Bradford Court Apartments (1 Building) 98 Units: Fill & Download for Free

The American Civil War (also known by other names) was a civil war in the United States from 1861 to 1865, fought between northern states loyal to the Union and southern states that had seceded to form the Confederate States of America.[e] The civil war began primarily as a result of the long-standing controversy over the enslavement of Black people. War broke out in April 1861 when secessionist forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, just over a month after Abraham Lincoln had been inaugurated as the President of the United States. The loyalists of the Union in the North, which also included some geographically western and southern states, proclaimed support for the Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States in the South, who advocated for states' rights to uphold slavery.Of the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states were declared by their state governments to have seceded from the country, and the Confederate States of America was organized in rebellion against the U.S. constitutional government. The Confederacy grew to control at least a majority of territory in eleven states, and it claimed the additional states of Kentucky and Missouri by assertions from native secessionists fleeing Union authority. These states were given full representation in the Confederate Congress throughout the Civil War. The two remaining slave states, Delaware and Maryland, were invited to join the Confederacy, but nothing substantial developed due to intervention by federal troops.The Confederate states were never diplomatically recognized as a joint entity by the government of the United States, nor by that of any foreign country.[f] The states that remained loyal to the U.S. were known as the Union.[g] The Union and the Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South for four years. Intense combat left between 620,000 and 750,000 soldiers dead,[14] along with an undetermined number of civilians.[h] The Civil War remains the deadliest military conflict in American history,[i] and accounted for more American military deaths than all other wars combined until the Vietnam War.[j]The war effectively ended on April 9, 1865, when Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House. Confederate generals throughout the Southern states followed suit, the last surrender on land occurring June 23. Much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed, especially its railroads. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and four million enslaved Black people were freed. The war-torn nation then entered the Reconstruction era in a partially successful attempt to rebuild the country and grant civil rights to freed slaves.The war is one of the most studied and written about episodes in U.S. history, and remains the subject of cultural and historiographical debate. Of particular interest are the causes of the Civil War and the persisting myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. The American Civil War was among the earliest industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron-clad ships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation, and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II, and subsequent conflicts.Contents1Overview2Causes of secession2.1Slavery2.2Abolitionists2.3Territorial crisis2.4States' rights2.5Sectionalism2.6Protectionism2.7Nationalism and honor2.8Lincoln's election3Outbreak of the war3.1Secession crisis3.2Battle of Fort Sumter3.3Attitude of the border states4General features of the war4.1Mobilization4.1.1Women4.2Motivation4.3Prisoners5Naval tactics5.1Modern navy evolves5.2Union blockade5.2.1Blockade runners5.2.2Economic impact6Diplomacy7Eastern theater7.1Background7.2Battles8Western theater8.1Background8.2Battles9Trans-Mississippi theater9.1Background9.2Battles10Lower Seaboard theater10.1Background10.2Battles11Pacific Coast theater12Conquest of Virginia12.1Grant's Overland Campaign12.2Sheridan's Valley Campaign12.3Sherman's March to the Sea12.4The Waterloo of the Confederacy13Confederacy surrenders14Home fronts15Union victory and aftermath15.1Results15.2Costs15.3Emancipation15.3.1Slavery as a war issue15.3.2Emancipation Proclamation15.4Texas v. White15.5Reconstruction16Memory and historiography16.1Lost Cause16.2Battlefield preservation16.3Civil War commemoration16.4Technological significance17In works of culture and art17.1Literature17.2Film17.3Music17.4Video games18See also18.1General reference18.2Union18.3Confederacy18.4Ethnic articles18.5Topical articles18.6National articles18.7State articles18.8Memorials18.9Other modern civil wars in the world19References19.1Notes19.2Citations19.3Bibliography20Further reading21External linksOverviewThe practice of slavery in the United States was one of the key political issues of the 19th century. Slavery had been a controversial issue during the framing of the Constitution, but the issue was left unsettled.[17]The flag of the UnionIn the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories (parts of the U.S. that are not states). The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights, and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally; thus Lincoln was elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. The South was outraged, and before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, with an average of 49 percent.[18] Of those states whose legislatures resolved for secession, the first seven voted with split majorities for unionist candidates Douglas and Bell (Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%), or with sizable minorities for those unionists (Alabama with 46%, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, and South Carolina, which cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president).[19]The Confederate battle flagEight remaining slave-holding states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States", he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."[20] After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton" that they would intervene,[21] but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.Confederate flag, the "Stars and Bars"Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the conflict was inconclusive during 1861–1862. In September 1862, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal.[22] To the west, the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy by summer 1862, then much of its western armies, and seized New Orleans. The successful 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William Tecumseh Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction era.Causes of secessionMain articles: Origins of the American Civil War and Timeline of events leading to the American Civil WarStatus of the states, 1861States that seceded before April 15, 1861States that seceded after April 15, 1861Union states that permitted slaveryUnion states that banned slaveryTerritoriesThe causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as the central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war.[23] Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery to newly formed states, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.[24][25]SlaveryFurther information: Slave PowerSlavery was the main cause of disunion.[26][27] The issue of slavery had confounded the nation since its inception, and increasingly separated the United States into a slaveholding South and a free North. The issue was exacerbated by the rapid territorial expansion of the country, which repeatedly brought to the fore the issue of whether new territory should be slaveholding or free. The issue had dominated politics for decades leading up to the war. Key attempts to solve the issue included the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850, but these only postponed an inevitable showdown over slavery.[28]Although there were opposing views even in the Union States,[29][30] most Northern soldiers were mostly indifferent on the subject of slavery,[31] while Confederates fought the war mainly to protect a Southern society of which slavery was an integral part.[32][33] From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction.[34] The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights.[35] Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.[36] In particular, Southerners feared a repeat of "the horrors of Santo Domingo",[citation needed] in which nearly all white people – including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition – were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti. Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase "a disease in the public mind" used by critics of this idea, and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation.[37] These fears were exacerbated by the 1859 attempt of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South.Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.[citation needed]AbolitionistsMain article: Abolitionism in the United StatesUncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe, aroused public opinion about the evils of slavery. According to legend, when Lincoln was introduced to her at the White House, his first words were, "So this is the little lady who started this Great War."[38]Theodore Parker was a prominent minister, abolitionist and reformer.The abolitionists – those advocating the abolition of slavery – were very active in the decades leading up to the Civil War. They traced their philosophical roots back to the Puritans, who strongly believed that slavery was morally wrong. One of the early Puritan writings on this subject was "The Selling of Joseph," by Samuel Sewall in 1700. In it, Sewall condemned slavery and the slave trade and refuted many of the era's typical justifications for slavery.[39][40]This portrait of Judge Samuel Sewall by John Smibert is in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Massachusetts.The American Revolution and the cause of liberty added tremendous impetus to the abolitionist cause. Slavery, which had been around for thousands of years, was considered "normal" and was not a significant issue of public debate prior to the Revolution. The Revolution changed that and made it into an issue that had to be addressed. As a result, shortly after the Revolution, the northern states quickly started outlawing slavery. Even in southern states, laws were changed to limit slavery and facilitate manumission. The amount of indentured servitude (temporary slavery) dropped dramatically throughout the country. An Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves sailed through Congress with little opposition. President Thomas Jefferson supported it, and it went in effect on January 1, 1808. Benjamin Franklin and James Madison each helped found manumission societies. Influenced by the Revolution, many individual slave owners, such as George Washington, freed their slaves, often in their wills. The number of free blacks as a proportion of the black population in the upper South increased from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions.