satellites 9.2 Future extraterrestrial exploration 9.2.1 Chandrayaan 2 9.2.2 Mars Orbiter Mission 2 9.2.3 Aditya-L1 9.2.4 Venus and Jupiter 9.2.5 Lunar missions 9.3 Space transportation 9.3.1 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle 9.3.2 Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) 9.3.3 Unified Launch Vehicle10 Applications 10.1 Telecommunication 10.2 Resource management 10.3 Military 10.4 Academic 10.5 Tele-Medicine 10.6 Biodiversity Information System 10.7 Cartography11 International co-operation 11.1 ISRO satellites launched by foreign agencies12 Statistics13 See also14 Citations15 References16 Further reading17 External linksFormative yearsVikram Sarabhai, first chairperson of INCOSPAR, which would later be called ISROModern space research in India is most visibly traced to the 1920s, when the scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground-based radio methods in Calcutta.[20]Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[20]However, it was the period after 1945 that saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India.[20]Organised space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[20]Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere.[21]Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[21][22]In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Bhabha as its secretary.[22]The department provided funding for space research throughout India.[23]During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that was being studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas.[22]The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by Government of India.[23]In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[23]The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by the efforts of independent India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.[24]Goals and objectivesThe prime objective of ISRO is to use space technology and its application to various national tasks.[25]The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of the Indian Space Programme.[26]As he said in 1969:There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society.—Vikram Sarabhai,[25]Former President of India, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.—A. P. J. Abdul Kalam,[27]India's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[28]In 2008, India launched as many as eleven satellites, including nine from other countries and went on to become the first nation to launch ten satellites on one rocket."[28]ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.In July 2012, Abdul Kalam said that research was being done by ISRO and DRDO for developing cost reduction technologies for access to space.[29]Organisation structure and facilitiesThe organisational structure of the Department of Space of the Government of IndiaISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes:[30]Indian Space Research Organisation Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram. Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Thiruvananthapuram. Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC-SHAR), Sriharikota. ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), Mahendragiri. ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bengaluru. Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad. National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad. ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU), Thiruvananthapuram. Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad. Master Control Facility (MCF), Hassan, Karnataka. ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), Bengaluru. Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS), Bengaluru. Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun.Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bengaluru.Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra pradesh.North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[31] (NE-SAC), Umiam.Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali.Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space university.Research facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionVikram Sarabhai Space CentreThiruvananthapuramThe largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue of development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[32]The base supports India's Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station and the Rohini Sounding Rocket programme.[32]This facility is also developing the GSLV series.[32]Liquid Propulsion Systems CentreThiruvananthapuram and BengaluruThe LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines for launch vehicles and satellites.[32]The testing of these systems is largely conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[32]The LPSC, Bangalore also produces precision transducers.[33]Physical Research LaboratoryAhmedabadSolar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some of the branches of study at this institute.[32]An observatory at Udaipur also falls under the control of this institution.[32]Semi-Conductor LaboratoryChandigarhResearch & Development in the field of semiconductor technology, micro-electro mechanical systems and process technologies relating to semiconductor processing.National Atmospheric Research LaboratoryTirupatiThe NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space Sciences.Space Applications CentreAhmedabadThe SAC deals with the various aspects of practical use of space technology.[32]Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy, satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing, meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[32]The SAC additionally operates the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal SATCOM operations.[34]North-Eastern Space Applications CentreShillongProviding developmental support to North East by undertaking specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication and conducting space science research.Test facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionISRO Propulsion ComplexMahendragiriFormerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid engines and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[32]Construction and launch facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionISRO Satellite CentreBengaluruThe venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[32]The satellites Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were constructed at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development here.This is renamed as U R Rao Satellite Centre.[33]Laboratory for Electro-Optics SystemsBengaluruThe Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in all ISRO satellites including Chandrayaan-1 are developed at this laboratory. Located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.Satish Dhawan Space CentreSriharikotaWith multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching site for India's satellites.[32]The Sriharikota facility is also the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[33]The centre is also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[33]The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[35][36]Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching StationThiruvananthapuramTERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.Tracking and control facilitiesFacilityLocationDescriptionIndian Deep Space Network (IDSN)BengaluruThis network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft health data and payload data in real time. It can track and monitor satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.National Remote Sensing CentreHyderabadThe NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study aerial surveying.[32]With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has training facilities at Dehradun in form of the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing.[32]ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command NetworkBengaluru (headquarters) and a number of ground stations throughout India and World.[34]Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[32]ISTRAC has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.Master Control FacilityBhopal; HassanGeostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations are performed at this facility.[37]The MCF has earth stations and Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[37]A second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[37]Human resource developmentFacilityLocationDescriptionIndian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS)DehradunIndian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), a unit of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Department of Space, Govt. of India is a premier training and educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G and PhD level) in the field of Remote Sensing, Geoinformatics and GPS Technology for Natural Resources, Environmental and Disaster Management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on Remote Sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs various Outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to build trained skilled human resources in the field of Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technologies.Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST)ThiruvananthapuramThe institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in Aerospace Engineering, Avionics and Physical Sciences. The students of the first three batches of IIST have been inducted into different ISRO centres as of September 2012.Development and Educational Communication UnitAhmedabadThe centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in conjunction with the INSAT programme.[32]The main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[33]The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the operational control of the DECU.[34]Commercial wing (Antrix Corporation)Main article: Antrix CorporationSets up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO.[38][39]Other facilitiesAerospace Command of India (ACI)Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – OdishaDevelopment and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR)Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)Integrated Space CellInter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – ThiruvananthapuramNational Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC)Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC)Launch vehicle fleetComparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk.IIIDuring the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle program owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rockets programme, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[40]ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of PSLV and GSLV technologies.Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)Main article: Satellite Launch VehicleStatus: DecommissionedThe Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage solid-propellant light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 kilometres (310 miles) and carry a payload of 40 kilograms (88 pounds).[41]Its first launch took place in 1979 with two more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.[42]Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)Main article: ASLVStatus: DecommissionedThe Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a five-stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150-kilogram (330-pound) satellite into Low Earth Orbit. This project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle.[43]The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that three others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only two were successful, before it was decommissioned.[42]Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)Main article: PSLVStatus: ActiveThe Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, commonly known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable launch system developed by ISRO to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into Sun synchronous orbits. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched, as of 2014, seventy-one satellites/spacecraft (thirty-one Indian and forty foreign) into a variety of orbits.[44][45]The maximum number of satellites launched by the PSLV in a single launch is 104, in the PSLV-C37 launch on 15 February 2017.[46][47][48]Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:DecadeSuccessfulPartial successFailuresTotal1990s31152000s1100112010s300131Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)Main article: GSLVStatus: ActiveThe Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's second-heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit. The vehicle is built by India, originally with a cryogenic engine purchased from Russia, while the ISRO developed its own cryogenic engine.The first version of the GSLV (GSLV Mk.I), using the Russian cryogenic stage, became operational in 2004, after an unsuccessful first launch in 2001 and a second, successful development launch in 2003.The first attempt to launch the GSLV Mk.II with an Indian built cryogenic engine, GSLV-F06 carrying GSAT-5P, failed on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation implies that loss of control for the strap-on boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed detonation. Sixty-four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the rocket.