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Research. I am by no means very worldly, but a scholar by nature and training, a little inquiry can take you a long way. Research is obviously important if you are writing non-fiction, but writing convincing fiction requires research as well. I often start with Wikipedia. Note that word start? Wikipedia has a lot of good stuff, and if you already have a feel for something it can be a good reminder for terminology, issues, etc. If the subject is important, not just a throw away line, I will check other sources. Here is an article I wrote for our local writers group:Article is available with clickable links at William Culbertson (blog entry under Writing).Research for WritingFiction WritersWhy would you need to do research for fiction? Isn’t fiction just made-up stuff? The characters, situations, and action may be a creation of your fevered imagination, but the story takes place in a setting. A fictional story can be set in either real places or imaginary places.Real Places. If you are writing about a real place, do your homework! Make sure you have either travelled there or study maps, travel guides, etc. so you know the area. You have to be informed about the area you are writing about. Nothing will damage your credibility as an author or turn a reader off more quickly than making an obvious mistake in geography.Fictional Places. You can create an entire fictional world, country, city, or crossroads village from your own imagination. That means you have to be ready to make up names, describe the geography, interpret local customs and lore... How much creativity do you have left over after you create the plot and characters?Print Resources (Forms of many of these are also available on line)Plot Ideas and Story Starts: Do you need an idea to get started?Newspapers. Daily articles, the daily police log, trial reports, advice columns, etc., have ideas for conflict.Plot summary collections like Masterplots. You don’t want to rewrite Gone with the Wind or Hamlet, but a plot idea is a plot idea.Mythology and tall tale collections. You don’t want to rewrite Jason and the Golden Fleece or Paul Bunyan, but a plot idea is a plot idea.Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, (Five editions so far), Harper & Row. An encyclopedia of world literature including writers, synopses of works, characters, etc.Encyclopedias Trite? Sure. With access to the internet you can google a question or use Wikipedia for a quick answer, but a good set of encyclopedias has a lot to recommend it. Encyclopedias contain a little (or a lot) of information on just about everything. The material has been compiled, vetted, and written on a consistently accessible level. For writers needing just a bit of information to make a reference reasonably accurate, encyclopedias are perfect. Even if you are writing non-fiction, an encyclopedia entry can get you started. In the internet age, sets of encyclopedias show up at garage sales—cheap.Encyclopedia Britannica (Now online) The world’s most trusted reference source. Last print edition published in 2010.Encyclopedia Americana (Now online) Once of the largest encyclopedias. Last print edition published in 2006.Colliers Encyclopedia Last edition 1998. Purchased by Microsoft, its contents are now part of Encarta.The New York Public Library Desk Reference, (several editions). A single volume with wide-ranging, concise, and accurate information for a quick reference check. (e.g. in the Alphabets and Words chapter there is a list of commonly misused words–I went to church to “prey?” or I put a “For Sail” sign on my house?)Word References Think you know what a word means, but you’re not sure? My character is angry, but isn’t there a more colorful word I could use?Dictionary: A classic source for definitions. Consider consulting an unabridged dictionary. Alternate meanings and word derivations can be a big help. Additional idea: I have used archaic forms of a word as a basis to create names for characters and objects.Thesaurus: Finding alternate, more colorful or more specific words can help your writing. However, be sure you know exactly what the word means before you use it! Different words have different shades of meaning. You want to make sure you get the exact denotation and connotation you want. Some thesaurus-based errors can be unintentionally hilarious—embarrassing for an author.Rhyming Dictionary loon… moon… June… croon… tune… soon… Walloon… baboon… Writing poetry is hard enough. If you need a rhyme, a rhyming dictionary can help.Books of Quotations Sometimes you want to include some wise or witty words someone else has said. Check exactly who said it and exactly how they said it. In a fantasy world, I have paraphrased a quote from our world to make my character sound profound (or, if I twist it, profoundly stupid).Chronologies and Timelines If you are writing historical fiction, a list of what was going on in the world can help make your work seem more realistic. It may also give you plot/subplot ideas.Making Characters Real To make characters come alive, they must show emotion. Suppose your character is angry. How do you show your readers the character is angry rather than telling them?The Emotion Thesaurus: A Writer’s Best Friend, Angela Ackerman & Becca Puglisi, 2012. Look up anger, and you’ll see a list of physical signals (flaring nostrils, sweating...), internal sensations (grinding one’s teeth, muscles quivering...), mental responses (irritability, poor listening skills...), cues for acute, long-term anger (explodes over little things, ulcers...), cues of suppressed anger (false smiles, headache…). They list 75 emotions. By the same authors:The Positive Trait Thesaurus: A Writer’s Guide to Character AttributesThe Negative Trait Thesaurus: A Writer’s Guide to Character FlawsBody language There are many books on body language which can help you show your character communicating their inner emotions.Names Finding the right name makes it easier for me to write the character. It helps me lock-in the identity I am creating.The Writer’s Digest Character Naming Sourcebook, Sherrilyn Kenyon, Writer’s Digest Books. 