[41][42][43][44][45][46]Rufus Putnam was George Washington’s chief engineer in the Revolutionary War and later became the "Father of Ohio" (painted from life, ca 1796-1797, age 59).The establishment of the Northwest Territory as "free soil" – no slavery – by Manasseh Cutler and Rufus Putnam (who both came from Puritan New England) would also prove crucial. This territory (which became the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota) doubled the size of the United States. If these had been slave states, and their electoral votes gone to Abraham Lincoln’s main opponent, Lincoln would not have been elected president. The Civil War would not have been fought.[47][48][40]In the decades leading up to the Civil War, the abolitionists, such as Theodore Parker, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and Frederick Douglass, repeatedly used the Puritan heritage of the country to bolster their cause. The most radical anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator, invoked the Puritans and Puritan values over a thousand times. Parker, in urging New England Congressmen to support the abolition of slavery, wrote that "The son of the Puritan ... is sent to Congress to stand up for Truth and Right..."[49][50]By 1840 more than 15,000 people were members of abolitionist societies in the United States. Abolitionism in the United States became a popular expression of moralism, and led directly to the Civil War. In churches, conventions and newspapers, reformers promoted an absolute and immediate rejection of slavery.[51][52]Territorial crisisFurther information: Slave states and free statesBetween 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. Pro- and anti-slavery forces collided over the territories west of the Mississippi.[53]With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well.[54][55] Northern "free soil" interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free-soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859), and Kansas (1861). In the Southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive.[56] Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself."[57][58]Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860 Crittenden CompromiseBy 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly.[59] The first of these "conservative" theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.[60]The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress;[61] thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.[62]Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular" sovereignty—which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter.[63] The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine.[64] In the Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission did not pass the Senate until January 1861, after the departure of Southern senators.[65]The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis,[66] one of state sovereignty ("states' rights"),[67] also known as the "Calhoun doctrine",[68] named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun.[69] Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U.S. Constitution.[70] "States' rights" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority.[71] As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power."[72][73] These four doctrines comprised the dominant ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories, and the U.S. Constitution before the 1860 presidential election.[74]States' rightsThe South argued that just as each state had decided to join the Union, a state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers, who said they were setting up a perpetual union.[75] Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations:While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose? States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.[76]SectionalismSectionalism resulted from the different economies, social structure, customs, and political values of the North and South.[77][78] Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812, resulting in the Hartford Convention, which manifested Northern dissatisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the Three-Fifths Compromise, dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of Southern presidents. Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence agriculture for poor whites. In the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.[79]Historians have debated whether economic differences between the mainly industrial North and the mainly agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s, and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.[80][81]ProtectionismOwners of slaves preferred low-cost manual labor with no mechanization. Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while Southern planters demanded free trade.[82] The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress.[83][84] The tariff issue was a Northern grievance. However, neo-Confederate writers[who?] have claimed it as a Southern grievance. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue.[85] Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff.[86]Nationalism and honorMarais des Cygnes massacre of anti-slavery Kansans, May 19, 1858Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "Unionists") and those loyal primarily to the Southern region and then the Confederacy.[87]Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)[88] and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a rebellion of slaves in 1859.[89]While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it.[90] The South ignored the warnings; Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.[91]Lincoln's electionMain article: 1860 United States presidential electionAbraham Lincoln in 1864The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.[92] Efforts at compromise, including the Corwin Amendment and the Crittenden Compromise, failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.According to Lincoln, the American people had shown that they had been successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining a republic based on the people's vote against an attempt to overthrow it.[93]Outbreak of the warSecession crisisThe election of Lincoln provoked the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Before the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union". It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.The first published imprint of secession, a broadside issued by the Charleston Mercury, December 20, 1860Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states" at the hands of Northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures.[94] However, at least four states—South Carolina,[95] Mississippi,[96] Georgia,[97] and Texas[98]—also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the Northern states. The Southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive Slave Clause of the Constitution. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861.[99] They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual", but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress".[100] One-quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.[101]As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass projects that had been blocked by Southern senators before the war. These included the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railroad Acts),[102] the National Bank Act, the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862, and the ending of slavery in the District of Columbia. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every Southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it.[103][better source needed] It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would likely have voted in favor of it.[104][better source needed] A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise; it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.[105]Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as president. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void".[106] He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina. He stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify the armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory" binding the two regions.[106]The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties[which?] and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.[107] Secretary of State William Seward, who at the time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister" behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.[107] President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy: Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson and Fort Taylor in Florida, and Fort Sumter – located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston, South Carolina.Battle of Fort SumterMain article: Battle of Fort SumterThe Confederate "Stars and Bars" flying from Fort SumterFort Sumter is located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Its garrison had recently moved there to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Lincoln told its commander, Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Confederate president Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered General P. G. T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. He bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation.The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins underscored the significance of the event:"The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment. ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures."[108]Mass meeting in New York City April 20, 1861, to support the Union.Union leaders incorrectly assumed that only a minority of Southerners were in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners favored secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.