[49]On 5 January 2014, GSLV-D5 launched GSAT-14 into intended orbit. This marked first successful flight using indigenous cryogenic engine (CE-7.5), making India the sixth country in the world to have this technology.[13][14]Again on 27 August 2015, GSLV-D6 launched GSAT-6 into the transfer orbit. ISRO used the indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) third time on board in this GSLV flight.[50]On 8 September 2016, GSLV-F05 launched INSAT-3DR, a weather satellite, weighing 2,211 kg (4,874 lb) into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). GSLV is designed to inject 2–5 tonnes (2.2–5.5 tons) -class of satellites into GTO. The launch took place from the Second Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota. The GSLV-F05 flight was the first operational flight of GSLV carrying the Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS). The indigenously developed CUS was carried on board for the fourth time during a GSLV-F05 flight. GSLV-F05 vehicle is configured with all its three stages including the CUS similar to the ones flown during the previous GSLV-D5 and D6 missions in January 2014 and August 2015.[51]Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:DecadeSuccessfulPartial successFailuresTotal2000s31152010s6028Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III)Main article: GSLV IIIStatus: ActiveGSLV-Mk III is a launch vehicle. It is capable to launch four tonne satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbit. GSLV-Mk III is a three-stage vehicle with a 110-tonne (120-ton) c-ore liquid propellant stage (L-110) flanked by two 200-tonne (220-ton) solid propellant strap-on booster motors (S-200). The upper stage is cryogenic with a propellant loading of 25 tonne (C-25). The vehicle has a lift-off mass of about 640 tonnes and be 43.43 metres tall. According to ISRO, the payload fairing has a diameter of 5 metres and a payload volume of 100 cubic metres.[52]It will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting.[53]On 18 December 2014, ISRO conducted an experimental test-flight of GSLV MK III carrying a crew module, to be used in future human space missions.[54]This suborbital test flight demonstrated the performance of GSLV Mk III in the atmosphere.[55]GSLV Mk III-D1 carrying communication satellite GSAT-19 lifted off from the second launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on 5 June 2017 and placed the communication satellite into the geosynchronous transfer orbit sixteen minutes after takeoff. GSAT-19 satellite with a lift-off mass of 3,136 kg (6,914 lb), is the communication satellite of India, configured around the ISRO's standard I-3K bus.[56]Decade wise summary of GSLV III launches:DecadeSuccessfulPartial successFailuresTotal2010s3003[57]Satellite programmesINSAT-1BIndia's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites, which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites.The INSAT seriesMain article: Indian National Satellite SystemINSAT-1B satellite: Broadcasting sector in India is highly dependent on INSAT system.INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.The IRS seriesMain article: Indian Remote Sensing satelliteIndian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programmes to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat.Radar Imaging SatellitesISRO currently operates two Radar Imaging Satellites (RISAT). RISAT-1 was launched from Sriharikota Spaceport on 26 April 2012 on board a PSLV. RISAT-1 carries a C band synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) payload, operating in a multi-polarisation and multi-resolution mode and can provide images with coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions.[58]India also operates RISAT-2, which was launched in 2009 and acquired from Israel at a cost $110 million.[58]Other satellitesISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite,[59]was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002.[60]The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1.[61]In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla – a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.ISRO has also launched the Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013, 12:31 UTC. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative altimetry technology mission. It is being used for monitoring the oceans surface and sea-levels. AltiKa will measure ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm, against 2.5 cm on average using current-generation altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km.[62][63]In June 2014, ISRO launched French Earth Observation Satellite SPOT-7 (mass 714 kg) along with Singapore's first nano satellite VELOX-I, Canada's satellite CAN-X5, Germany's satellite AISAT, via the PSLV-C23 launch vehicle. It was ISRO's 4th commercial launch.[64][65]South Asia SatelliteMain article: South Asia SatelliteThe South Asia Satellite (GSAT-9) is a geosynchronous communications satellite by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region. The satellite was launched on 5 May 2017. During the 18th SAARC summit held in Nepal in 2014, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi mooted the idea of a satellite serving the needs of SAARC member nations, part of his Neighbourhood first policy.One month after sworn in as Prime Minister of India, in June 2014 Modi asked ISRO to develop a SAARC satellite, which can be dedicated as a ‘gift’ to the neighbors.It is a satellite for the SAARC region with 12 Ku-band transponders (36 MHz each) and launch using the Indian Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV Mk-II. The total cost of launching the satellite is estimated to be about ₹2,350,000,000 (₹235 crore). The cost associated with the launch was met by the Government of India. The satellite enables full range of applications and services in the areas of telecommunication and broadcasting applications viz television (TV), direct-to-home (DTH), very small aperture terminals (VSATs), tele-education, telemedicine and disaster management support.GAGAN satellite navigation systemMain article: GPS-aided geo-augmented navigationThe Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS)/Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. TDS was completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Centre (MCC) located near Bangalore.The first GAGAN navigation payload has been fabricated and it was proposed to be flown on GSAT-4 during Apr 2010. However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as GSLV-D3 could not complete the mission. Two more GAGAN payloads will be subsequently flown, one each on two geostationary satellites, GSAT-8 and GSAT-10. On 12 May 2012, ISRO announced the successful testing of its indigenous cryogenic engine for 200 seconds for its forthcoming GSLV-D5 flight.[66]IRNSS satellite navigation systemMain article: IRNSSIRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area. IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS) and is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary service area.[67]It is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation, which is under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to Global Navigation Satellite Systems like GPS is not guaranteed in hostile situations. ISRO initially planned to launch the constellation of satellites between 2012 and 2014 but the project got delayed by nearly two years.ISRO on 1 July 2013, at 23:41 IST launched from Sriharikota the First Indian Navigation Satellite the IRNSS-1A. The IRNSS-1A was launched aboard PSLV-C22. The constellation would comprise seven satellites of I-1K bus each weighing around 1450 Kilogrammes, with three satellites in the Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) and four in Geosynchronous earth orbit(GSO). The constellation would be completed around April 2016.[68]On 4 April 2014, at 17:14 IST ISRO has launched IRNSS-1B from Sriharikota, its second of seven IRNSS series. 19 minutes after launch PSLV-C24 was injected into its orbit.IRNSS-1C was launched on 16 October 2014, and IRNSS-1D on 28 March 2015.[69]On 20 January 2016, 9:31 hrs IST IRNSS-1E was launched aboard PSLV-C31 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. On 10 March 2016, 4:31 hrs IST IRNSS-1F was launched aboard PSLV-C32 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. On 28 April 2016, 12:50 hrs IST IRNSS-1G was launched aboard PSLV-XL-C33 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota. This Satellite is the seven and the last in the IRNSS system and completes India's own navigation systemAs of January 2016, ISRO was in the process of developing 4 back-up satellites to the constellation of existing IRNSS satellites.[70]On 31 August 2017, India's ISRO failed in its attempt to launch its eighth regional navigation satellite (IRNSS-1H) from Sriharikota at 7pm. The satellite got stuck in the fourth stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle–PSLV-C39. A replacement satellite, IRNSS-1I, was successfully placed into orbit on 12 April 2018.[71]Human Spaceflight ProgrammeMain article: Indian Human Spaceflight ProgrammeIn 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a budget of ₹12,400 crore (US$1.7 billion) for its human spaceflight programme.[72]According to the Space Commission, which recommended the budget, an uncrewed flight will be launched after seven years from the final approval[73]and a crewed mission will be launched after 7 years of funding.[74][75]If realised in the stated time-frame, India will become the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out crewed missions indigenously.Prime Minister of India, Sri Narendra Modi, announced in his Independence Day address of August 15, 2018 that India will send astronauts into space by 2022 through the Gaganyaan mission.[76]After the announcement, ISRO chairman, Sivan, said ISRO has developed most of the technologies needed such as crew module and crew escape system, and that the project would cost less than Rs. 10,000 crore and would include sending at least 3 Indians to space, 300–400 km above in a spacecraft for at least 7 days using a GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle.[77][78]The chance of a female being a member of the first crew is "very high"according to the Scientific Secretary to the Indian Chairman, R Umamaheswaran.[79]Technology demonstrationsThe Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE-1)[80]is an experimental Indian spacecraft that was launched on January 10, 2007 using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal.[81]The SRE-1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aerothermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations. A follow-up project named SRE-2 was cancelled mid-way after years of delay.[82]on 18 December 2014, ISRO launched the Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment aboard the GSLV Mk3 for a sub-orbital flight.[83][84]The crew module separated from the rocket at an altitude of 126 km and underwent free fall. The module heat shield experienced temperature in excess of 1600 °C. Parachutes were deployed at an altitude of 15 km to slow down the module which performed a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal. This flight was used to test orbital injection, separation and re-entry procedures and systems of the Crew Capsule. Also tested were the capsule separation, heat shields and aerobraking systems, deployment of parachute, retro-firing, splashdown, flotation systems and procedures to recover the Crew Capsule from the Bay of Bengal.[85][86]On 5 July 2018, ISRO conducted a pad abort test of their launch abort system (LAS) at Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. This is the first in a series of tests to qualify the critical crew escape system technology for future crewed missions. The LAS is designed to quickly pull out the crew to safety in case of emergency.[87]Astronaut training and other facilitiesNewly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSPC) will coordinate the IHSF campagn.[88][89]ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use simulation facilities to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the mission. Existing launch facilities in Satish Dhawan Space Centre will be upgraded for the Indian Human Spaceflight campaign.[90]Crewed spacecraftMain article: GaganyaanISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in a low Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan (गगनयान), will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The capsule is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 400 km in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crewed vehicle is planned to be launched on ISRO's GSLV Mk III in 2022.[91]Planetary sciences and astronomyIndia's space era dawned when the first two-stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963.[citation needed]There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma-ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionization, electric conductivity and electric fields.[92]The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Cyg X-1 and Her X-1, and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.