25,000+ First names and surnames, their meanings, and more organized by country/area of origin. This type of guide can help you find the right sounding name for other ethnic groups, cultures, time periods, etc.Baby name guide books. There are many of these. A search for “baby names” in Online Shopping for Electronics, Apparel, Computers, Books, DVDs & more’s bookstore returned at least a hundred pages of hits. A quick count showed 29 of the first 30 responses were purely baby name reference lists.Adventure and Survival Guides: How do you start a fire? What snakes are poisonous? What plants are edible? How should a character defend against a knife attack? How can you make a bow and arrow from scratch? Even if you haven’t been there/done that yourself, your characters need credible response to the tribulations your plot throws at them. Here are some examples of reference books from my own library that can help. (Hint: I found most of the titles on the remainder tables at Barnes & Noble.)FM 21-76 US Army Survival Manual, Dorset Press.Tom Brown’s Field Guide: City and Suburban Survival, Tom Brown, Jr.SAS Survival Handbook: The Ultimate Guide to Surviving Anywhere, John Wiseman, Collins.Special Forces Unarmed Combat Guide, Martin J. Dougherty, Metro Books.Professional Guides: If your character commits a crime, do you know police procedures for investigating a crime? What types of evidence does an investigator look for? How does an officer arrest and book a suspect? If your character gets ebola, do you know the symptoms and standard treatments? What can cause amnesia? While writing about what you know is good advice, sometimes first hand knowledge is not possible (or desirable).Police Procedure & Investigation: A Guide for Writers, Lee LoflandOrder in the Court: A Writer’s Guide to the Legal System, David S. MullallyForensics: A Guide for Writers, D. P. LyleThe Merck Manual, (various editions). (The source for information on diagnosing and treating medical disorders.)Personal Interviews: Interview professionals in a field. Get a doctor, a police officer, a nurse, a teacher, or any experienced person telling war stories about their line of work, and you could have some golden material for plots or characters. At the worst, you will spend some time making the other person feel good by giving them a chance to talk about themselves. They will think highly of you for asking.On the InternetMuch of the above information, plus. . .Plot Ideas and Story Starts: I need an idea to get started.Writers Blank Page Eliminator - get your story started (Plot ideas, story starts, tips, etc.)Plot Generator (Sort of a choose your adventure type plot generator by genre. Fill in some names, descriptive adjectives, jobs, etc. and it generates a plot outline.)Story Starters, Creative Writing Ideas for Fiction (Links to story starter sites plus other creative writing ideas)Pinterest Collection of media “pins” sorted into a variety of categories including collections of links to writing prompts and other inspirationsNaming Helps: What name should I give to a character or place?Popular Baby NamesBabyNames.com - the #1 source for baby namesCharacter Naming Resources (Links to about three dozen internet naming resources)Namator - online name generator (Fantasy names)Fantasy name generators. Names for all your fantasy characters. (Fantasy names)http://nine.frenchboys.net/fantasyplace.phpFantasy Name Generator (One of my favorites for generating a variety of names)Random Name Generator (A name generator for different nationalities, mythologies, time periods, etc.)Get a whole new identity at the Fake Name Generator (Generate a detailed fake idea for different nationalities)World Building IdeasFantasist.NetSeventh Sanctum: the page of generators - random tools for art, gaming, writing, and imagination.http://abutterflydreaming.com/2009/02/06/100-medieval-careers/ (If you are writing epic, medieval fantasy, what are some careers your characters could have?)Fantasy Worldbuilding Questions - SFWA (Science Fiction Writers of America list of questions to help you create your own world—on paper)Writing Roulette: All the Generators You'd Ever Want, Part 1 (Generator for a wide variety of ideas, plots, names, etc.)mythology, folklore, and religion. (Encyclopedia Mythica: An internet encyclopedia of mythology, folklore, and religion)Source for free clip art images: Need a cover? Illustrations? There are many sources for this, but they must indicate the art is in the public domain or royalty free before you can reproduce it for your own use without paying. (The other reality is that you tend to get what you pay for.)All Free Original Clip Art (One example)Non-Fiction ResourcesSource MaterialsPrimary Source: Accounts by people who were there, saw what happened, and wrote it down. Examples might be an interview with the person, diary entries, court testimony, minutes of meetings, a transcript of the words of an interview (not the article the interviewer wrote about the interview). This is the real deal. This is what people