[109][better source needed]Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. The scale of the rebellion appeared to be small, so he called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days.[110] The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal.[111] On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.[112]Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.[113]Attitude of the border statesMain article: Border states (American Civil War)US Secession map 1863. The Union vs. the Confederacy.Union statesUnion territories not permitting slaveryBorder Union states, permitting slavery(One of these states, West Virginia was created in 1863)Confederate statesUnion territories that permitted slavery (claimed by Confederacy) at the start of the war, but where slavery was outlawed by the U.S. in 1862Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of Washington, D.C., and could cut it off from the North.[114] It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war.[115] Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North.[116] Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened.[115][117] All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling.[118]In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state (see also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.[119]Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces in 1861, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, formed the shadow Confederate Government of Kentucky, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. Its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth and went into exile for good after October 1862.[120]After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving).[121] The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties[122] in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war.[123][124] Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.[125]A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.[126]General features of the warSee also: List of American Civil War battles and Military leadership in the American Civil WarThe Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought". In many cases, without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier.[127]MobilizationSee also: Child soldiers in the American Civil WarAs the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias.[128] The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.[129][130][131]In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt.[132] The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.[133]When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.[134] Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their services conscripted.[135]Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots of 1863In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war.[136] At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent; Southern desertion was high because, according to one historian writing in 1991, the highly localized Southern identity meant that many Southern men had little investment in the outcome of the war, with individual soldiers caring more about the fate of their local area than any grand ideal.[137] In the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.[138]From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world" within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan concluded that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.[139]WomenThe number of women who served as soldiers during the war is estimated at between 400 and 750, although an accurate count is impossible because the women had to disguise themselves as men.[140]Women also served on the Union hospital ship Red Rover and nursed Union and Confederate troops at field hospitals.[141]Mary Edwards Walker, the only woman to ever receive the Medal of Honor, served in the Union Army and was given the medal for her efforts to treat the wounded during the war. Her name was deleted from the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 (along with over 900 other, male MOH recipients); however, it was restored in 1977.[142][143]MotivationPerman and Taylor (2010) write that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.[144]PrisonersMain article: American Civil War prison campsAt the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their army. They were paid, but they were not allowed to perform any military duties.[145] The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.[146]Naval tacticsThe small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396.[147][148] Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy.[149] Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually gained control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.Modern navy evolvesClashes on the rivers were melees of ironclads, cottonclads, gunboats and rams, complicated by torpedoes and fire rafts.The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution. Many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries.[150] Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.[151]Battle between the Monitor and MerrimackIn addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.[152]The Confederacy experimented with the submarine CSS Hunley, which did not work satisfactorily,[153] and with building an ironclad ship, CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour Battle of Hampton Roads was a draw, but it proved that ironclads were effective warships.[154] Not long after the battle, the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Great Britain. However, this failed as Great Britain had no interest in selling warships to a nation that was at war with a far stronger enemy, and it meant it could sour relations with the US.[155]Union blockadeMain article: Union blockadeGeneral Scott's "Anaconda Plan" 1861. Tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia.By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible.[156] Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.[157]In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.[158]Blockade runnersMain article: Blockade runners of the American Civil WarGunline of nine Union ironclads. South Atlantic Blockading Squadron off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production.British investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out.[159] When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British, and they were released.[160]Economic impactThe Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.[161]Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well.[162] The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade, so they stopped calling at Confederate ports.[163]To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships in Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.[151] After the war ended, the U.S. government demanded that Britain compensate them for the damage done by the raiders outfitted in British ports. Britain acquiesced to their demand, paying the U.S. $15 million in 1871.[164]DiplomacyMain article: Diplomacy of the American Civil WarAlthough the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators.[165][166] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war.[167]Crewmembers of USS Wissahickon by the ship's 11-inch (280 mm) Dahlgren gun, circa 1863Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.[167] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and ships to transport weapons.[168]Lincoln's administration failed to appeal to European public opinion. Diplomats explained that the United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, and instead repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate representatives, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic."[169]U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to openly challenge the Union blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery in Britain created a political liability for British politicians, where the anti-slavery movement was powerful.[170]War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British government considered mediating between North and South, though even such an offer would have risked war with the United States. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom's Cabin three times when deciding on this.[171]The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.[172]Eastern theaterCounty map of Civil War battles by theater and yearFurther information: Eastern Theater of the American Civil WarThe Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the Appalachian Mountains, including the states of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of North Carolina.BackgroundArmy of the PotomacMaj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:[173]McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond.Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee.The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River.The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.Robert E. LeeArmy of Northern VirginiaThe primary Confederate force in the Eastern theater was the Army of Northern Virginia. The Army originated as the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac, which was organized on June 20, 1861, from all operational forces in northern Virginia. On July 20 and 21, the Army of the Shenandoah and forces from the District of Harpers Ferry were added. Units from the Army of the Northwest were merged into the Army of the Potomac between March 14 and May 17, 1862. The Army of the Potomac was renamed Army of Northern Virginia on March 14. The Army of the Peninsula was merged into it on April 12, 1862.When Virginia declared its secession in April 1861, Robert E. Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command.Lee's biographer, Douglas S. Freeman, asserts that the army received its final name from Lee when he issued orders assuming command on June 1, 1862.