[93]One of most important achievements of ISRO in this field was the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 20–40 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. Until then, the upper stratosphere was believed to be inhospitable because of the high doses of ultra-violet radiation. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[94]AstrosatThe Astrosat is India's first multi wavelength space observatory and full-fledged astronomy satellite. Its observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars, binary star systems, supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxies etc.Extraterrestrial explorationLunar: Chandrayaan-1Main article: Chandrayaan-1Rendering of Chandrayaan-1 spacecraftChandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The unmanned lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carried high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312 days operational period (2 years planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The polar regions were of special interest, as they possibly had ice deposits. The spacecraft carried 11 instruments: 5 Indian and 6 from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North American institutes/companies), which were carried free of cost. Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the Moon.[95]The Chandrayaan-166 team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award,[96]the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008,[97]and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[98][99]Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalayaan)Main article: Mars Orbiter MissionArtist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft, with Mars in the background.The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalayaan, was launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[100]India thus became the first country to enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a record low cost of $74 million.[101]MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014 at 8:23 am IST.The spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering category.[102][103]Future projectsISRO plans to launch a number of Earth observation satellites in the near future. It will also undertake the development of new launch vehicle, crewed spacecraft, and probes to Mars and near-Earth objects.Forthcoming satellitesSatellite nameNotesGSAT-20It is expected to be launched in 2019.CARTOSAT-3It is expected to be launched in 2019.IT is a follow up to CARTOSAT-2IRNSS-1JIt is expected to be launched in 2019.GSAT-30It is expected to be launched from French arianespace in 2019.GISAT 1Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous observation of Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring of natural hazards and disaster.NISARNASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite to be used for remote sensing. It is notable for being the first dual band radar imaging satellite.Future extraterrestrial explorationISRO's missions beyond Earth's orbit include Chandrayaan-1 (to the Moon) and Mars Orbiter Mission (to Mars). ISRO plans to follow up with Chandrayaan-2, Mars Orbiter Mission 2, and is assessing missions to Venus, the Sun, and near-Earth objects such as asteroids and comets.DestinationCraft nameLaunch vehicleYearMoonChandrayaan-2GSLV III2019SunAditya-L1PSLV-XL2021MarsMars Orbiter Mission 2(Mangalyaan 2)GSLV III2021-22VenusShukrayaan-1(Venus Mission)GSLV III2023JupiterTBDChandrayaan 2Main article: Chandrayaan-2Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III is intended as a launch vehicle for crewed missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme announced in Prime Minister Modi's 2018 Independence Day speech.[104]Chandrayaan-2 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान-२) will be India's second mission to the Moon, which will include an orbiter and lander-rover module. Chandrayaan-2 will be launched on India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-MkIII) in 2019.[105]The science goals of the mission are to further improve the understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon.Mars Orbiter Mission 2Main article: Mars Orbiter Mission 2The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2, also called Mangalyaan 2 (Sanskrit: मंगलयान-२), will likely be launched in 2022 or 2023.[106]It will have a less elliptical orbit around Mars and could weigh seven times more than the first mission.[107]This orbiter mission will facilitate scientific community to address the open science problems. The science payload of the proposed satellite is likely to be 100 kg.Aditya-L1Main article: Aditya-L1ISRO plans to carry out a mission to the Sun by the year 2021.[108]The probe is named Aditya-1 (Sanskrit: आदित्य L१) and will have a mass of about 400 kg (880 lb).[109]It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible and near-IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission was planned during the heightened solar activity period in 2012, but was postponed to 2019–2020 due to the extensive work involved in the fabrication, and other technical aspects. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather.Venus and JupiterISRO is in the process of conducting conceptual studies to send a spacecraft to Jupiter or Venus.JupiterThe ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[110]VenusISRO is assessing an orbiter mission to Venus called Shukrayaan-1, that could launch as early as 2023 to study its atmosphere.[111]Some budget has been allocated to perform preliminary studies as part of 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences,[112][113][114]and solicitations for potential instruments were requested in 2017[115]and in 2018.Lunar missionsBesides the Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission, ISRO is studying the potential for a joint lunar mission with Japan's Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to explore the polar regions of the Moon for water, and will be producing a proposal by March 2019.[116]Space transportationSmall Satellite Launch VehicleMain article: Small Satellite Launch VehicleSmall Satellite Launch Vehicle or SSLV is in development for commercially launching small satellites with a payload of 500 kg to Low Earth Orbit. SSLV would be four staged vehicle with three solid propellant based stages and a Velocity Trimming Module. The maiden flight is expected mid 2019 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.[117][118]Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)Main article: RLV-TDAs a first step towards realizing a two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD is acting as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion.First in the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched the prototype's test flight from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. The prototype- 'the RLV-TD' weighs around 1.5 tonnes and flew up to a height of 70 km.[119]The test flight, known as HEX, was completed on 23 May 2016. The scaled up version of could serve as fly-back booster stage for winged TSTO concept.[120]Unified Launch VehicleMain article: Unified Launch VehicleThe ULV or Unified Launch Vehicle is a launch vehicle in development by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The project's core objective is to design a modular architecture that will enable the replacement of the PSLV, GSLV Mk II and GSLV Mk III with a single family of launchers. The SCE-200 engine can even be clustered for heavy launch configuration. The ULV will be able to launch 6000 kg to 10,000 kg of payload into GTO. This will mark the renunciation of the liquid stage with Vikas engine, which uses toxic UDMH and N2O4.ApplicationsTelecommunicationIndia uses its satellites communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[121]Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[122]Dinshaw Mistry, on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program, writes:"The INSAT-2 satellites also provide telephone links to remote areas; data transmission for organisations such as the National Stock Exchange; mobile satellite service communications for private operators, railways, and road transport; and broadcast satellite services, used by India's state-owned television agency as well as commercial television channels. India's EDUSAT (Educational Satellite), launched aboard the GSLV in 2004, was intended for adult literacy and distance learning applications in rural areas. It augmented and would eventually replace such capabilities already provided by INSAT-3B."Resource managementThe IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centres in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analysing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning.MilitaryIntegrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defense Services headquarters of the Indian Ministry of Defense,[123]has been set up to utilize more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[124][125]This command will leverage space technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the air force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.[123]With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for the exclusive military use and the rest as dual use satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the exclusive use of Indian Air Force and Indian Navy respectively.[126]GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications satellite exclusively for the Indian Air Force,[127]is similar to Indian navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance Network-centric warfare capabilities of the Indian Air Force by interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbase and Airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.[127][128]GSAT-7A will also be used by Indian Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and UAV's operations.[127][128]In 2013, ISRO had launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Indian Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000 nautical mile ‘footprint’ and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime aircraft.[126]To boost its network-centric operations, the IAF is also likely to get another satellite GSAT-7C within a few years.[126]India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 93–124-mile (150–200-kilometre) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, however, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) based missile programme borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct India's missile programme. About a dozen scientists accompanied Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where he designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhi's Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries to monitor ballistic missiles near India's borders. In 1997 the Indian Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.[129]AcademicInstitutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications.[130]Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[131]This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[131]Education could reach far remote rural places with the help of above programs.Tele-MedicineISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites.[130]Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing.[130]The patient is then advised medicine and treatment.[130]The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under instructions from the doctor.[130]Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[130]Biodiversity Information SystemISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[132]Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[132]CartographyThe Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[26]IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[26]The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project.[133]International co-operationISRO has had international co-operation since inception. Some instances are listed below:Establishment of TERLS, conduct of SITE & STEP, launches of Aryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, IRS-IA and IRS-IB/ satellites, manned space mission, etc. involved international co-operation.ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue.India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.India hosted the Second UN-ESCAP Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific in November 1999.India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[134]Chandrayaan-1 carried scientific payloads from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.The United States government on 24 January 2011, removed several Indian government agencies, including ISRO, from the so-called Entity List, in an effort to drive hi-tech trade and forge closer strategic ties with India.[135]ISRO carries out joint operations with foreign space agencies, such as the Indo-French Megha-Tropiques Mission.[134]At the International Astronautical Congress 2014 at Toronto, ISRO chairman K. Radhakrishnan and NASA administrator Charles Bolden signed two documents. One was regarding the 2020 launch of a NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite mission to make global measurements of the causes and consequences of land surface changes. The other was to establish a pathway for future joint missions to explore Mars.