saw, heard, smelled, and felt—or at least, what they said they saw, heard, etc. This is the best source for finding out what really happened. The disadvantage is that primary source material can be hard to find. It’s often in archives, sometimes well cataloged, but sometimes not. It can be quite voluminous and take a long (long, long) time to get through. It can also contain a lot of information not germane to your topic.Secondary Sources: These are books and articles written about your subject by people who were not there or did not play a significant part. A secondary source interprets, analyzes, and otherwise builds on existing information. A secondary source can be good material especially if the author(s) used primary sources and used them well. However, even the best secondary sources are subject to the authors’ interpretations and biases. Published books and articles have usually been vetted to some degree by the publisher before they go to print. If it is an article you find on the internet, you must validate the source. Respected organizations like the Smithsonian or the New York Times have a vested interest in maintaining their credibility. If you find it on “Bob's Webpage,” you might want to verify the information from another credible source.For Local HistoriesNewspaper ArchivesLocal newspaper archives are a good place to start. These records can be found in local libraries or archive centers. Much, but not all, current material is available in searchable, digital format. Many newspapers have their back issues recorded on microfilm or microfiche. Be prepared to sit at a reading station and look at page after page of these film records. Sometimes an article or a whole page is obscured or missing. Murphy’s Law is in full force—the missing information was your key reference. Before microfilm? Well, a few of the old bound editions of newspapers with their delicate, yellowed pages still sit, moldering away, on back shelves.Company and Business ArchivesMany businesses keep copies of all their promotional materials, press releases, board minutes, etc. These files can be voluminous and time consuming to evaluate. If you are researching a company which has been bought out or merged into another, you may be out of luck. Usually one of the first things to go are the old company’s records.Journals and DiariesMany people keep diaries of their lives. This can be a gold mine for someone writing a book about that person. A diary is a good source of personal chronology and a clue to what the person was doing and thinking. However, diaries are usually very self-serving documents. Fact check, fact check, fact check and try to find first-hand accounts of other persons interactions with your subject. Diaries of people living in an area you are interested in can also provide information about what was happening in the area and times when your subject was there even if you subject is not mentioned specifically. Diaries and journals can be archived at local libraries or archive centers. (Personal note: If you keep a personal journal, this can be an invaluable source of information and anecdotes for a book about organizations you were a member of.)Online Data Bases Good sources of primary data as well as quality secondary sourcesNational Archives: National Archives | The history of our nation in documents, photos, and other records. This site has links to many other sources of information including several subscription services which are free through this site.Census Bureau: Census.gov Has facts figures and demographics of the United States through the years. The information is both collective, “What was the total population of Ohio in 1860?,” and specific, “Who lived at 233 S. Walnut, Bryan, OH in 1940?” If you are writing about a particular person, you can find who their next door neighbors were.Genealogy: Genealogy, Family Trees & Family History Records and other genealogical websites You can find the relatives of the person you are writing about as well as tracing back their origins. This data base requires a subscription, but it is free through the National Archives site.CIA’s World Fact Book: Central Intelligence Agency In its own words, the CIA’s website “marshals facts on every country, dependency, and geographic entity in the world. We share this information with the people of all nations in the belief that knowledge of the truth underpins the functioning of free societies.”OhioLINK: Homepage | OhioLINK Ohio’s academic library consortium has a wide array of academic journals, data bases, etc. available. This service is typically free through public libraries and colleges and universities in Ohio.Other Data Bases: Many are subscription based, some offer article abstracts for free and charge for the complete article, others are free or offer a free trial subscription.Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature Index of general information magazines and periodicalsWelcome to LexisNexis - Choose Your Path Legal and businessEducation Resources Information Center AcademicList of academic databases and search engines - Wikipedia …and Wikipedia’s compilation of academic databases.