[174] However, Freeman does admit that Lee corresponded with Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston, his predecessor in army command, before that date and referred to Johnston's command as the Army of Northern Virginia. Part of the confusion results from the fact that Johnston commanded the Department of Northern Virginia (as of October 22, 1861) and the name Army of Northern Virginia can be seen as an informal consequence of its parent department's name. Jefferson Davis and Johnston did not adopt the name, but it is clear that the organization of units as of March 14 was the same organization that Lee received on June 1, and thus it is generally referred to today as the Army of Northern Virginia, even if that is correct only in retrospect.Union forces performing a bayonet charge, 1862On July 4 at Harper's Ferry, Colonel Thomas J. Jackson assigned Jeb Stuart to command all the cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah. He eventually commanded the Army of Northern Virginia's cavalry.BattlesFirst Bull RunIn one of the first highly visible battles, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces led by Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard near Washington was repulsed at the First Battle of Bull Run (also known as First Manassas)."Stonewall" got his nickname at Bull Run.The Union had the upper hand at first, nearly pushing confederate forces holding a defensive position into a rout, but Confederate reinforcements under. Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A brigade of Virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the Virginia Military Institute, Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall".McClellan's Peninsula Campaign; Jackson's Valley CampaignGeorge McClellanUpon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,[175][176][177]Also in the spring of 1862, in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson led his Valley Campaign. Employing audacity and rapid, unpredictable movements on interior lines, Jackson's 17,000 men marched 646 miles (1,040 km) in 48 days and won several minor battles as they successfully engaged three Union armies (52,000 men), including those of Nathaniel P. Banks and John C. Fremont, preventing them from reinforcing the Union offensive against Richmond. The swiftness of Jackson's men earned them the nickname of "foot cavalry".Johnston halted McClellan's advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, but he was wounded in the battle, and Robert E. Lee assumed his position of command. General Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.[178]Second Bull RunThe Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[179] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.AntietamThe Battle of Antietam, the Civil War's deadliest one-day fight.Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North with the Maryland Campaign. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[178][180] Lee's army checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[181]First FredericksburgWhen the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[182] on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.Confederate dead overrun at Marye's Heights, reoccupied next day May 4, 1863ChancellorsvilleHooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, his Chancellorsville Campaign proved ineffective and he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863.[183] Chancellorsville is known as Lee's "perfect battle" because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a much larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications.[184] Lee famously said: "He has lost his left arm, but I have lost my right arm."The fiercest fighting of the battle—and the second bloodiest day of the Civil War—occurred on May 3 as Lee launched multiple attacks against the Union position at Chancellorsville. That same day, John Sedgwick advanced across the Rappahannock River, defeated the small Confederate force at Marye's Heights in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a successful delaying action at the Battle of Salem Church.GettysburgPickett's ChargeGen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863).[185] This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[186] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat.Western theaterFurther information: Western Theater of the American Civil WarThe Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including the states of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Kentucky, South Carolina and Tennessee, as well as parts of Louisiana.BackgroundArmy of the Tennessee and Army of the CumberlandUlysses S. GrantThe primary Union forces in the Western theater were the Army of the Tennessee and the Army of the Cumberland, named for the two rivers, the Tennessee River and Cumberland River. After Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.Army of TennesseeThe primary Confederate force in the Western theater was the Army of Tennessee. The army was formed on November 20, 1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi. While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West.BattlesFort Henry and Fort DonelsonThe Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry (February 6, 1862) and Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), earning him the nickname of "Unconditional Surrender" Grant, by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. Nathan Bedford Forrest rallied nearly 4,000 Confederate troops and led them to escape across the Cumberland. Nashville and central Tennessee thus fell to the Union, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's "Gibraltar of the West" at Columbus, Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862.Albert Sidney Johnston died at Shiloh.ShilohAt the Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over.[187] The Confederates lost Albert Sidney Johnston, considered their finest general before the emergence of Lee.Union Navy captures MemphisBy 1863 the Union controlled large portions of the Western Theater, especially areas surrounding the Mississippi riverOne of the early Union objectives in the war was the capture of the Mississippi River, to cut the Confederacy in half. The Mississippi River was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee.In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans.[188] "The key to the river was New Orleans, the South's largest port [and] greatest industrial center."[189] U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.[190] which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.PerryvilleBragg's second invasion of Kentucky in the Confederate Heartland Offensive included initial successes such as Kirby Smith's triumph at the Battle of Richmond and the capture of the Kentucky capital of Frankfort on September 3, 1862.[191] However, the campaign ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville. Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of logistical support and lack of infantry recruits for the Confederacy in that state.[192]Stones RiverBragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee, the culmination of the Stones River Campaign.[193]VicksburgNaval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at the Battle of Vicksburg in July 1863, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war.[194]ChickamaugaThe Battle of Chickamauga, the highest two-day losses.The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. After Rosecrans successful Tullahoma Campaign, Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas.Third ChattanoogaRosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged in the Chattanooga Campaign. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[195] eventually causing Longstreet to abandon his Knoxville Campaign and driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.Trans-Mississippi theaterFurther information: Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil WarBackgroundThe Trans-Mississippi theater refers to military operations west of the Mississippi River, not including the areas bordering the Pacific Ocean.BattlesMissouriNathaniel Lyon secured St. Louis docks and arsenal, led Union forces to expel Missouri Confederate forces and government.[196]The first battle of the Trans-Mississippi theater was the Battle of Wilson's Creek. The Confederates were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[197]Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control.[198] Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements.[199] The "Sons of Liberty" and "Order of the American Knights" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union but Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.[200]New MexicoNumerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Battle of Glorieta Pass was the decisive battle of the New Mexico Campaign. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy and smaller numbers for the Union.[201] The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.[202]TexasAfter the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union, in turn, did not directly engage him.[203] Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana, was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.Lower Seaboard theaterFurther information: Lower Seaboard Theater of the American Civil WarBackgroundThe Lower Seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas) as well as the southern part of the Mississippi River (Port Hudson and south). Union Naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan.BattlesSouth CarolinaOne of the earliest battles of the war was fought at Port Royal Sound, south of Charleston. Much of the war along the South Carolina coast concentrated on capturing Charleston. In attempting to capture Charleston, the Union military tried two approaches, by land over James or Morris Islands or through the harbor. However, the Confederates were able to drive back each Union attack. One of the most famous of the land attacks was the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, in which the 54th Massachusetts Infantry took part. The Federals suffered a serious defeat in this battle, losing 1,500 men while the Confederates lost only 175.GeorgiaFort Pulaski on the Georgia coast was an early target for the Union navy. Following the capture of Port Royal, an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of Captain Quincy A. Gillmore, forcing a Confederate surrender. The Union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after repairing.LouisianaNew Orleans captured.In April 1862, a Union naval task force commanded by Commander David D. Porter attacked Forts Jackson and St. Philip, which guarded the river approach to New Orleans from the south. While part of the fleet bombarded the forts, other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city. A Union army force commanded by Major General Benjamin Butler landed near the forts and forced their surrender. Butler's controversial command of New Orleans earned him the nickname "Beast".The following year, the Union Army of the Gulf commanded by Major General Nathaniel P. Banks laid siege to Port Hudson for nearly eight weeks, the longest siege in US military history. The Confederates attempted to defend with the Bayou Teche Campaign, but surrendered after Vicksburg. These two surrenders gave the Union control over the entire Mississippi.FloridaSeveral small skirmishes were fought in Florida, but no major battles. The biggest was the Battle of Olustee in early 1864.Pacific Coast theaterFurther information: Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil WarThe Pacific Coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide.Conquest of VirginiaWilliam Tecumseh ShermanAt the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.