[136]Antrix Corporation, the commercial and marketing arm of ISRO, handles both domestic and foreign deals.[137]Formal co-operative arrangements in the form of memoranda of understanding or framework agreements have been signed with the following countries[138]ArgentinaAustraliaBrazilBruneiBulgariaCanadaChileChinaEgyptFranceGermanyHungaryIndonesiaIsraelItalyJapanKazakhstanMalaysiaMauritiusMongoliaMyanmarNorwayPeruRussiaSaudi ArabiaSouth KoreaSpainSwedenSyriaThailandNetherlandsUkraineUnited Arab EmiratesUnited KingdomUnited StatesVenezuelaThe following foreign organisations also have signed various framework agreements with ISRO:-European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF)EUMETSAT (European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites)European Space AgencyIn the 39th Scientific Assembly of Committee on Space Research held in Mysore, the ISRO chairman K. Radhakrishnan called upon international synergy in space missions in view of their prohibitive cost. He also mentioned that ISRO is gearing up to meet the growing demand of service providers and security agencies in a cost effective manner.[139]ISRO satellites launched by foreign agenciesSeveral ISRO satellites have been launched by foreign space agencies (of Europe, USSR / Russia, and United States). The details (as of December 2016) are given in the tables below.51015202530Communication satellitesEarth observation satellitesExperimental satellitesOtherArianeInterkosmosVostokMolniyaDeltaSpace ShuttleLaunch vehicle familyNo. of ISRO satellites launchedCommunication satellitesEarth observation satellitesExperimental satellitesOtherTotalEuropeAriane2001021USSR / RussiaInterkosmos02103Vostok02002Molniya01001USADelta20002Space Shuttle10001Total2352030Those ISRO satellites that had a launch mass of 3000 kg or more, and were launched by foreign agencies, are listed in the table below.No.Satellite's nameLaunch vehicleLaunch agencyCountry / region of launch agencyLaunch dateLaunch massPowerOrbit typeMission lifeOther informationReference(s)1.INSAT-4AAriane5-V169ArianespaceEurope22 December 20053081 kg with propellants(1386.55 kg dry mass)5922 WGeosynchronous12 yearsFor communication.[140]2.INSAT-4BAriane 5 ECAArianespaceEurope12 March 20073,025 kg with propellants5859 WGeosynchronous12 yearsCommunication satellite[141]3.GSAT-8Ariane-5 VA-202ArianespaceEurope21 May 20113,093 kg with propellants (1,426 kg dry mass)6242 WGeosynchronousMore than 12 yearsCommunication satellite[142]4.GSAT-10Ariane-5 VA-209ArianespaceEurope29 September 20103,400 kg with propellants (1,498 kg dry mass)6474 WGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite[143]5.GSAT-16Ariane-5 VA-221ArianespaceEurope7 December 20143,181.6 kg with propellants6000 WGeosynchronous12 yearsCommunication satellite, configured to carry 48 communication transponders, the most in any ISRO communication satellite so far.[144]6.GSAT-15Ariane-5 VA-227ArianespaceEurope11 November 20153,164 kg with propellants6000 WGeosynchronous12 yearsCommunication satellite, configured to carry 24 communication transponders.[145]7.GSAT-18Ariane-5 VA-231ArianespaceEurope6 October 20163,404 kg6474 WGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite, carries 48 transponders[146]8.GSAT-17Ariane-5 VA-238ArianespaceEurope28 June 20173,477 kg6474 WGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite, carries 42 transponders[147]9.GSAT-11Ariane-5 VA-246ArianespaceEurope5 December 20185,854 kg13.4KWGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite10.GSAT-31Ariane-5 VA-247ArianespaceEurope6 February 20192,536 kg4.7KWGeosynchronous15 yearsCommunication satellite[148]StatisticsLast updated: 2 April 2019[149]Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO : 297 (32 countries)Spacecraft missions: 103Launch missions: 73Student satellites: 10Re-entry missions: 2

The key thing about Multiple Universes theory of Everett in relation to the Copenhagen interpretation is that it is simpler, i.e. it has fewer assumptions, but on the other hand it sends us in a direction that we really don't want to go which is the proliferation of universes at each observation of a quantum probability wave that collapses. Now I think the existence of Dark Energy pouring in to our universe and making it at the macro scale a far from equilibrium system which is accelerating in its expansion to be the most compelling evidence for the multiverse. This Dark Energy, which Penrose says we should not call Energy because it is not conserved, has to come from somewhere. That somewhere is the "Multiverse" what ever that is. Also Dark Matter suggests that there is a multiverse because in string theory, one of the variations, suggest that our universe has a twin with which we only share gravity. So that would mean that half of the dark energy could be explained as being in our twin universe, and then we can consider the rest to be either in blackholes or non-lighted matter. Now that we know we are living in a world where the earth has rings of anti-matter, and there is no Higgs particle within reach of LHC and where super-symmetries are not yet confirmed, and where neutrinos go faster than the speed of light, really we are certainly going to have to go back to the drawing board, unless something happens soon, like finding an error in experiments, and suddenly finding the Higgs particle where it is expected. We spent a lot of money building the LHC in order to find out that the Higgs is just no there, so far. It will be interesting when we find out what really is there at those energies and that will probably send all our theorizing about multiverses in a different direction.So I would like to mention a completely different way to come at this problem of Multiverses, a more Kantian Copernican Turn sort of explanation. I have invented something called General Schemas Theory in my research. I came to it by asking what is the next level of abstraction up from Systems Theory. What are the other things like a "System" but different that are ways to organize Spacetime into what Umberto Eco in Kant and the Platypus calls Mathematical and Geometrical Schemas. The other candidates for templates of understanding that are at the same level of abstraction as Systems, but essentially different are things like Monads, Patterns, Forms, etc. It is surprising that such a discipline has never been created in our tradition before, but I cannot find it. You would have thought that it would have been created in Architectural Theory or in Art Theory, or in some other domain. But I guess that Science is just too specialized to think in these global terms about the way we organize phenomena as a species to ourselves. Schemas are Ontological rather than Ontic organizations. Ontic organisations are what one would normally think of as emergent levels in nature. These are things like quarks, particles, atoms, molecules, macro-molecules, organelles, cells, multi-cellular clusters, organs, organisms, ecologies, social organisms, Gaia. All these are ontic emergent levels of organization we find in nature. But they way we understand these emergent phenomena is via templates of understanding that we project as intuited a priori syntheses as Kant called them. But Kant believed that these were unstriated, in other words he thought there was only one kind of time that created schemas, and only one kind of space (homogeneous objective space) which means he believed in unstriated synthetic a priori projections prior to experience. But what General Schemas Theory posits is that these existant singularities of space and time are not only fused into SpaceTime but also are striated into different types of mathematical and geometric schemas. The key point is that you can view any ontic emergent level of organization in the universe via multiple ontological schemas, and much argumentation between scientists who are looking at the same phenomena via different schemas. Schemas are templates of organization projected on phenomena a priori as intuited syntheses. They are ontological because Being is identified with intelligibility. These schemas in comparison to the ontic structures we find in nature are what serves as the reference background in which we come to understand the actual organization of nature. Without the projected reference background we would not know what differences make a difference ala Bateson in the phenomena we are studying.Now in order to kick off General Schemas Theory as a discipline I created a hypothesis that there are only ten schemas and that they are related by a rule which is that there are two schemas per dimension and two dimensions per schema. This leads to a configuration of schemas as nesting at different scopes of the following organization which I derived empirically by studying science for many years.F theory = 12 ----> Two orthogonal timelinesM theory = 11String theory = 10----------------------------Pluriverse 8, 9Kosmos 7, 8World 6, 7Domain 5, 6OpenScape (Meta-system) 4,5System 3, 4Form 2, 3Pattern 1, 2Monad 0, 1Facet -1,0These Schemas are nested without gaps. Most of my work in my research has been looking for the gaps in these schema, and also trying to verify the dimensional relations.Now one thing we notice is that there are only 6 of these schematic levels that actually are completely experienced and those are the central six. The two on each end are like scaffolding which we do not completely experience.So based on this hypothesis, which I am working hard to refute, so we can get on to the next hypothesis in the development of General Schemas Theory, there is a "Multiverse" because that is one of the a priori syntheses that we intuit, in fact the highest one. Just like Quarks which are never seen in isolation that is the lowest schema. We never see a Quark on its own, or at least not yet. So to we never see the Pluriverse on its own. These are scaffoldings that supports our understanding of the limits of experience.It is interesting that Bernstein in his lectures on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason ultimately says in his regressive reading that the problem with Kant's theory is that he thinks that there is only one kind of time, just as he believes that there is only one kind of space. So if there are multiple kinds of time projected as a priori syntheses, and space and time are fused, then that means there must be multiple kinds of space as well, not just objective physical space. And since spacetime is fused (as either spacetime or timespace which together I call the Matrix) that means that the schemas are the striations of this existential singularity of spacetime into different kinds of temporal and spatial organizations of experience that are projected a priori on ontic phenomena, which in turn has its own ontic organization. Many times we assume the ontological organization of the template of our own understanding is the organization of the phenomena until we learn differently by questioning closely the phenomena itself. For instance Giovanni Schiaparelli and Percival Lowell saw little lines on Mars at the resolution of his telescope and he projected that there were canals there on Mars and so Edgar Rice Burroughs populated that planet with dwellers that lived along canals. It was not until we got higher magnification telescopes that we could see that the lines that were thought to be canals were in fact either artifacts from the low resolution telescope, shadows on the landscape, or projections from an overactive imagination. But what ever they were we projected our pattern schema on the surface of Mars to understand and connect what we saw there into something we could understand given the level of data we had.http://www.emmetlabs.com/pair/Giovanni-Virginio-Schiaparelli_321/Percival-Lowell_192http://www.scienceclarified.com/scitech/Exploring-Mars/Early-Observations-and-Beliefs.