Arabic numerals are the ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The term often implies a decimal number written using these digits, which is the most common system for the symbolic representation of numbers in the world today, and is also called Hindu–Arabic numerals.[1][2] However the term can mean the digits themselves, such as in the statement "octal numbers are written using Arabic numerals."Although the Hindu–Arabic numeral system (i.e. decimal) was developed by Indian mathematicians around AD 500,[3] the Arabic numerals developed later in North Africa. It was in the North African city of Bejaia that the Italian scholar Fibonacci first encountered the numerals; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe. European trade, books, and colonialism helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals have found worldwide use significantly beyond the contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet, intruding into the writing systems in regions where other variants of the Hindu–Arabic numerals had been in use, such as Chinese and Japanese writing.The term Arabic numerals may be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs, such as the Eastern Arabic numerals. The Oxford English Dictionary uses lowercase Arabic numerals to refer to these digits, and capitalized Arabic Numerals to refer to the Eastern digits.[4].Other alternative names are Western Arabic numerals, Western numerals, Hindu numerals, and Unicode calls them digits.[5]Contents1 History1.1 Origins1.2 Origin of the Arabic numeral symbols1.3 Adoption in Europe1.4 Adoption in Russia1.5 Adoption in China2 Encoding3 See also4 Notes5 References6 Sources7 Further reading8 External linksHistoryOriginsMain article: History of the Hindu–Arabic numeral systemThe numeral "zero" as it appears in two numbers (50 and 270) in an inscription in Gwalior, India. Dated to the 9th century.[6][7]The decimal Hindu–Arabic numeral system with zero was developed in India by around 700.[8] The development was gradual, spanning several centuries, but the decisive step was probably provided by Brahmagupta's formulation of zero as a number in 628. Prior to Brahmagupta, zero was in use various forms but was regarded as a 'blank spot' (sunya sthana) in a positional number. It was only used by mathematicians (ganakas—people doing calculations) while the general populace used the traditional Brahmi numerals. After 700, the decimal numbers with zero replaced the Brahmi numerals. The system was revolutionary by limiting the number of individual digits to ten. It is considered an important milestone in the development of mathematics.[citation needed]The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated to sometime between the 3rd and 7th century AD.The numeral system came to be known to the court of Baghdad, where mathematicians such as the Persian Al-Khwarizmi, whose book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (Arabic: الجمع والتفريق بحساب الهندي‎) was written about 825 in Arabic, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes, On the Use of the Indian Numerals (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about 830, propagated it in the Arab world. Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West.[9]In the 10th century, Middle-Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–953. The decimal point notation was introduced by Sind ibn Ali, who also wrote the earliest treatise on Arabic numerals.Origin of the Arabic numeral symbolsAccording to Al-Beruni, there were multiple forms of numerals in use in India, and "Arabs chose among them what appeared to them most useful". Al-Nasawi wrote in the early eleventh century that the mathematicians had not agreed on the form of numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals.[10] The oldest specimens of the written numerals available from Egypt in 873–874 show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and the (Western) Arabic numerals.[11]Calculations were originally performed using a dust board (takht, Latin: tabula) which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them as part of calculations. Al-Uqlidisi then invented a system of calculations with ink and paper "without board and erasing" (bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās).[12] The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called ḥisāb al-hindī in the east, it was called ḥisāb al-ghubār in the west (literally, "calculation with dust").[13] The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as ashkāl al‐ghubār (dust figures, in Ibn al-Yāsamin) or qalam al-ghubår (dust letters).[14]The western Arabic variants of the symbols came to be used in Maghreb and Al-Andalus, which are the direct ancestor of the modern "Arabic numerals" used throughout the world.[15] The divergence in the terminology has led some scholars to propose that the Western Arabic numerals had a separate origin in the so-called "ghubār numerals" but the available evidence indicates no separate origin.[16] Woepecke has also proposed that the Western Arabic numerals were already in use in Spain before the arrival of the Moors, purportedly received via Alexandria, but this theory is not accepted by scholars.[17][18][19]Some popular myths have argued that the original forms of these symbols indicated their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but no evidence exists of any such origin.[20]Adoption in EuropeEvolution of Indian numerals into Arabic numerals and their adoption in EuropeWoodcut showing the 16th century astronomical clock of Uppsala Cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals.A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Talhoffer Thott, 1459). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer presents them with the Hebrew alphabet and astrology.Late 18th-century French revolutionary "decimal" clockface.The reason the digits are more commonly known as "Arabic numerals" in Europe and the Americas is that they were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic-speakers of North Africa, who were then using the digits from Libya to Morocco. Arabs were also using the Eastern Arabic numerals (٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩) in other areas.In 825 Al-Khwārizmī wrote a treatise in Arabic, On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals,[21] which survives only as the 12th-century Latin translation, Algoritmi de numero Indorum.[22][23] Algoritmi, the translator's rendition of the author's name, gave rise to the word algorithm.[24]The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of 976.[25]From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later, Pope Sylvester II) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France.[citation needed]Leonardo Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa), a mathematician born in the Republic of Pisa who had studied in Béjaïa (Bougie), Algeria, promoted the Indian numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci:When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press, and they became widely known during the 15th century. Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396,[26] in England, a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral. (See G.F. Hill, The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe for more examples.) In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous, started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456.[27] By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.[28] Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of anno Domini years, and for numbers on clockfaces.The evolution of the numerals in early Europe is shown here in a table created by the French scholar Jean-Étienne Montucla in his Histoire de la Mathematique, which was published in 1757:Table of numeralsToday, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), for sequential volumes, to differentiate monarchs or family members with the same first names, and (in lower case) to number pages in prefatory material in books.Adoption in RussiaCyrillic numerals were a numbering system derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, used by South and East Slavic peoples. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century when Peter the Great replaced it with Arabic numerals.Adoption in ChinaIron plate with an order 6 magic square in Persian/ Arabic numbers from China, dating to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).Positional notation was introduced to China during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) by the Muslim Hui people. In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits.[29][30][31]EncodingThe ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as Morse code.They are encoded in ASCII at positions 0x30 to 0x39. Masking to the lower 4 binary bits (or taking the last hexadecimal digit) gives the value of the digit, a great help in converting text to numbers on early computers. These positions were inherited in Unicode[32]. EBCDIC used different values, but also had the lower 4 bits equal to the digit value.Binary Octal Decimal Hex Glyph Unicode EBCDIC (Hex)0011 0000 060 48 30 0 U+0030 DIGIT ZERO F00011 0001 061 49 31 1 U+0031 DIGIT ONE F10011 0010 062 50 32 2 U+0032 DIGIT TWO F20011 0011 063 51 33 3 U+0033 DIGIT THREE F30011 0100 064 52 34 4 U+0034 DIGIT FOUR F40011 0101 065 53 35 5 U+0035 DIGIT FIVE F50011 0110 066 54 36 6 U+0036 DIGIT SIX F60011 0111 067 55 37 7 U+0037 DIGIT SEVEN F70011 1000 070 56 38 8 U+0038 DIGIT EIGHT F80011 1001 071 57 39 9 U+0039 DIGIT NINE F9See alsoText figuresAbjad numeralsChinese numeralsCounting rods – decimal positional numeral system with zeroDecimalGreek numeralsJapanese numeralsMaya numeralsRegional variations in modern handwritten Arabic numeralsNotesReferencesSchipp, Bernhard; Krämer, Walter (2008), Statistical Inference, Econometric Analysis and Matrix Algebra: Festschrift in Honour of Götz Trenkler, Springer, p. 387, ISBN 9783790821208Lumpkin, Beatrice; Strong, Dorothy (1995), Multicultural science and math connections: middle school projects and activities, Walch Publishing, p. 118, ISBN 9780825126598Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2010). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume 1. Cengage Learning. p. 192. ISBN 1439084742. Indian mathematicians invented the concept of zero and developed the "Arabic" numerals and system of place-value notation used in most parts of the world today[better source needed]"Arabic", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd editionOfficial Unicode Consortium code chartSmith, David Eugene; Karpinski, Louis Charles (1911). The Hindu-Arabic numerals. Boston, London, Ginn and Company. p. 52.For a modern imageO'Connor, J. J. and E. F. Robertson. 2000. Indian Numerals, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.The MacTutor History of Mathematics archiveKunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 7: "Les personnes qui se sont occupées de la science du calcul n'ont pas été d'accord sur une partie des formes de ces neuf signes; mais la plupart d'entre elles sont convenues de les former comme il suit."Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 5.Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, pp. 7–8.Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 8.Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 10.Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, pp. 12–13: "While specimens of Western Arabic numerals from the early period—the tenth to thirteenth centuries—are still not available, we know at least that Hindu reckoning (called ḥisāb al-ghubār) was known in the West from the tenth century onward..."Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 10: 'I should think that, therefore, it is no longer justified for us to call the Western Arabic forms of the Hindu-Arabic numerals "ghubār numerals." Rather we should speak of the Eastern and the Western Arabic forms of the nine numerals.'Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, pp. 12–13: "Since edition of and research on the Pseudo-Boethius[41] we now know that the texts running under his name and carrying Arabic numerals date from the eleventh century. Thus the assumed way of transmission from Alexandria to Spain is impossible and this theory can no longer be taken as serious."Smith, D. E.; Karpinski, L. C. (2013) [first published in Boston, 1911], The Hindu-Arabic Numerals, Dover, Chapter V, ISBN 0486155110Gandz, Solomon (November 1931), "The Origin of the Ghubār Numerals, or the Arabian Abacus and the Articuli", Isis, 16 (2): 393–424, doi:10.1086/346615, JSTOR 224714Ifrah, Georges (1998). The universal history of numbers: from prehistory to the invention of the computer; translated from the French by David Bellos. London: Harvill Press. pp. 356–357. ISBN 9781860463242.Philosophy Of Mathematics Francis, John – 2008 – Page 38The Ellipse: A Historical and Mathematical Journey Arthur Mazer – 2011"al-Khwarizmi - Muslim mathematician".Models of Computation: An Introduction to Computability Theory – Page 1 Maribel Fernández – 2009"MATHORIGINS.COM_V". MATHORIGINS.COM_HOME."14th century timepiece unearthed in Qld farm shed". ABC News.Erdélyi: Magyar művelődéstörténet 1-2. kötet. Kolozsvár, 1913, 1918http://Mathforum.orgHelaine Selin, ed. (31 July 1997). Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Springer. pp. 198–. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Retrieved 3 March 2012.Meuleman, Johan H. (23 August 2002). Islam in the era of globalization: Muslim attitudes towards modernity and identity. Psychology Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-7007-1691-3. Retrieved 3 March 2012.Peng Yoke Ho (16 October 2000). Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Courier Dover Publications. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-486-41445-4. Retrieved 3 March 2012.https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdfSourcesKunitzsch, Paul (2003), "The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered", in J. P. Hogendijk; A. I. Sabra (eds.), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 3–22, ISBN 978-0-262-19482-2Plofker, Kim (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Pres, ISBN 978-0-691-12067-6Further readingOre, Oystein (1988), "Hindu-Arabic numerals", Number Theory and Its History, Dover, pp. 19–24, ISBN 0486656209.Burnett, Charles (2006), "The Semantics of Indian Numerals in Arabic, Greek and Latin", Journal of Indian Philosophy, Springer-Netherlands, 34 (1–2): 15–30, doi:10.1007/s10781-005-8153-z.Encyclopædia Britannica (Kim Plofker) (2007), "mathematics, South Asian", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 189 (4761): 1–12, Bibcode:1961Natur.189S.273., doi:10.1038/189273c0, retrieved 18 May 2007.Hayashi, Takao (1995), The Bakhshali Manuscript, An ancient Indian mathematical treatise, Groningen: Egbert Forsten, ISBN 906980087X.Ifrah, Georges (2000), A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to Computers, New York: Wiley, ISBN 0471393401.Katz, Victor J. (ed.) (20 July 2007), The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691114854.External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to:Arabic numerals (category)Development of Hindu Arabic and Traditional Chinese ArithmeticHistory of Counting Systems and Numerals. Retrieved 11 December 2005.The Evolution of Numbers. 16 April 2005.O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. Indian numerals. November 2000.History of the numeralsArabic numeralsHindu-Arabic numeralsNumeral & Numbers' history and curiositiesGerbert d'Aurillac's early use of Hindu-Arabic numerals at ConvergencevteArabic languageOverviewsLanguageAlphabet HistoryRomanizationNumerologyInfluence on other languagesAlphabetNabataean alphabetPerso-Arabic alphabetAncient North ArabianAncient South Arabian script Zabūr scriptArabic numeralsEastern numeralsArabic Braille AlgerianDiacritics i‘jāmTashkilHarakatTanwinShaddahHamzaTāʾ marbūṭahLettersʾAlifBāʾTāʾ Tāʾ marbūṭahṮāʾǦīmḤāʾḪāʾDālḎālRāʾZāySīnŠīnṢādḌādṬāʾẒāʾʿAynĠaynFāʾQāfKāfLāmMīmNūnHāʾ Tāʾ marbūṭahWāwYāʾHamzaNotable varietiesAncientProto-ArabicOld ArabicAncient North ArabianOld South ArabianStandardizedClassicalModern StandardMaltese[a]RegionalNilo-EgyptianLevantine North LevantineSouth LevantineMaghrebi Pre-Hilalian dialectsHilalian dialectsMoroccan DarijaTunisian ArabicSa'idi ArabicMesopotamianPeninsular Yemeni ArabicTihamiyya ArabicSudaneseChadianEthnic / religiousJudeo-ArabicPidgins/CreolesJuba ArabicNubi languageMaridi ArabicMalteseAcademicLiteratureNamesLinguisticsPhonology Sun and moon lettersTajwidImālaʾIʿrāb (inflection)GrammarTriliteral rootMater lectionisIPAQuranic Arabic CorpusCalligraphyScriptDiwaniJawi scriptKuficRasmMashqHijazi scriptMuhaqqaqThuluthNaskh (script)Ruqʿah scriptTaʿlīq scriptNastaʿlīq scriptShahmukhī scriptSini (script)TechnicalArabic keyboardArabic script in UnicodeISO/IEC 8859-6Windows-1256MS-DOS codepages 708709710711720864MacArabic encoding