[204] This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end."[205] Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.[206]These dead soldiers—from Ewell's May 1864 attack at Spotsylvania—delayed Grant's advance on Richmond in the Overland Campaign.Grant's Overland CampaignGrant's army set out on the Overland Campaign intending to draw Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. At the Battle of Yellow Tavern, the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.[207]Philip SheridanSheridan's Valley CampaignGrant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. vice president and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war and included a charge by teenage VMI cadets. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.[208]Sherman's March to the SeaThe Peacemakers by George Peter Alexander Healy portrays Sherman, Grant, Lincoln, and Porter discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer River Queen in March 1865.(Clickable image—use cursor to identify.)Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.[209] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin–Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.[210]Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia, in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.[211]The Waterloo of the ConfederacyLee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek.[212]Confederacy surrendersMain article: Conclusion of the American Civil WarThis New York Times front page celebrated Lee's surrender, headlining how Grant let Confederate officers retain their sidearms and "paroled" the Confederate officers and men.[213]News of Lee's April 9 surrender reached this southern newspaper (Savannah, Georgia) on April 15—after the April 14 shooting of President Lincoln.[214] The article quotes Grant's terms of surrender.[214]Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House.[215] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning. Lincoln's vice president, Andrew Johnson, was unharmed as his would-be assassin, George Atzerodt, lost his nerve, so he was immediately sworn in as president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.[216] On April 26, 1865, the same day Boston Corbett killed Booth at a tobacco barn, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William Tecumseh Sherman at Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces. On May 4, all remaining Confederate forces in Alabama and Mississippi surrendered. President Johnson officially declared an end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, was captured the following day.[1][217] On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department.[218] On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.[219]Home frontsMain articles: Union (American Civil War), Confederate states of America, and Economy of the Confederate States of AmericaUnion victory and aftermathResultsMap of Confederate territory losses year by yearThe causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich Southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second-class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.[220]Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.[221] McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.[222]Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.[222] Lincoln was not a military dictator and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.[223]Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864[224]YearUnionConfederacyPopulation186022,100,000 (71%)9,100,000 (29%)186428,800,000 (90%)[k]3,000,000 (10%)[225]Free186021,700,000 (81%)5,600,000 (19%)Slave1860490,000 (11%)3,550,000 (89%)1864negligible1,900,000[l]Soldiers1860–642,100,000 (67%)1,064,000 (33%)Railroad miles186021,800 (71%)8,800 (29%)186429,100 (98%)[226]negligibleManufactures186090%10%186498%2%Arms production186097%3%186498%2%Cotton bales1860negligible4,500,0001864300,000negligibleExports186030%70%186498%2%Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat.[227][228] Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."[229]A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win."[230][231] According to Charles H. Wilson, in The Collapse of the Confederacy, "internal conflict should figure prominently in any explanation of Confederate defeat."[232] Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict.[233] However, most historians reject the argument.[234] James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard.[235] Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired." Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let-up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out."[236]Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.[237] The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.[238]Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history.[239] The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:The North's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race-based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond."[240]Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South.[241] The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South.[241] However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.[241]CostsOne in thirteen veterans were amputeesRemains of both sides were reinterredNational cemetery in Andersonville, GA.The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians.[9] Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.[14][12] The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.[242]Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white men aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South.[243][244] About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War.[245] An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.[246]Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:[6]110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)24,866 died in Confederate prison camps9,058 killed by accidents or drowning15,741 other/unknown deaths359,528 total deadIn addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).[7]Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle.[6] Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.[247]:16 Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:[We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two million troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate" amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, even though the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.[247]:16Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths.[6] However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:[2]Union: 853,838110,100 killed in action224,580 disease deaths275,154 wounded in action211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs)Confederate: 914,66094,000 killed in action164,000 disease deaths194,026 wounded in action462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs)Burying Union dead on the Antietam battlefield, 1862While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, superintendent of the 1870 census, used census and surgeon general data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5% and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.[12]Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war.[15] This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, or exposure and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.[248]Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls, and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.[249]The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.[250]The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. The income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considered, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.[251] The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.During the Reconstruction era, national unity was slowly restored, the national government expanded its power, and civil and political rights were granted to freed black slaves through amendments to the Constitution and federal legislation.EmancipationSlavery as a war issueAbolishing slavery was not a Union war goal from the outset, but it quickly became one.[27] Lincoln's initial claims were that preserving the Union was the central goal of the war.[252] In contrast, the South saw itself as fighting to preserve slavery.[27] While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting for slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.[253] However, as the war dragged on it became clear that slavery was the central factor of the conflict. Lincoln and his cabinet made ending slavery a war goal, which culminated in the Emancipation Proclamation.[27][254] Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.[254] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.[255]Emancipation ProclamationMain article: Emancipation ProclamationLeft: Contrabands—fugitive slaves—cooks, laundresses, laborers, teamsters, railroad repair crews—fled to the Union Army, but were not officially freed until 1863 by the Emancipation Proclamation.Right: In 1863, the Union army accepted Freedmen. Seen here are Black and White teen-aged soldiers.The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.[m]During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. Lincoln's fears of making slavery a war issue were based in a harsh reality: abolition did not enjoy wide support in the west, the territories, and the border states.[257][258] In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."[258] Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.[259]At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.[260] But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[261] Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.[262]In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[263] Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."[264]Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.