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparellihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percival_Lowellhttp://www2.lowell.edu/Research/library/paper/lowell.htmlBetter map: http://www.jimloy.com/astro/canals.htmLowell's book http://www.archive.org/details/marsanditscanals033323mbpRelated articles:http://www.space.com/13197-mars-canals-water-history-lowell.htmlhttp://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_retrospection&task=detail&id=4257http://www.factsaboutmars.net/mars-in-history-1800s/Threshold phenomnea: http://www.physics.smu.edu/pseudo/Threshold/Other Pseudo Science: http://www.physics.smu.edu/pseudo/auxiliary.htmlhttp://palermoproject.com/lowell2004/site.htmThe point of all this is that we project patterns on what later are found to be random data. This is just one example of what has been called Threshold phenomena. But it is one example that allows us to bring home the point that the idea of Kant that there are a priori intuited syntheses flowing from out imagination is credible.Once we believe what Kant surmised then it is only a small step to saying that there are a series of such schemas and that they themselves are organized into a hierarchy of organizations of Spacetime, so there is more than object time and space as absolutes but instead there are striated nestings of different templates of understanding that we project a priori, and to understand ourselves we ought to understand the structure of that ontological projection of Being (which is illusion) but which makes possible much of what we call the intelligibility of things we encounter.There are many things about the theory of S-prime hypothesis (abduction) that are interesting but the most interesting to me is the fact that out schemas stop exactly where String theory takes up at the tenth dimension. The five variants of string theory are united into M theory in the eleventh dimension. And finally F theory in the 12th dimension really throws a wrench in the works by giving us unexpectedly two orthogonal time lines. In the Fourteenth dimension this becomes three orthogonal time lines. I searched for a precedent for this and found that Dunne had suggested the idea of orthogonal time lines in the twenties, and his ideas influenced Tolkien. Hinton had earlier popularized the idea of the fourth dimension which influenced Lewis Carroll in his Through the Looking Glass story which takes place in a tesseract. Later Dunne came up with the idea that there might be multiple dimensions of time and that would explain the soul. Tolkien took that idea up as did other writers and for tolkien it was the mark of the different types of beings that populated middle earth that they all experienced time in slightly different ways.Since Philosophy for a while now has been looking for a reason for the Metaphysical Worldivew which has been in existence since Thales after the Mythopoietic worldview to be over, it seems to me heterochrony is one good way to end it once and for all since the Metaphysical worldivew definitely assumes either one linear or one circular timeline. Why should time be one dimensional when space is three dimensional. We note that the nine dimensional manifold of S-prime hypothesis is just big enough to hold an eight dimensional matrix of the various symmetry breakings of space and time. Ultimately the manifold of the A priori synthesis is just large enough to hold four dimensions of space and four dimensions of time fused relativistically.So basically what this is saying is that there is no pre-given schemas to integrate string theory into our understanding. That is one reason we have such a hard time working with it and understanding it. But on the other hand S-prime hypothesis says that we are working with 7 plus or minus two dimensions in our short term memory all the time and that explains our propensity for transcendental idealist philosophies and our abilities to understand very complex things. Basically we have schemas to support understanding things up to nine dimensions in extension and it is the proposition of my dissertation that this is what we are using all the time to design complex systems. See http://about.me/emergentdesign.So my basic thesis here is that the evidence that the multiverse exists is inside of us not outside. It is the very highest schema called the pluriverse and it is a threshold of understanding, and so there we see artifacts of what is beyond it and we call that string theory. It is at the limits of what we can think and is at the limits of what we can see, and thus it generates its own threshold phenomena and speculations. Essentially the pluriverse was in us from the beginning, just like the Li of the pattern in which spiders weave their webs making visible that Li. Chi is of course the unfolding of that patterning. The Chi might be called the energy behind the a priori projection of the synthetic whole of the striated spacetime singularity which we intuit, i.e. which we see reflected back to us in the organization of the phenomena until we look further and find that the phenomena has in effect its own order different from that we expected. For instance we did not expect super-conductivity as a phenomena but it was there and it took 20 years to come up with a plausible explanation for it. We did not expect to find black holes but now few people think they don't exist because of all the phenomena that are explained by them unveiled in astronomy especially with the Hubble telescope and other sources of pictures of space which for instance see the background radiation from the big bang in detail. Ideas of the Big Bang, Black Holes, acceleration of the Expansion of the Universe, Dark Matter, Dark Energy all contribute to this uneasy feeling that there is more to the universe than meets the eye. The universe itself has its own unconscious that we are just seeming to get data which indicates its reality. There is a meta-system (general economy ala Bataille) beyond the system of our universe (restricted economy) and that is projected by us prior to any phenomena appearing to indicate it, which we can see from Science Fiction and Fantasy where we project other universes all the time without any difficulty. In fact what is amazing is that we can create other universes easier than we can do almost anything else. Just like we can invent new programming languages easier than we can learn existing ones. This ease of projection of alternative worlds seen in Leibniz (Paingloss) where he says this is the best of all possible worlds is astounding and that leads to David Lewis's idea that all those imagined universes are actually real.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possible_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)POSSIBLE WORLDS: WHAT THEY ARE GOOD FOR AND WHAT THEY AREAlexander R. Pruss, Ph.D.http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/ap85/papers/PhilThesis.htmlhttps://docs.google.com/document/d/1xQ9f6by0g25d-lKaaTgvsTWLmtyp9rrelC4yHg25jyM/edit?hl=en_US

Winter weather is often severe with massive snowfall and record cold temperatures. Floods continue causing devastation to humans. Is global warming/climate change responsible for extreme weather disasters as Al Gore alleges? HOW DOES GLOBAL WARMING AFFECT THE WEATHER?Thursday, January 29, 2015New paper finds global warming reduces intense storms & extreme weatherA paper published today in Science contradicts the prior belief that global warming, if it resumes, will fuel more intense storms, finding instead that an increase in water vapor and strengthened hydrological cycle will reduce the atmosphere's ability to perform thermodynamic Work, thus decreasing the formation of intense winds, storms, and hurricanes. The authors demonstrate instead that if warming resumes"Although the hydrological cycle may increase in intensity, it does so at the expense of its ability to do work, such as powering large-scale atmospheric circulation or fueling more very intense storms."The paper adds to many others demonstrating that a warmer climate is a more benign climate with fewer extreme weather events, opposite the claims of climate alarmists. Claims of global warming producing more extreme weather due to "more energy in the system" are refuted by the paper which finds the atmosphere will become "less energetic" and the atmospheric "Carnot engine" will become less efficient at performing Work (such as generating intense winds and storms) due to global warming and a decrease of temperature differentials.Constrained work output of the moist atmospheric heat engine in a warming climateF. Laliberté1,*,J. Zika2,L. Mudryk3,P. J. Kushner1,J. Kjellsson3,K. Döös4EDITOR'S SUMMARY:Because the rain falls and the wind blowsGlobal warming is expected to intensify the hydrological cycle, but it might also make the atmosphere less energetic. Laliberté et al. modeled the atmosphere as a classical heat engine in order to evaluate how much energy it contains and how much work it can do (see the Perspective by Pauluis). They then used a global climate model to project how that might change as climate warms. Although the hydrological cycle may increase in intensity, it does so at the expense of its ability to do work, such as powering large-scale atmospheric circulation or fueling more very intense storms.ABSTRACTEDITOR'S SUMMARYIncoming and outgoing solar radiation couple with heat exchange at Earth’s surface to drive weather patterns that redistribute heat and moisture around the globe, creating an atmospheric heat engine. Here, we investigate the engine’s work output using thermodynamic diagrams computed from reanalyzed observations and from a climate model simulation with anthropogenic forcing. We show that the work output is always less than that of an equivalent Carnot cycle and that it is constrained by the power necessary to maintain the hydrological cycle. In the climate simulation, the hydrological cycle increases more rapidly than the equivalent Carnot cycle. We conclude that the intensification of the hydrological cycle in warmer climates might limit the heat engine’s ability to generate work.Related ResourcesIn Science MagazinePERSPECTIVEATMOSPHERIC SCIENCEThe global engine that could Olivier M. PauluisScience 30 January 2015: 475-476.http://hockeyschtick.blogspot.ca/2015/01/new-paper-finds-global-warming-reduces.htmlThe IPCC predicted in 2001 the anthropogenic warming would result in more moderate winters without snow. This view caught the attention of some scientists and media at the time writing stories about children growing up in England without ever experiencing snow. PURE NONSENSE.AL GORE AND MEDIA DISSERVICE TO SCIENCEAl Gore and the media are chided by Oxford scientists for taking the opposite stance and blaming floods and storms on man-made global warming.Al Gore is doing a disservice to science by overplaying the link between climate change and weather says Oxford climate professor, Myles AllenTo claim that we are causing meteorological events that would not have occurred without human influence is just plain wrong.When Al Gore said last week that scientists now have clear proof that climate change is directly responsible for the extreme and devastating floods, storms and droughts that displaced millions of people this year, my heart sank. Having suggested the idea of "event attribution" back in 2003, and co-authored a study published earlier this year on the origins of the UK floods in autumn 2000, I suspect I may be one of the scientists being talked about.https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/oct/07/al-gore-science-climate-weather (https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/oct/07/al-gore-science-climate-weather)Climate Change Not to Blame for Extreme WintersBy Jenna IacurciMar 28, 2015 01:42 PM EDTPrevious research has suggested that climate change brings heat waves and cold snaps along with it, but a new study has come to a different conclusion.According to scientists at ETH Zurich and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), climate change is not to blame for our extreme winters, and in fact tends to reduce temperature variability.In recent years, the eastern United States has experienced temperatures far below freezing, raising the question of whether or not climate change was the culprit. It has been suggested that recent warming in the Arctic relative to lower latitudes has weakened the polar jet stream. Consequently, a weaker jet stream becomes more wavy leading to greater fluctuations in temperature in mid-latitudes.Thus, amplified Arctic warming may have contributed to the cold snaps that hit the eastern United States. However, the team from ETH Zurich and Caltech has a different theory."The waviness of the jet stream that makes our day-to-day weather does not change much," lead author Tapio Schneider said in a statement.Using climate simulations and theoretical arguments, they showed that in most places, the range of temperature fluctuations will in fact decrease as the climate warms. So cold snaps will not only become more rare, but less frequent because fluctuations about the warming mean temperature also become smaller.According to the study, published in the Journal of Climate, higher latitudes are indeed warming faster than lower ones, which means that the temperature difference between the equator and the poles is decreasing. If this difference were ever to disappear, then in theory temperature variability would no longer exist.To test their theory, the researchers examined various climate scenarios. It showed that the temperature variability in mid-latitudes indeed decreases as the temperature difference between the poles and the equator diminishes. This goes along with climate model simulations by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).And while this suggests that temperature extremes will become rarer, it does not mean that there won't be any temperature extremes in the future. Other extreme events, such as storms with heavy rain or snowfall, can still become more common as the climate warms."Despite lower temperature variance, there will be more extreme warm periods in the future because the Earth is warming," said Schneider.Scientists plan to study the implications these results have in further research in order to better predict how climate change may possibly affect extreme weather in the future.For more great nature science stories and general news, please visit our sister site, Headlines and Global News (HNGN).http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/13756/20150328/climate-change-not-to-blame-for-extreme-winters.htmCASE STUDY OF MONGOLIAN ZUDS BRUTAL WINTER DISASTERSThe best introduction comes from the Mongolian Ministry of Environment report -Illegal mining protest in front of Ministry of