Jessie! there is no context here is a list: maybe 100 + uses!Credit CardCCCountry ClubCCCarbon Copy (secondary email addressee)CCCubic CentimeterCCClosed CaptioningCCCourtesy Copy (email; for those who never used carbon paper)CCCommunity CollegeCCClone Commander (Star Wars)CCCar ClubCCCheat CodesCCColorado College (Colorado Springs, CO)CCCross CountryCCColumbia College (part of Columbia University, New York)CCCharacter Code (ITU-T)CCCommon CriteriaCCChristian ChurchCCClinical Center (NIH)CCCommunity CenterCCCity CouncilCCCruise ControlCCCollege CenterCCCompetition CommissionCCCustomer CareCCClear ChannelCCCommercial (Top-Level Domain introduced in 2000)CCCoupe Cabriolet (Peugeot 206 CC model)CCComputer CenterCCColumbia County (various locations)CCCable ConnectionCCCommon CauseCCCollege CouncilCCCall CenterCCCritical CareCCCommon CarrierCCCase ClosedCCCountry CodeCCCommunity ClubCCCentral CommitteeCCComedy Central (cable channel)CCClark College (Vancouver, WA)CCCentro Cultural (Spanish: Cultural Center)CCCommanderCCCotton CandyCCCenter ConsoleCCCommittee ChairCCCircuit CurrentCCCommon ControlCCC CompilerCCCruiserCCComputing CenterCCCommand CenterCCChief CounselCCCape CodCCChamber of CommerceCCCommon CodeCCChurch of ChristCCCombined CycleCCCopy CatCCColor Code (Sprint)CCCode of ConductCCCrowd Control (gaming)CCClark County (various locations)CCCarroll College (Waukesha, Wisconsin)CCCommand CodeCCChange ControlCCCyber CafeCCCreative CommonsCCCommunications CenterCCChristian CoalitionCCClosed CircuitCCCertificate of CompletionCCCoca ColaCCCounty CouncilCCCloud CoverCCColon CancerCCCatholic CharitiesCCControl CenterCCCyber CrimeCCCarpet CleaningCCCalling CardCCCocos (Keeling) Islands (country code & Top Level Domain)CCChevy Chase (Maryland)CCConstant CurrentCCCancer CareCCClose CombatCCChicago CubsCCConto Corrente (Italian: bank deposit)CCContra Costa (California)CCCross CuttingCCCall ControlCCContact CenterCCConcealed Carry (weapons)CCCable ChannelCCConference CallCCCash CardCCCash CreditCCCarbon-CarbonCCContrast ColorCCCommon ColdCCComputer Crime (insurance)CCCity ClerkCCCubic CapacityCCClosed-CaptionedCCCurrent ConditionCCCylinder CapacityCCCentral ControlCCCentro Comercial (Spanish)CCCommissioned CorpsCCCloud City (Star Wars)CCCome CloserCCCash or CheckCCCorpus Callosum (neurology)CCCanadian Club (whiskey)CCCoupled ClusterCCCrypto CurrencyCCConstructive CriticismCCConstitutional CourtCCCommon ClientCCClinical ChemistryCCCoco ChanelCCChocolate ChipsCCCourse ChangeCCCounty CommissionerCCCost CuttingCCConnecticut College (New London, CT)CCCost ControlCCCalvin CollegeCCCounting Crows (band)CCCarabinieri (Italian Military Police)CCCode ControlCCCultural CompetenceCCCompetence CenterCCConsumer ConfidenceCCCentral ComputerCCCatalytic ConverterCCControl ComputerCCCatholic Central High School (Redford, MI)CCCustom ControlsCCCharge ControlCCChrono Cross (video game)CCChaco (Argentina Province, airline code)CCComplex Conjugate (mathematics)CCCarson City, Nevada (mint mark on some old silver dollars)CCCore ComponentCCCustoms ClearanceCCCross-ConnectCCCompetent Communicator (Toastmasters)CCCaso Cerrado (Spanish TV show)CCCashier's CheckCCCorporate Center (Sprint)CCControl ChannelCCColumbus Crew (Columbus, Ohio major league soccer team)CCCesar Chavez (union activist)CCCrew ChiefCCCommunity ChestCCChange Channel (Maple Story)CCCombination Chemotherapy (oncology)CCCut CornerCCCharged CurrentCCChief ComplaintCCCost CenterCCCommerce CommissionCCCannibal Corpse (band)CCControl ConsoleCCCommand & Conquer (video game)CCCorporate Citizenship (various companies)CCCrack CocaineCCCult Classic (movie slang)CCCris Carter (NFL player)CCConsultative Committee (various organizations)CCC.C. Sabathia (baseball player)CCCoordination CenterCCCurriculum Commitee (various schools)CCCOMSEC CustodianCCCooling Coil (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems)CCCoco Crisp (baseball player)CCCore CompetencyCCConfined to CampCCCareer CounselorCCConclave (online gaming community)CCCheddar CheeseCCCheshire Cat (Blink 182 album)CCClearcase (software; IBM)CCContinuous CastingCCCalçada (Portuguese: sidewalk; postal use)CCConfiguration ControlCCCasual Collective (gaming)CCCódigo Civil (Civil Code)CCCopie ConformeCCCentral ComponentCCCivic Centre (Singapore)CCCycle CountCCCybercity (Danish ISP)CCControl LanguageCCCombat OperationsCCCondition CodeCCChief ClerkCCClomiphene CitrateCCCardCaptorsCCClimatic ChangeCCCardiac CatheterizationCCClimbers' Club (UK)CCCableCardCCCavalera Conspiracy (band)CCCommunications CoordinatorCCCodice Civile (Italian: civil code)CCCoiled-CoilCCCompiler ConstructionCCConseil Constitutionnel (French: Constitutional Council)CCCornwall College (UK)CCCheech and Chong (comedy duo)CCChemical ControlCCCarlton Cole (soccer player)CCCluster ControllerCCConsumer CellularCCCoalicion CanariaCCCranio-Caudal (view; mammography)CCCrystal ControlledCCCybercom (computer company)CCCour des Comptes (French: Court of Auditors)CCCamp CoordinatorCCComment CodeCCClosing CapacityCCColumbus Circle (New York City)CCCourtesy CopyCCClose-CoupledCCCold Cathode (UV emitting tubes)CCCode Civil (French: civil code)CCChronic CoughCCClearcutCCCapital ContributionCCCrown ColonyCCCuerpo Consular (Spanish: Consular Corps; various locations)CCCommon Criteria for Information Technology Security Evaluation (international standard)CCConvolutional CodeCCConsonant Cluster (speech)CCCorn Chip (food)CCCholangiocarcinomaCCCorner Card (philately)CCCirrocumulus (cloud formation)CCCombat CommandCCChange of CourseCCClass Clown (band)CCComponent Command (NATO; US DoD)CCComponent CarrierCCClock Crew (Flash artists group)CCCorrente Continua (Spanish: Direct Current)CCCollect CallCCContinuous Commissioning (Texas Engineering Experiment Station)CCCore Client (computing)CCCounty CoordinatorCCCasual Credit (gaming)CCCountry