[265] Still, the proclamation did not enjoy universal support. It caused much unrest in the Western states, where racist sentiments led to great fear of abolition. There was some concern that the proclamation would lead to succession of Western states, and prompted the stationing of Union troops in Illinois in case of rebellion.[257]Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.[266] The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France.[267] By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.[268]Texas v. WhiteIn Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null", under the constitution.[269]ReconstructionMain article: Reconstruction eraNorthern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.The war had utterly devastated the South, and posed serious questions of how the South would be re-integrated to the Union. Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877.[270] It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments" to the Constitution: the 13th outlawing slavery (1865), the 14th guaranteeing citizenship to slaves (1868) and the 15th ensuring voting rights to slaves (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government" for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.[271]President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans" argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended.[272] With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was ushered in.The Civil War would have a huge impact on American politics in the years to come. Many veterans on both sides were subsequently elected to political office, including five U. S. Presidents: General Ulysses Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, and William McKinley.[273]Memory and historiographyLeft: Monument to the Grand Army of the Republic, a Union veteran organizationRight: Cherokee Confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1903The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[274] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" influencing the world.[275]Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academia, leading to a proliferation of studies by non-scholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and who write for the general public, rather than the scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best-known writers.[276][277] Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.[278]Lost CauseMain article: Lost Cause of the ConfederacyMemory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause": that the Confederate cause was a just and heroic one. The myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.[279] Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame" of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful.[280] Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism" of the 19th century, sacrificing black American progress to white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter" in every instance.[281] The Lost Cause myth was formalized by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard, whose The Rise of American Civilization (1927) spawned "Beardian historiography". The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. Though this interpretation was abandoned by the Beards in the 1940s, and by historians generally by the 1950s, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.[282][283]

Fracking is the fossil fuel industry’s latest false solution to our energy challenge. It’s more expensive, more polluting, and more dangerous than clean, renewable energy. So why are we pursuing fracking in the first place?Sherrie Vargson ignites the water coming out of her kitchen faucet in Bradford County. Methane in her well has caused her health problems. The well is just 100 feet from her house.© Les Stone / GreenpeaceSince 2005, more than 100,000 oil and gas wells have been drilled and fracked in the United States.Fracking has been pursued by countries like Canada, India, the U.K., and China, and in numerous U.S. states.What Is Fracking?Fracking is short for hydraulic fracturing. It’s an industrial process that breaks apart rock formations deep underground to extract fossil fuels like oil and methane gas. Because this oil and gas is found in rock formations called shale, these fuels are usually called shale oil or shale gas.Hydraulic fracturing is a process done after a well has been drilled but before oil and gas can be brought from the well. The term fracking has come to describe the entire process of creating a fracked well, from drilling the initial hole through the hydraulic fracturing stage and the production of fossil fuels.While fossil fuel companies claim fracking has been practiced safely for decades, we actually know very little about its long-term environmental impacts. Changes in technology and economics have allowed fossil fuel companies to frack on a much larger scale than has ever been done before, making today’s fracking a much different process than in years past. Behind the scenes, these same companies have warned their investors that fracking carries the risk of chemical leaks, spills, explosions and other environmental damage, not to mention serious injury to workers.New technology is making fracking more dangerous, more profitable, and more attractive to fossil companies, but no less damaging to the environment and human health.The Dangers of FrackingScientists continue to study the impacts of fracking. What they’ve already found is pretty alarming.Water Use & PollutionFracking is a water-intensive process. In water-scarce states like Texas and Colorado, more than 3.6 million gallons of water are used every time a well is fracked, which can happen multiple times throughout the life of a well.The process involves injecting a huge quantity of fresh water mixed with toxic chemicals — called fracking fluids — deep into the ground. Fossil fuels companies routinely claim that these fracking fluids are harmless because they’re roughly 2 percent chemical and 98 percent. But 2 percent of the billions of gallons of fracking fluid created by drillers every year equals hundreds of tons of toxic chemicals, many of which are kept secret by the industry.Even worse, the oil and gas industry has no idea what to do with the massive amount of contaminated water it’s creating. Fracking fluids and waste have made their way into our drinking water and aquifers. Fracking has already been linked to drinking water contamination in Pennsylvania, Colorado, Ohio, Wyoming, New York, and West Virginia.An EPA draft report released in 2015 found more than 150 instances of groundwater contamination due to shale drilling and fracking.Homeowners in some affected areas even report being able to light the water coming out of their kitchen sinks on fire due to gas contamination:EarthquakesWhile the fossil fuel industry denies it, the EPA has acknowledged the connection between fracking and increased earthquakes since 1990.Scientists have made firm links between earthquakes in Colorado, Oklahoma, Ohio, and Arkansas in the past few years.Oklahoma, for example, averaged 21 earthquakes above a 3.0 magnitude per year between 1967 and 2000. Since 2010 and the beginning of the fracking boom, the state has averaged more than 300 earthquakes above 3.0 magnitude every year.Most of these earthquakes are caused by underground injection wells, which are used to dispose of contaminated water created by the fracking process. These wells do not produce the gas and oil. However, the shale industry creates so much contaminated wastewater — and has so few options for disposing of it — that injection wells have become a critical part of shale drilling and fracking.Climate & Air QualityBecause shale drilling and fracking is understood so poorly and regulated so little, we don’t know exactly how much air pollution is leaking from fracking wells across the country. States like Colorado have seen tremendous spikes in air pollution due to fracking wells.And one of the most troubling aspects of shale drilling and fracking is its impact on the climate.Methane gas — the main component of natural gas — is a less common but more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. In fact, it’s 85 to 105 times more powerful than carbon dioxide at disrupting the climate over a 20-year period.There is still no consensus as to how much methane is leaking into the air due to shale drilling and fracking, but some studies suggest it could be worse than burning coal for the climate.Let’s Ditch Fracking for Clean EnergyFracking is diverting money and attention from the real long-term solutions we need for a sustainable energy system, while adding to greenhouse gas pollution and environmental degradation.Join us in telling government and big business to stop pursuing this false solution and start focusing on the energy future we want, one based on clean and renewable energy.Fracking’s Environmental Impacts: EarthquakesThough the industry routinely claims that hydraulic fracturing is safe and has been used without incident for decades, the size and scale of the current fracking boom is unlike anything the industry has previously undertaken.Craig Sautner holds protest signs against hydraulic fracturing (fracking) outside his home in Dimock. He and his wife Julie are suing Cabot Oil & Gas Corp., claiming the energy company's hydraulic fracturing operation near their home contaminated their well in 2008. They have become spokespeople for the anti-fracking movement.© Les Stone / GreenpeaceAs with any industrial process used for the first time on such a massive scale, there have been many unpredicted negative consequences. One such unintended byproduct is earthquakes, which have been caused by the underground disposal of fracking wastewater. Earthquakes in Colorado, Oklahoma, Ohio and Arkansas the past few years have all been tied to fracking wastewater injection wells.Due to the backlash from nearby residents and local governments over the illegal dumping of contaminated frack fluid, many companies now inject unwanted leftover frack fluid into underground disposal wells. This practice is common in the western shale plays, where the geology is favorable. In 2012 fracking in the U.S. produced nearly 280 billion gallons of this chemically-laden fluid and the EPA reports there are over 155,000 oil and gas wastewater wells active nationwide. Geologists have long associated these deep wells with earthquakes.In Eastern plays, like the Marcellus Shale, the geology does not allow for underground wastewater injection, so fracking wastewater that is not spread on roads or sent to treatment plants is often trucked out of state (e.g. to Ohio) for disposal in licensed commercial underground injection wells – a process which seismologists believe was responsible for an uncharacteristically large number of earthquakes that occurred in the region in 2011. (The injected water lubricates fault lines, causing them to slip.) Fracking wastewater disposal has also been linked to earthquakes in other states, though oil and gas producers are exempt from federal environmental law designed to prevent industrial waste injection wells from triggering earthquakes.Though the industry claims otherwise, the link between fracking and earthquakes has been recognized by EPA since at least 1990, when it recognized fracturing and fluid injection as earthquake triggers and recommended extensive seismic monitoring.