Environmenthttp://www.yestolifenotomining.org/mongolia-demonstrators-stage-sit-in-to-demand-cancellation-of-illegal-gold-mining-permit/MongoliaMinistry of Nature and Environment2.1. ZudZud (severe winter conditions) is a phenomenon when cattle is lost en mass due to lack of fodder in winter, spring and autumn seasons. Our herdsmen used to divide the zud conditions into :white zudblack zud or tuurain zudstorm zudiron or glass zudwhich depends upon the factors serving to their occurrence.When heavy snowfalls take place late in autumn and at the beginning of winter and the pastures are under a deep cover of snow and cattle unable to reach the pasture fodder perishes and dies in winter-spring seasons it is called a white zud, when due to a long snowless period cattle perishes suffering due to lack of water and lots of cattle are gathered around a single well, the pasture is overgrazed and eventually the cattle perishes is called black zud. The black zud accompanied by extreme low temperatures turns into a really “black” zud. The winter of 1969 is the classical example of such a black zud. When snowfall is accompanied with blizzards for an extended period, the snow is covered with crust of ice, and cattle being unable to go up has to go downwind, it is called a stormy zud. The zud of the notorious year of the Monkey (1944-1945) is the classical example of this type of zud. When wet snow fallen early in spring-winter and late in autumn or after the snow cover has been formed, suddenly thaw sets in, due to which a thin crust of ice is formed over the snow so that the cattle could not reach fodder even if the snow cover is thin, and eventually perishes, is called iron or glass zud. In years with iron zud several layers of ice are often formed over the snow. It sometimes occurs when rains fall in winter period. White and stormy, cold zud may occur in a combined manner and then it is the great zud. Some researchers prefer to call it a combined zud (Chogsom, 1962).According to historical data, whenever zud occurs in Mongolia with its pasture cattle breeding, it turns into a national level disaster. The disastrous consequences of zud have some definite relationship with the previous year’s grassland yield. It is proved by many evidences that most disastrous zud events occur mainly after a droughty summer-autumn period. If the summer was droughty and arid, the zud should be expected to occur even if there are not so much snowfall in winter. If the grassland yield was sufficient in summer, the zud conditions would not be formed even if much snow would fall in winter. During the summer before the year of the Monkey (1994-1945) there was a red zud covered the entire territory of Mongolia (a zud extended to the whole territory of the country happened also in 1972 over the last 6 decades), the heavy snow started falling since November and its depth reached 15-28 cm, with bitter frost throughout the winter (after 1940 no such a year with so low temperatures to keep on since November through January, February and till March was recorded any more in Mongolia) and over 8 million head, i.e. one third of the national herd of Mongolia that was recorded in the course of the 1994 inventory were lost.As can be seen from the historical sources, zud extended to more than a half of the country’s territory were recorded during the years of 72 B.C., 1308, 1337, 1340, 1450, 1608, 1626, 1821, 1825, 1839, 1884, 1875, 1891, 1901, 1935, 1944, 1949, 1953, 1956, 1963, 1966, 1967, 1987, 1992 A.D. Surveys conducted since 1640 in the eastern regions of Mongolia (former Tsetsenkhan, Tusheet khan aimags) have shown that zud covering over 75% of the territory of the country occur once in 20-22 year-period and winters when zud did not occur even in one soum are very rare. However, zud can happen in any part of the country.2.2. DroughtDrought is a natural phenomenon leading to the loss of cultivated and grassland vegetation yields and moreover, to the depletion of soils fertility. Drought and desertification are a most complicated process stipulated by a number of factors. If in any agrarian country the drought and desertification issues are directly related with that country’s survival, for our country with its grassland cattle breeding-based economy it rarely causes such consequences as famine, mass losses of livestock but, nonetheless, is of especial significance for the country’s sustainable development.A drought is the result of lack or insufficiency of precipitation and excessive evaporation leading to a hydrologic imbalance and consequently, water shortages in the soil and the vegetation and, as a result, to the crop damage and reduction of its yield. The occurrence of drought is of double dependence upon the grassland utilization and agrotechnical culture (level of operation). The direct consequences of a drought are such as losses of yield, its reduction and its eventual outcome is desertification. Thereby, at the international level the issues of drought and of desertification are generally considered coupled together.Chapter 12 of the XXI Century programme is entitled “wise use of sensitive ecosystems and combating drought and desertification” and the notion of desertification is defined as “the process of soil degradation and depletion owing to the impact of a range of various factors in arid and semi arid regions without sufficient moisture content going on under the anthropogenic impact”. Some of our geographers understanding the desertification schematically as a desert and a process of alteration according to its original meaning tried to confine the desertification studies to the issues of sand drift only. But in the International Convention for combating drought and/or desertification affecting the world’s countries including Africa it is clearly indicated “Drought and/or desertification”, so it would be appropriate to consider those issues together.Over 90 % of Mongolia’s territory is referred to arid, semi arid, moderate arid and moisture deficient regions, 41.3% or 647.0 thousand square kilometers of its territory is occupied by a Gobi desert region which makes the issue of drought and desertification of especial prominence.The major factors causing soil degradation are drought and soils weathering due to wind and humidity factors.Drought is regularly recurrent once in 10 years in the country’s forest steppe and steppe zone whereas in the desert zone it has a 2-year cycle. According to the historical documents, the red drought occurred in Mongolia in 68 and 46 B.D. and 1248, 1254, 1337, 1372, 1727, 1827, 1952, 1854, 1860, 1882, 1884, 1885, 1892, 1927, 1935, 1941, 1944, 1946, 1951, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1980, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991 A.D. The drought may be classified with respect to its intensity as slightly droughty - when the grassland yield is poor, droughty - the yield is very scanty, red drought - no vegetation growth at all. When drought lasts for years the ground water’s level lowers down, no vegetation flourishing raining incessantly.The quantitative characteristics of drought may be estimated by different drought indices and vegetation index (meteorological satellite-based data). According to a drought assessment index derived by D. A. Ped the drought occurrence tends to increase in Mongolia since 1940. If in 1941-1950 a drought extended to over 50% of the country’s areas occurred 3 times, in 1951-1960 and in 1961-1970 once, in 1971-1980 twice, then in 1981-1990 it recurs four times.The soil degradation and depletion is intensified when the desertification-related natural factors are accompanied by anthropogenic actions. It can be illustrated by the state of affairs in Mongolia over the last 40 years regarding such factors as:utilization of grasslands without any rotation for an extended periodwoods and forests have been destroyed and cut down in larger quantities for wood firing purposespowerful chemical substances have been applied to protect vegetation and liquidate pests due to which many soil micro organisms have been destroyedthe irrigation activities not carried out according to a rational schedule, has resulted in the soil salivation and swamping processes developeddue to such activities as geological prospecting, motor transportation and military actions intensified the soil technogenic erosion and degradation rates have increasedDuring the last 30 years the total number of livestock has increased in Mongolia by 44 % while the volume of grasslands reduced by 20%. Due to the overgrazing of the existing grassland its yield per hectare has dropped by 19-44%. On the country’s scale there are 1,2222 square kilometers of grassland reserves of which 24% are exposed to erosion (over 50%), vegetation diversity changes as for 7.7 million hectares of grassland.Over the last 40 years when agriculture started developing in the country 46.5% of arable rotation areas are recorded to suffer of moderate and high degree of erosion.Nearly 70% of the abandoned land are not cultivated due to heavy soil degradation. The amount of humus in an erosion-exposed area is reduced by 29.3-48.7% which should be assessed as disastrous for our country with its poor soil resources.Another factor leading to the soil degradation is a lack of forests. Nearly 10% of the country’s territory is covered with forests but its scarce forest reserves are being reduced due to the intensive timbering and logging, destroyed by forest fires, or by insects. Annually 10-14 thousand hectares are cut down, 2,3-2300.0 thousand hectares of land destroyed due to fires, approximately 100 thousand hectares of forests are damaged by insects.It is the other reason for Mongolian rivers’ waters being shoaled along with an increasing threat of floods. The saxaul bushes growing in the Gobi and desert zone are increasingly being applied as fuel which promotes the sand drifts. In a period between 1975-1990 the average vegetation duration of saxaul bushes is become as short as nearly a half of that recorded previously and an area with growing younger saxaul bushes decreased by 34.2% and that with medium age bushes - by 42.0 thousand hectares, accordingly.2.3. Winds and stormsa) BlizzardsOne of most disastrous meteorological phenomenon that causes in a very brief time greatest damages to an economy with grassland animal husbandry is blizzard which is next to drought and desertification phenomenon with respect to its harmful consequences. On estimating the damage caused by blizzards occurred in the eastern part of Mongolia in between 1980-1984 it is established that on the average, 740 thousand US$ damage was caused by one blizzard (D.Myagmarjav, 1987). If blizzards are recorded to occur in the country’s desert regions and the Depression of Great Lakes comparatively rarely (about one day per year) in the Khangai and Gobi boundary areas it makes up 10-15 days and in the Khyangan range’s western part up to 20 days.In Mongolia a blizzard that lasts over 9 hours and is accompanied with over 16 m/s winds is qualified as of special danger. Blizzards to continue less than one hour or over 12 hours not occur so often, the occurrence of blizzards which duration ranges between 1.0-3.0 hours is 30%, of 3.1-6.0 hours - 20-30% and of 6.1-9.0 hours - 15% . According to the historical data, there are approximately 30-60 hours, on the average, of blizzards occurring in the Khangai and Gobi boundary area and in the eastern steppe. During the snowstorms cattle going downwind and the herdsmen following their cattle are frequent to get lost and freeze to death. Also due to winds blowing from the south the cattle pens and corals are snow-bound and flocks of cattle could be buried under snow in their pens which occurs sometimes. If winds are blowing from different directions, the snow around the bushes and feather grass is drifted over by snow and then even camels can not survive without fodder in the Gobi steppe. If we consider some facts referring to snowstorms occurred during the last 30 years, it turns out that:during a heavy blizzard happened on April 15-21, 1980 which extended to a half of Mongolia’s territory, the wind speed reached sometimes 40-55 m/s and the blizzard that lasted over 60-70 hours killed 43 persons and 0.9 million head of cattle.during the March 19-22, 1987 blizzard occurred on the territory of Khentii, Sukhbaatar and Dornogobi aimags claimed the lives of 19 people and 37 thousand head of cattle during the snowstorm occurred on January 18-22, 1988 on the territory of Dornod, Khentii, Sukhbaatar and Dornogobi aimags which continued 30-37 hours 6 people died and 114 people that were tendering their cattle had to stay overnight in the outdoors due to which 5 people froze to death, 30 gers (national dwelling) fell down, 3 buildings’ roofs were blown off with the wind, nearly 10 thousand head of cattle perished and 720 cattle pens were blocked with snow during the heavy blizzard raged on May 5-6, 1993 and covered the territories of 6 central aimags of Mongolia 16 people lost their lives, about 100.0 thousand cattle perished and such examples can be continued.b) Dust stormsMongolia is regarded as a country where dust storms are rather common. The dust carried with the winds from the Central Asiatic Gobi desert has definite impacts upon the countries of Eastern Asia. On the other hand, the dust risen and