CoordinatorCCChamilon Circuit (band)CCCrystal Cathedral (Robert Schuller Center)CCCyanogen Chloride (inorganic compound)CCCommand ShipCCCollagenous Colitis (inflammatory bowel disease)CCCash ControlCCConstruction ComponentCCCursor ControlCCCompany CommanderCCCenter ConductorCCCopy, ClearCCCitizen Cope (band)CCCyber Chat (RPG chat server)CCCovenant Christian (High School)CCCorrespondence Chess (long-distance chess)CCClan Chat (Runescape gaming)CCCall CollectCCCorte de Constitucionalidad (Spanish: Constitutional Court; Guatemala)CCCache CoherencyCCCustomer ContactsCCComputacenter (European IT services company)CCChannel CommandCCCombatant CommanderCCConnection ConfirmCCComplications and Comorbid Conditions (medical coding)CCChannel ControllerCCCommunications ControlCCComposite ComponentCCConstant Curve (bending of Windsurfing Masts)CCCorrosion CouponCCControlled CirculationCCConvoy CommanderCCComponent CheckCCCrazy CoolCCComfort Care (often seen with DNR order)CCComputing Curricula (education)CCCard CageCCCoal Chamber (band)CCCoal Chamber (rock band)CCContinuity-Check (ITU-T)CCCorrectional CustodyCCClosed Corporation (South Africa)CCCentral Controller (Cisco Wireless)CCCarriage ControlCCConcrete Curb (public works)CCCarbon CompositesCCCompassionate Conservatism (George W. Bush campaign)CCConcurrent Copy (disk storage management)CCCross-Class (Dungeons & Dragons gaming)CCCompanion of the Order of CanadaCCCoast Is ClearCCCommand ChiefCCComputer ControllerCCCow and Calf (animal husbandry)CCCopper CitrateCCComplementary Color (fashion and design)CCCall Connected (ITU-T Rec I 451)CCCheat City (gaming website)CCCarrier CurrentCCComputers and Composition (an International Journal)CCChrono Crusade (anime)CCClose CaptionedCCCongestion Controlled (IPV6)CCClosing CodeCCColor CompensatingCCCrazy ChickenCCComputer CommunityCCCrew Compartment (NASA)CCCentimetro Cubico (Spanish: Cubic Centimeter)CCCédula de Ciudadanía (Colombia social securty equivalent)CCConstituent CodeCCCanterbury College (Gold Coast, Australia)CCCarnivorous Carnival (Lemony Snicket)CCCedarville CollegeCCCanarian Coalition (Spain)CCCommon Collector (transistors)CCCalculated Cost (pension benefit calculations)CCCoordinator Council (Maquis Forces International)CCCombat ControlCCChemical CorpsCCCall ContentCCCrimson Chin (Fairly Odd Parents TV show)CCCarrier Control (modem information)CCCommunications CentralCCCrew CommanderCCCarl Czerny (classical composer)CCCity Confidential (TV show)CCCadet CommanderCCComplaints CommitteeCCCelanese CorporationCCCard ColumnCCCommand Caller (phone notification system)CCCombat CenterCCClow Card (Japanese Animé)CCConvoy CommodoreCCCoin CollectCCComponent CoolingCCCaring ConnectionCCCritical Characteristic (automotive)CCCommon Controller(s)CCCommon ControllerCCCommander's Call (PHS-1 DMAT monthly meeting)CCCivil CommotionsCCClifford Chance LLP (UK law firm)CCConcord CoalitionCCChaos Castle (gaming)CCConstruction Confederation (London, UK)CCComplications or Comorbidities (diagnosis related group descriptions)CCCaptive CarryCCCompression ChamberCCContracted CareCCCombat ChallengeCCConventional CampaignCCCriteria CheckCCCoupled CavityCCCombat ClothingCCColon ClassificationCCChaitanya Charitamrita (Gaudiya Vaishnava scripture)CCCompetitive CategoryCCCommand ControllerCCChefs CollaborativeCCColorado Crush (AFL team)CCCarbonaceous Chondrite (meteorites)CCCapsule Corporation (Dragon Ball)CCCharges Collect (shipping)CCCoupled ChannelCCCustom Combo (gaming)CCCause CategoryCCCubic ConvolutionCCCamera CopyCCCustom ChargesCCCross ConnectorCCChain Carrier (surveying)CCComposite Clock (SONET)CCCoarse ControlCCCorpo Dei CarabinieriCCCalling CostCCCollins ConsultingCCCourse ChartCCCentimeters CubedCCCreative Counseling (psychotherapy)CCCeladon Candy (band)CCCompression CacheCCCausa Cognita (Latin: Known Cause; Codices and Manuscripts)CCCircuit City, Inc.CCChevaliers de ColombCCConseil des Communes (French: Council of European Municipalities)CCComputational ComponentCCCorpse Camping (gaming)CCCorps de CadetsCCComposite CommandCCCompilation ControlCCCold ChemicalCCCoherent CombiningCCContinuity Cell (ATMF)CCChain CodingCCChampion CommunitiesCCComponent CoordinatorCCClosing CoilCCCue CapCCCommunications ClosetCCCite Check(ing)CCClassic CabCCCombat CodedCCCreatures Community (game series)CCConvolution CodingCCCritical CountCCCentury IndicatorCCCushion CraftCCContinental Concern Species (birds)CCCyclometric ComplexityCCChallenger Commission (America's Cup)CCCut Cancel (philately)CCCalthorpe Clinic (Edgbaston, Birmingham)CCCamry ClubCCConcealed ConductionCCCrew Certified (NASA)CCCommonwealth CoalitionCCConformation Certificate (UK dog shows)CCCurb Cock (construction)CCClass Commander (US military)CCCannon Companion (Shadowrun Sourcebook)CCContaminant Category (land disposal restrictions)CCContagious ConjunctivitisCCCenticoulomb (electrical unit)CCCataract, Total CongenitalCCContinental Counsellors (Institution of the Baha'i Faith)CCCogswell CogsCCCircuit Client (digital networks)CCCorrado ConfortiCCClubCappo (Cappuccino Owners Club)CCCommercial ContinuityCCCryogenic CalorimeterCCCum Correctione (Latin: With Correction; ophthalmology)CCClaimant CodeCCCrew Currency (USCG)CCChaotic CodingCCChet Chad (radio stations, British Columbia)CCCrane CommanderCCComercial CastilloCCCertification CubeCCConsole Coding (web forum)CCCrosstalk CouplerCCCurtice Cubic (MESFET model)CCCaring CapitalCCContrucción Comparativa (Spanish grammar)CCCombatant Craft Crewmember Qualified (USN)CCConstantly Consecrating (gaming, World of Warcraft)CCCable Corder (machines used in testile and tire cord industry)