(Andrew Nikiforouk, “Fracking and Quaking: They’re Linked: And scientists, the military, and frackers themselves have known it for years,” The Tyee (B.C.) 11/18/20111967 to 2000, there were 21 earthquakes above magnitude 3.0 on average per year on Oklahoma. Since 2010, the start of the fracking boom, Oklahoma has averaged over 300 earthquakes over 3.0 magnitude.Youngstown, Ohio provides a similar example. Prior to 2011, Youngstown, population 65,405, had never experienced an earthquake, at least not since records were first kept by Europeans who settled the region in 1776. Nonetheless, this lack of seismic activity changed dramatically when the area recorded 100+ tremors over the course of 2011, including a 3.9 quake that shook the town on New Year’s Eve. Those earthquakes, according to a study by Won-Young Kim of Columbia University, published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, were the result of a pesky injection well known as Northstar 1.“Earthquakes were triggered by fluid injection shortly after the injection initiated – less than two weeks,” Dr. Won-Young Kim told LiveScience. (Frack, Rattle and Roll, Joshua Frank)Fracking’s Environmental Impacts: Recycled FluidThe fracking industry sometimes points to recycling as a way of dealing with the huge amounts of toxic wastewater that fracking creates. However, fracking wastewater "recycling" does not return water to potability and is not occurring on a meaningful scale.Hydraulic fracturing well near property reported to be contaminated in 2011 by fluids used in the hydraulic fracturing drilling process. Chesapeake Energy told the residents that the water is good, but the home owner disputes that assessment, stating that the water is orange and all his trees are dead and or dying. The well has since been shut down.© Les Stone / GreenpeaceThe fracking industry sometimes points to recycling as a way of dealing with the huge amounts of toxic wastewater that fracking creates. However, fracking wastewater “recycling” does not return water to potability and is not occurring on a meaningful scale.Photo of trucks storing frackwater in Pennsylvania, courtesy of Skytruth.However, the high concentrations of dissolved salts, frack chemicals, and formation minerals found in flowback and produced water make it difficult to re-use, even as frack fluid. Therefore the water has to be treated before it is reused, an expensive process that rarely returns it to standards of cleanliness found in fresh water. As Larry Ryan, global manager for water treatment at Halliburton admits, “The goal is to reuse waste water, not to use the technology to make potable or drinking water.”Thus, even when it is recycled, the water used for fracking must be disposed of. “No one wants to admit it, but at some point, even with reuse of this water, you have to confront the disposal question,” a water management industry executive told the New York Times.Because it is usually cheaper and easier to acquire fresh water, the oil and gas industry only recycles a small portion of fracking fluid. As one industry survey concluded, “the costs and logistics of managing both fresh and flowback water in shale gas plays are problematic,” and the viability of new recycling technologies depends upon a variety of factors, including regulations, the availability of both water and waste disposal capacity. (Patrick Horner et al., “Shale Gas Water Treatment Value Chain – A Review of Technologies, including Case Studies,” SPE, 30 October-2 November 2011, Denver, Colorado)The New York Times found that of a total 680 million gallons of wastewater produced in the Marcellus shale in a year and a half period ending in December of 2012, well operators reported recycling 320 million gallons. However, the remaining 360 million gallons of wastewater were sent to treatment plants that discharge their treated water in to rivers. According to the New York Times, “Those 260 million gallons would fill more than 28,800 tanker trucks, a line of which would stretch from about New York City to Richmond, Va.”Agricultural Use in CaliforniaWastewater from oil and gas production is used for agricultural irrigation in California. Water from oil and gas extraction is filtered, mixed with fresh water and sold to farmers. Chevron, one of the largest producers of wastewater in California, sells up to 21 million gallons of treated oil and gas wastewater to farmers every day.As the Los Angeles Times revealed in 2015, “no one knows whether nuts, citrus or other crops grown with the recycled oil field water have been contaminated.” Elevated levels of chemicals toxic to humans have been found in treated water used for irrigation.The program that monitors the use of wastewater in agriculture is more than 20 years old, and only recently began checking for fracking chemicals.Fracking’s Environmental Impacts: WaterThe hydraulic fracturing process poses multiple threats to water supplies.Jessica, Justin, and Joshua Ely hold bottles of water at their house in Dimock. The one at center, is contaminated water from their tap.© Les Stone / GreenpeaceIn order to frack, an enormous amount of water is mixed with various toxic chemical compounds to create frack fluid. This frack fluid is further contaminated by the heavy metals and radioactive elements that exist naturally in the shale. A significant portion of the frack fluid returns to the surface, where it can spill or be dumped into rivers and streams. Underground water supplies can also be contaminated by fracking, through migration of gas and frack fluid underground.Water UseIn order to hydraulically fracture shale and extract the hydrocarbons, large quantities of water and chemicals must be injected underground. Thus fracking can pose a threat to local water resources, especially in areas where water is already scarce like the Barnett shale in Texas. In the Marcellus Shale region, the most expansive shale play in the United States, 2 to 10 million gallons of water are needed every time a well is fractured. Because wells can be fractured multiple times, the total amount of water used for fracking is unknown and can vary by location and technology. In western states like Texas and Colorado, over 3.6 million gallons are needed per fracture. In 2010, the U.S. EPA estimated that 70 to 140 billion gallons of water were used to fracture just 35,000 wells in the United States, more than was used by the city of Denver, Colorado in the same time period. As of 2012, the fracking industry has drilled around 1.2 million wells, and is slated to add at least 35,000 new wells every year. (Jeff Goodell, “The Big Fracking Bubble: The Scam Behind the Gas Boom,” Rolling Stone 3/12/12 )Because of the cost to truck water in from further away, companies prefer to use water from sources as close to the well as possible, which can result in significant impacts on local waterways and overburden local water treatment facilities. In Texas, which is suffering dangerous drought conditions, fracking continues even as water use by citizens is restricted, the landscape wilts and the animal life dies. In 2011 the Wall Street Journal reported that the diversion of water for fracking oil and gas wells is also a serious threat to ranchers and other businesses in Texas. (Russell Gold and Ana Campoy, “Oil’s Growing Thirst for Water,” Wall Street Journal, 12/6/2011)Storage ImpactsBecause of the tremendous amount of water needed for hydraulic fracturing, fresh water must be acquired, transported, and stored for every well pad. To manage the massive amounts of water necessary for the hydraulic fracturing process, drillers build large open air pits called impoundments next to the well pads, to store the water before it is used and after it returns to the surface.There are two types of impoundments, those that hold drilling waste, used while drilling the well bore, and impoundments for the fracking fluid. The frack fluid pits are larger and contain toxic fracking fluid. These open pits have been linked to animal deaths and health effects in humans.In Texas, which has few laws regarding wastewater disposal, there is no requirement to line the pits to prevent seepage.Fracking Fluids: A Toxic BrewDuring the hydraulic fracturing of a well, water is mixed with various chemicals to make a toxic brew called frack fluid. Until recently, neither the federal nor state governments required drilling companies to disclose the ingredients used in frack fluids. Some states have begun to require that companies disclose the chemicals they use, but even in such cases, companies can withhold some chemical names under trade secret exemptions. As a result, a comprehensive list of chemicals used in the fracking process does not exist. Some states have begun to require that companies disclose the chemicals they use, but even in such cases, confidential business information claims result in only partial disclosures. Corporations involved in fracking, like ExxonMobil, have inserted loopholes in drilling legislation that allow them to keep various chemicals used in the fracking process secret.Some companies have disclosed the contents of their frack fluid in response to community concerns and congressional pressure. In April 2011, an industry group known as the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission launched www.fracfocus.org, a web-based disclosure database for wells drilled after 2010. In addition, a Congressional investigation found that between 2005 and 2009 oil and gas service companies used 29 different chemicals in their fracking fluid known to cause cancer or other health risks. (House Energy and Commerce Committee, “Chemicals Used in Hydraulic Fracturing,” April, 2011)Gas companies routinely claim that frack fluid is harmless because the concentration of chemical additives