carried away by the wind is considered as one of the major causes of soil erosion. Violent dust storms sometimes hamper the driving of cattle to another pastures and they can block the road traffic. People staying in the steppe overnight are frequent to get lost and freeze to death. A strong dust storm that can be seen in the Mongolian Gobi called by the Mongolians “ugalz” (simoom). Dust is often carried away when the wind is strong and there are plenty of such material as sand and dust available so in the Mongolian gobi the number of dust days is 30-60 per year. The most dusty place in Mongolia is the Mongolian sand’s southern edge where annually the amount of dust days accounts for 660 hours in total for 124 days. A dust storm is likely to last for about 3-6 times, but in springs there are examples when it blows for up several days.Since the 1960s the process of urbanization intensified, a new economy’s sector of agriculture appeared, the soils started being ploughed in rotation, cooperative movement overwon, the livestock was specialized by its kinds and placed en mass in one place to be tendered by specialized brigades; new industries of geology, mining and motor transport developed, the soil erosion coupled with the Gobi aridisation started developing and the threat of dust storms increased. It can be easily illustrated by the fact that the number of dust days has increased nearly 3-4 times during the 90s as compared with the 60s.If we would take it by decades then in the Gobi aimags the number of dust days was 16, on the average, during 1960-1969, in 1970-1979 it constituted 23 days and in 1980-1989 has risen up to 41 days.There are neither reliable information nor definite criteria to assess the information on the damages resulted from dust storms. On November 27-30, 1991 a strong dust storm with gusts achieving 28-40 m/s swept through territories of the country’s 12 aimags, approximately 51.5 thousand square km of arable lands were left bared without topsoil so that there were no possibilities for livestock grazing on the pastures.According to the estimates provided by the meteorological institute’s research worker d. Jamiyanaa, annually 4,000 tones of sand and dust are being carried away into the atmosphere out of an area of 1 square km in the region of Zamyn-Uud.c) Strong windAnnually strong winds with gusts speed coming up to over 15 m/s occur in the Gobi region 30-76 days, in the steppe region 30-76 days, in the forest steppe region 5-15, in the Khangai, Khovsgol, Khentii alpine taiga regions 1-5 days.A strong wind (tornado) is recorded to last for about 1-2 hours in winter and summer seasons and 3-6 hours in spring and autumn seasons. The maximum wind speed exceeds 40 m/s in the gobian and steppe region but when a foehn wind overgrows into a tornado its speed is over 40 m/s which is possible to occur anywhere on the territory of Mongolia. The wind with most speed measured was recorded on April 16, 1980 in the surroundings of Ulaanbaatar on top of Morin-Uul reaching 55 m/s and when a strong tornado raged on the territory of the centre of Batshireet soum’s Tsagaan us brigade in Khentii aimag on July 21, 1974 its speed exceeded 100 m/s. When a foehn wind occurred in Buyant-Ukhaa on June 19, 1949 at 17.00 its speed was 40 m/s. When a foehn wind was recorded in the surroundings of Ulaanbaatar on July 6, 1973, its speed registered at the meteorological station was 28 m/s but its part stretched through the eastern part of Tolgoit from Buyant-Ukhaa and went by the back of Chingeltei uprooting and bending the forest trees. The most disastrous tornado taken place recently was that happened on June 33, 1997 on the territories of Arkhangai, Ovorkhangai, Tov and Bulgan aimags with a speed of 28-34 m/s when many supports of high transmission lines were downed and many gers and property blown off causing to the citizens only damages in the amount of more than 100 million.2.4. FloodFloods occurring in our country fall into rainfall, flash and spring floods.a) Rainfall flood. Due to heavy precipitation in the river’s basin region the river waters overflow against its banks, that is what is called a rainfall flood. According to the historical data, heavy floods took place in 1751, 1785, 1800, 1830, 1854, 1864, 1867, 1869, 1897, 1910, 1911, 1915, 1922, 1927, 1932, 1936, 1938, 1940, 1966, 1967, 1972, 1976, 1993, 1995 and 1997. The precipitation flood has a 4-6, 9-11, 22-26, 40-50, 67-70 year- cycles.The rainfall flood causes great damages when it happens in more densely populated areas. During July 11-12, 1966, the water level of the river of Tuul increased by 3.12m against its usual level and a flood occurred overflowing the capital city’s industrial region, damages caused in the amount of 300 million togrogs, i.e. 7.5 million US$ and 130 people lost their lives. In 1993 floods were recorded in Uvs, Zavkhan, Gobi Altai, Bayankhongor, Arjhangai, Bulga, Selenge, Khentii aimags when scores of bridges were crushed and many households whose gers were built around the river banks were swept away with the floodwater. According to incomplete data being available, over 1.0 million USD worth of damage was caused.b) Spring flood takes place usually in the rivers originating from the Mongolian Altai, Khovsgal, Khangai ranges and it was recorded to take place in 1962. This type of flood usually occurs in the spring when following heavy snowfalls the snow melts, the thawing of snow-capped mountains ice and snow goes on intensively.c) Flash flood is one of natural disasters which claims an immense toll of human lives. After shower rains in mountainous localities their Quaternary loosen sediments are dissolved and washed away with the rainfall water producing thus a flash flood.This type of flood may occur anywhere in our country. As preconditions for this flood are created by shower rains it is frequent to be combined with foehn winds and hails.Exploratory Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Dzud Development in Mongolia, 1993-2004Ninel ShestakovichA thesis submittedin partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMaster of Science in the School of Natural Resources & Environment of the University of MichiganNovember 2010Thesis Committee: Dr. Kathleen Bergen Dr. Dan BrownAbstractDzud is a natural disaster endemic to parts of Central Asia and fairly unknown outside of the region. During spells of severe winter weather, livestock population suffers debilitating death from starvation and cold, which exacts enormous economic losses to nomadic herders and the society at large. Focusing on dzud outbreaks between 1993 and 2004 in Mongolia, I explored environmental and anthropogenic factors that contribute to geographic distribution of dzud impact and evaluate success of classical and spatial regression models to predict dzud mortality. Four regression methods were tested including ordinary least squares regression, spatial autoregressive models, geographically weighted regression, and recursive partitioning.Regional heterogeneity in patterns of livestock mortality and contributing factors, as well as low efficiency of regression models, suggest that a single-model framework of analysis and non-normalized explanatory variables tend to perform poorly. The recursive-partitioning results demonstrate that the presence of several distinct ecological biomes within the territory of Mongolia create non-stationary and non-linear relationships between factors and livestock mortality. Diversity of ecological conditions drives regional predisposition for different types of dzud, most notably white dzud in mountainous and northern parts of Mongolia and black dzud in the Gobi desert.The comparison of dzud episodes of 1993 and 2000-2003 revealed that an additional contributing factor unaccounted in previous modeling exercises of dzud is the long-distance mobility of herders as a main strategy for risk mitigation. While it is a necessary adaptation for livestock management in arid grasslands, under contemporary conditions of high livestock density it has an unexpected effect of spreading dzud vulnerability into unaffected areas, which may have contributed to development of multi-annual dzud episodes such as the one that occurred in 2000-2003. Since the transition of Mongolia to free-market economy, the vulnerability of herders to dzud has increased against a backdrop of exploding livestock population, a dysfunctional system of rangeland management, and withdrawal of government-run disaster preparedness programs.ConclusionThe insights gained through this study reveal several characteristics of dzud phenomenon that improve our understanding and ability to model, predict and mitigate this natural disaster. The processes that govern dzud dynamics are non-stationary and vary in space due to ecological heterogeneity of the Mongolian landscape. The spatial analysis showed that higher losses are observed during white dzud, which is endemic to mountainous and northern regions, and low intensity but high frequency black dzud events occur in the Gobi and semi-desert regions. The driving factors that frequently show strong association with livestock mortality are vegetation cover, snow water equivalent, temperature, livestock density, and previous-year mortality. Inclusion of herd composition variables, except for the percent horse, did not add explanatory power to the model but rather detracted from its efficiency. An additional factor describing herder mobility should be incorporated into future models. Finally, on the decadal time scale, the analysis shows that the vulnerability of the Mongolian herders to dzud has increased and the contribution of different factors to dzud mortality has changed.50The design of the study inherently had several weaknesses related mainly to coarse temporal and spatial resolution of the analysis due to unavailable ground data. Field measurements at weather stations would be necessary to derive variables such as a drought index or indices of anomalous temperature and precipitation. Some meteorological data were available from the U. S. National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) site, but their spatial coverage over Mongolia is sparse and temporal coverage inconsistent. Because reliable weather data were not available at the time of the study, information on grassland productivity and snow amounts relies exclusively on remote sensing datasets, in the form of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and estimates of snow water equivalents (SWE), respectively. This approach inherits several disadvantages such as loss of information due to coarse spatial and temporal resolutions and future studies should develop variables based on ground observations of weather data augmented by remote sensing products.Based on the results of the study, several improvements could be introduced into future modeling studies. It seems reasonable to assume that equilibrium and non-equilibrium ecosystems within Mongolia have different dzud dynamics (Begzsuren, Ellis et al. 2004; Sternberg, Middleton et al. 2009). Models that incorporate both types of ecosystems into a single framework at the same spatial and temporal resolution have low efficiency and prone to misspecification. Normalization of explanatory variables against their long-term running average would make comparable such distinct ecosystem as the Gobi desert and forest-steppe and would improve the efficiency of modeling. The approach with different temporal and/or spatial scales should be also explored further.The non-linear and interactive relationships between snow depth and temperature could be better accommodated by a snow-temperature index. A simple interaction term of snow water equivalent and temperature in a multiplicative form was tested in GWR 1993 model and significantly improved explanatory power of the model, which indicates that indexation of snow and temperature should be explored in further research. A variable describing migration of herders also should be developed and included into a future predictive dzud model. An attempt to introduce such a variable based on annual increase and decrease of number of herder households in counties was tested on 2000-2003 datasets and replaced the negative associations between previous-year mortality and livestock mortality variables. The human population variable could be also used as a proxy for herder migration.The findings of the study provide valuable insights into a mechanism of dzud development which have far reaching implications for the national disaster management authorities, international development and disaster relief agencies. In order to develop effective mitigation policies, it is essential to understand factors that cause dzud and contribute to vulnerability of rural population. Contribution of herders migration in response to dzud should be better understood so that the advantage of their mobility is capitalized rather than become a maladaptation in a new system of decentralized livestock management.https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/85158/Nina%20S_thesis_061211.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=yThe worst dzud in recent Years appears to have been 1944/45 and the event seems to be a very frequent http://occurence.it was made worse by a great upsurge in livestock with subsequent overgrazing. Difficult to see the agw connection but easy to sympathise with the people affected.MONGOLIAN YERT COVERED BY BRUTAL BLIZZARDMongolian dzud kills millions of domestic animalsPosted by David Maxwell Braun of National Geographic Society on April 26, 2010By James SawyerImagine trying to survive in temperatures below minus 50 degrees F (minus 47 degrees C) for more than a month.It happened in Mongolia this winter–weather so cold that livestock and other animals were dying painfully at a rate of a quarter of a million deaths every week, resulting in the loss of millions of animals over the season.Imagine the impact such a disaster has on humans–economically, environmentally and health-wise.Photo © WSPAThis winter disaster is happening right now in Dundgovi Aimag, a province about 150 miles south of Mongolia’s capital city, Ulaanbataar, on the Gobi Desert steppe.Mongolia’s Animal DisasterA dzud, an extreme winter phenomenon with temperatures as low as -52.6 degrees F, has caused significant suffering and death to approximately 3.4 million livestock in Mongolia, to date.Damien Woodberry, a veterinarian with The World Society for the Protection of Animals’ (WSPA) disaster response team, recently visited Mongolia, where he worked with WSPA’s member society, the Cambridge Mongolia Development Appeal (CAMDA), to deliver emergency aid to animals.“The landscape is literally littered with dead animals–cows, sheep, goats, yaks, horses and camels. It is horrific,” said Woodberry. “Most the herders’ gers or yurts–semi-permanent tents that they live in–have large piles of dead animals next to them. The ones left alive are sick or so weak they barely move when you approach, and all are extremely thin.”Cold weather happens every winter, but this Mongolian dzud is a combination of events causing a far higher rate of animal death:Summer droughts: These prevented many herders from stockpiling sufficient hay and fodder reserves to last their animals through the winter.A higher-than-usual winter snow fall: Animals couldn’t access what pastures remained and herders’ efforts to feed with their own stocks was hampered.Extreme cold: Snow on the ground turned to ice, making it impossible for animals to use what little pasture had been available. The animals, who already suffered from malnutrition, then became extremely vulnerable to hypothermia.The last dzud in 2001 killed about 11 million animals. However, experts estimate this dzud will be worse. With no relief until at least May, possibly even as late as June. A total loss of 4-5 million animals is expected by spring. By the end of the disaster, an estimated 20 million animals could have died.“I have been a herder since 1960 and have never seen a winter as cold as this one,” said Mr. A. Lkhagvasurn, Adaatsag Soum, Dundgovi Aimag. “My two neighbours have already lost all their animals and if I lose all mine, I do not know what I will do.”“I saw family after family in tears at the plight of their animals and the very uncertain future ahead of them. Many herders have lost 50-60 percent of their herds, while some have lost their entire herd and, with it, their livelihood. A humanitarian disaster is waiting,” Woodberry said.Disaster’s Effect on HumansWhile there have been only nine reported human deaths, the massive livestock losses will mean many herders will lose their livelihoods, meaning a large increase in unemployment.“We only started herding after we got married four year ago with 100 animals. But, through hard work, we managed to grow our herd to 450 and also looked after my father-in-law’s 300 animals,” said residents Mr and Mrs Sergetenbaatar, Adaatsag Soum, Dundgovi Aimag. “But now, we have only 30 animals left. We don’t have any higher education or job prospects and do not know what we will do. We got a bank loan at the end of last year and now cannot pay it back and may lose our collateral. We have two children–what will we do with them if we lose everything?”The situation is starting to get so bad that an increasing number of herders are facing starvation themselves. This figure was 20,000 at the end of January but is estimated to have risen significantly since then.Photo © WSPADzud Aid has ArrivedThe Mongolian government declared a state of disaster in 12 aimags (provinces) and provided each one with MNT 330,000,000 ($230,000) for disaster relief in the form of livestock feed, veterinary and medical services, food and warm clothing for herders. It also released the national hay and fodder reserves, which is being sold at 50 percent of normal cost to herders, and paid stipends to all herder households with elderly or disabled members so they could purchase feed and medicines for their livestock.Additionally, WSPA provided funding for its member society Cambridge-Mongolian Development Appeal (CAMDA) to purchase 130 tons of concentrated fodder and 1.3 tons of milk powder, which was distributed to 2,517 herder households in three soums (sub-divisions) in Dundgovi Aimag.The concentrated fodder was used by herders to feed pregnant animals, as they were at greatest risk from the dzud and dying in large numbers. The pregnant animals are vital to recovery; the loss of expectant mothers and their newborns can mean the potential loss of a whole reproductive cycle and a second generation of animals.Other entities, including the Chinese, Russian and Turkish governments, as well as the United Nation’s Central Emergency Relief Fund (CERF), have allocated funding to the disaster.Disaster ContinuesNearly all herder households who had managed to stockpile some hay and fodder reserves before the dzud have run out of food for their animals. Many stretched their hay reserves by mixing horse dung with it to feed to ruminants. Some better prepared herders still have feed reserves and there is still hay, bran and concentrated fodder available for herders to purchase, but all are running out.Even though the weather has started to improve with the arrival of spring (March-May,) animals will be at risk of dying until at least mid-May. Grass growth is not expected until sometime in May, depending on weather conditions.WSPA and CAMDA are committed to continuing their assistance in the area. The organizations have both the will and capacity to undertake a longer-term project and, with additional funding, can help many more animals and families in Mongolia.For progress updates on the Mongolian dzud and related news during the next few months, please visit WSPA’s Animals in Disaster blog.James Sawyer is the Head of Disaster Management at the The World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA)http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2010/04/26/mongolian_dzud_kills_millions/By Lean Alfred Santos @DevexLeanAS07 March 2016The effects of climate change have been severe in Mongolia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. In 2009 and 2010 alone, around 8.5 million livestock died — consisting mostly of goats, sheep, cows and horses — as a result of extreme weather conditions known as a “dzud,” a summer drought followed by a heavy snowfall.The phenomenon is unique to the East Asian nation, exacerbated by the fact that around one-third of the country's work force depends on animal husbandry and livestock herding to earn a living. And this year, dzud is once again threatening livelihoods.Since November 2015, large parts of the country have been experiencing very low temperatures of up to minus 40 degree Celsius, followed by heavy snowfall that has covered around 90 percent of Mongolia's territory. This has resulted in sharp reductions in plant life used for livestock feed and rendering pastures — and even basic services such as transportation — largely inaccessible.Data from January listed 211 out of 339 districts in Mongolia as suffering or are entering near-dzud conditions. Almost a quarter of a million people — roughly 40 percent of the country's herder population — has also been identified living in high-risk zones or in isolated mountain ranges where accessibility is an issue. Livestock casualties are spiralling to the hundreds of thousands and the numbers are expected to further increase in the coming months as conditions worsen.GRASS ICED OVER LOST FOR ANIMALSCows herding in mostly snow-covered areas in rural Mongolia. Photo by: Lean Santos / DevexPersonal crusadeWhile the government has been preparing for dzud over the past few months, the negative effects of climate change remain glaring — especially among herder families tucked deep away in the snow-capped mountains of the country.“Herders and livestock were used to warmer winters … so now with colder winters, it makes it hard to cope with the temperature,” Tsedensednom, governor of Ulziit district, located more than 600 kilometers southwest of the capital city of Ulaanbaatar, told Devex.“I'm not a scientific expert, but in my personal experience, the changes [to the environment] are evident,” he added. “When I was a kid, the grass was so high you couldn't see calves. Now grass only grows 10 centimeters, or not at all.”COMMENTSJames MatkinMongolia's brutal Zud winters with temperatures in the minus 50 F. are natural disasters that happen every few decades documented by the Ministry of Environment from 72 BC. "As can be seen from the historical sources, zud extended to more than a half of the country’s territory were recorded during the years of 72 B.C., 1308, 1337, 1340, 1450, 1608, 1626, 1821, 1825, 1839, 1884, 1875, 1891, 1901, 1935, 1944, 1949, 1953, 1956, 1963, 1966, 1967, 1987, 1992 A.D. Surveys conducted since 1640 in the eastern regions of Mongolia (former Tsetsenkhan, Tusheet khan aimags) have shown that zud covering over 75% of the territory of the country occur once in 20-22 year-period and winters when zud did not occur even in one summer are very rare. However, zud can happen in any part of the country." The Zud has nothing to do with climate change APOCHOLYPSE from the hypothesis of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels are making the globe too hot. Santos sadly misinforms his readers on the history of climate in Mongolia. Mongolia's frigid climate getting colder is if anything an example of global cooling not global warming. Why would governments demonize of life giving CO2 seeking to reduce emissions that today fertalize trees and plants in Mongolia and around the world? The folly of making the climate colder is mind boggling especially as millions of cows freeze to death in Mongolia.TomRude March 7, 2016 at 3:49 pm Lean Alfred Santos is right: the climate is changing. But like some, he’d be well inspired to understand meteorology before blabbing such ridiculous claim that it is a result of global warming.The mean annual surface pressure in the Gobi desert has been rising since the 1960s while the temperature has steadily declined. (CDC/NCEP-NCAR data in Leroux 2010 page 382).That means more powerful anticyclonic conditions are affecting the region, not because air comes down from the sky, but because of colder travelling polar air masses descending southward to the Himalayas, hence the summer drought, the low temperatures in winter and occasionally some heavy precipitation during transitional season. If anything these conditions are compatible with those experienced during cooling periods.And yes, warming during summer and extreme cold are of course compatible statements since both result of those anticyclonic conditions.https://www.devex.com/news/for-mongolians-climate-change-is-as-personal-as-it-gets-87832Mongolia: Deadly Cold, Heavy Snow blamed on Global WarmingEric Worrall / March 7, 2016The harsh conditions are obviously no laughing matter for the Mongolian people, who are obviously suffering severe hardship, but the attempt to frame this as a problem caused by warming is more than a little ridiculous. Still, perhaps Mongolian authorities are taking their lead from US Climate Scientists, who frequently claimCOMMENTSTonybI still can’t tell the difference between Global Cooling caused by Global Warming and Global Cooling caused by Global Cooling.·MarcusMarch 7, 2016 at 10:34 am..Dear Margaret, it’s quite simple…Poor countries that are controlled by dictators claim Global cooling is caused by Glo.Bull warming, thus, they get money from the evil Americans…Northern Canadians, such as myself, just want Glo.Bull Warming to be real, so I can stop freezing my nookies off !oCrispin in Waterloo but really in BishkekMarch 7, 2016 at 10:48 amMongolia has a vibrant democracy and different parties have been elected from time to time. It is being hammered by the drop in the price of commodities (coal and copper) and of course, resurgent cold.It is now quite a bit warmer in the capital than it was 60 years ago, but the record low was set only 15 years ago: -53 C (in the city).The brutal cold has been there since the Little Ice Age. It was much warmer in the time of Chingis Khan.Believe it or not the EU gave Mongolia 50 windmills to help generate power. They are under the flight path from Beijing to the east of Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia has a billion tons of coal. They also have the cleanest burning coal stoves available. All they have to do is build more of them.It is sad that this natural calamity which occurs from time to time is being blamed on human CO2 emissions.https://wattsupwiththat.com/2016/03/07/mongolia-deadly-cold-heavy-snow-blamed-on-global-warming/