is low, about two percent. But just 2% of the billions of gallons of frack fluid created by gas drillers measures up to the use of hundreds of tons of toxic chemicals. A 2011 report to Congress estimated that from 2005 to 2009, 14 leading fracking companies used (before mixing with water) 780 million gallons of 750 different chemicals. (House Energy and Commerce Committee, Minority Staff Report, “Chemicals Used in Hydraulic Fracturing,” April, 2011)Drilling wastewater is so poisonous, when a gas company that legally doused a patch of West Virginia forest with salty wastewater from a drilling operation, it killed ground vegetation within days and more than half the trees within two years. Wastewater from fracking has also been linked to livestock and family pet deaths across the country.Moreover, many chemicals used in fracking have been documented to have deleterious health effects at small levels of exposure.Some of the chemicals that comprise frack fluid are highly toxic and cancer causing, like Benzene, Toluene, 2-butoxyethanol (a main ingredient to anti-freeze and oil dispersants), and heavy metals.The Endocrine Disruptor Exchange (TEDX) identified 353 chemicals used in fracking, many of which can cause cancer and other serious health, even in small doses.Once the frack fluid mixture is injected into the ground it can also pick up or entrain further contaminants, like radium, a cancer-causing radioactive particle found deep within the Marcellus and other shales. Radium has a half life of over 1,000 years and is produced from Uranium, which has a much longer half life. Because Radium is water soluble, all frack fluid used in the Marcellus Shalebecomes radioactive to some degree.Contamination of Water Wells and Gas MigrationOne of the gravest threats posed by fracking is the contamination of drinking water wells, vital sources of water for many rural communities. Though the industry has attempted to obscure evidence of well water contamination by fracking, multiple instances have come to light.In Pennsylvania, Colorado, Ohio and Wyoming, fracking has been linked to drinking water contamination and property damage. (See Propublica’s series of reports on fracking)A Duke study examining 60 sites in New York and Pennsylvania found “systematic evidence for methane contamination” in household drinking water. Water wells half a mile from drilling operations were contaminated by methane at 17 times the rate of those farther from gas developments. Although methane in water has not been studied closely as a health hazard, it can seep into houses and build up to explosive levels.In December 2011, US EPA released a 121-page draft report linking the contamination of drinking water wells near the town of Pavillion, Wyoming to nearby gas drilling.An investigation by ProPublica found that years after their wells were contaminated by nearby fracking operations, EPA began to supply water to residents of Dimock, Pennsylvania.In New York, claims have already been filed against the Anschutz Exploration Corporation and its subcontractors on behalf of nine families for the contamination of their drinking waterdue to natural gas exploration and drilling.A scene in “Gasland,” a documentary in which a homeowner was able to light the water flowing out of his kitchen tap, made many people aware of the dangers of fracking. Scientific American also published a ProPublica investigation that found “a string of documented cases of gas escaping into drinking water – in Pennsylvania and other states.”A 1987 report concluded that hydraulic fracturing fluids or gel used by the Kaiser Exploration and Mining Company contaminated a well roughly 600 feet away on the property of James Parsons in Jackson County, http://W.Va.In spite of the evidence, the oil and gas industry routinely claims that fracking has never resulted in water contamination.How Fracking ContaminatesGroundwater becomes contaminated by hydraulic fracturing in a number of ways, including leakage from liquid storage areas, leakage from injection wells, leakage during hydrofracking along faults or up abandoned wells, seepage into the ground when wastewater and residuals are applied to land (i.e. used for irrigation or on roads for dust suppression or de-icing), and other means. (US EPA, Science Advisory Board, Hydraulic Fracturing Review Panel, report to Lisa P. Jackson, August 4, 2011).The cement casing which rings the well bore and goes through underground aquifers is meant to act as a barrier between underground water and the shaft through which frack fluid and gas flow. But the casing can fail or break during the fracturing process, allowing the frack fluid or naturally-occurring contaminants to contaminate groundwater. When that happens, frack fluid and methane can leak from the well bore directly into the water supply, causing dangerous gas buildups, and making water unfit to drink. (Abrahm Lustgarten and ProPublica, “Drill for Natural Gas, Pollute Water,” Scientific American, 11/17/2008)Even if the cement casings hold, gas can travel up from the shale layer to the water table. When gas travels through fractures in the rock layer above the shale and in to water supplies, it is called gas migration. (Abrahm Lustgarten and ProPublica, “Does Natural Gas Make Water Burn?” Scientific American, 4/27/09)It is common for wells to lose pressure during the fracking stage, which indicates that the frack fluid is not contained within the well and is seeping into some place the drillers did not anticipate. There has not been enough study of this phenomenon, even though drillers indicate it happens on a frequent basis.Frack Fluid DisposalDisposal of the toxic and sometimes radioactive frack fluid is a major logistical problem for fracking companies. When a well is hydraulically fractured, somewhere between 18 and 80 percent of the frack fluid injected into the well will return to the surface. This water, called “flowback” is heavily contaminated by the chemical mixtures that comprise the frack fluid, as well as dissolved salts and heavy metals from deep within the earth. Estimates from the industry indicate that drillers in Pennsylvania created approximately 19 million gallons of this wastewater per day in 2011. The Susquehanna River Basin Commission estimates 20 million gallons per day (MGD) for that same timeframe. (“Permitting Strategy for High Total Dissolved Solids Wastewater Discharges,”4/11/2009)There is currently no comprehensive set of national standards for the disposal of fracking wastewater.(see “Halliburton Loophole”).The presence of certain contaminants commonly found in fracking wastewater — including bromide (which can create toxic by-products) and radionuclides, as well as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) like salts (for which conventional wastewater treatment is largely ineffective) — are of major concern not only because of the potential impacts on rivers, streams and groundwater, but also for downstream water treatment plants, where conventional treatment technologies are not equipped to deal with such contaminants. According to US EPA, “only a limited number of Publicly Owned Treatment Plants (POTWs) have the ancillary treatment technologies needed to remove the constituents in hydraulic fracturing return waters.” (US EPA, Science Advisory Board, Hydraulic Fracturing Review Panel, report to Lisa P. Jackson, August 4, 2011).Because of lax regulation, fracking companies commonly dispose of contaminated fracking water in the cheapest, easiest ways they can find, regardless of the consequences for communities, water treatment facilities, and the environment. This has led to abuses of waterways and communities close to frack sites.The New York Times reported that in Pennsylvania, wastewater contaminated with radium and other carcinogens was dumped upstream from the intake pipe of a drinking water plant. (Ian Urbina,“Regulation Lax as Gas Wells’ Tainted Water Hits Rivers,” New York Times, 2/26/2011)Fracking in Wyoming. Photo by EcoFlight, courtesy of SkyTruthOften, wastewater is stored in large evaporation pits, which can off-gas volatile chemicals. Off-gassing is the evaporation of volatile chemicals at normal atmospheric pressure. In 2008, scientists recorded high levels of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from gas production operations in Colorado, and high levels of wintertime ozone pollution have been linked to oil and gas operations in Wyoming and Utah. (Guyathri Vaidyanathan, “Colo. Plan goes after haze tied to oil and gas operations,” E&E Reporter, 3/12/2012; Mark Jaffe, “Like Wyoming, Utah finds high level of wintertime ozone pollution near oil, gas wells,” Denver Post, 2/26/2012)The solid waste left over from evaporation pits and land application is treated as ordinary solid waste and exempt from many federal and state regulations, though it can contain toxic residue from the frack fluid. (Ian Urbina, “Recycling of fracking wastewater is no cure-all,” New York Times, 2/2/2011) Drillers are permitted to apply fracking wastewater residues to roads for de-icing and dust suppression in states like Pennsylvania and New York, and allowed to spray it into the air over tracks of land used for agriculture in Texas.EPA’s Study of Hydraulic Fracturing Impacts on GroundwaterIn 2015, a Greenpeace investigation found that the shale industry had undue influence on EPA’s study of fracking’s impact on groundwater.Read more from Inside Climate and Desmog Blog.Fracking: Predatory CompaniesAn inherently dangerous process, fracking is made worse by irresponsible oil and gas companiesAs gas drilling spreads across the country, community concerns and uncertainties about the safety of drilling and fracking have been met by aggressive and disingenuous attacks by the gas industry.A sign outside Craig and Julie Sautner's home in Dimock. They are suing Cabot Oil & Gas Corp., claiming the energy company's hydraulic fracturing operation near their home contaminated their well in 2008. They have become spokespeople for the anti-fracking movement.© Les Stone / GreenpeaceIn response to criticism from the public and media, gas companies have repeatedly lied about the dangers posed by hydraulic fracturing and have worked hard to obscure the externalities of the fracking process.Watch this video by director Josh Fox, which chronicles the fracking industry’s disingenuous behavior:One of the most common fallacies spread by the gas industry is that there has never been a case of groundwater contamination by hydraulic fracturing. This claim is repeated over and over again by gas corporations and their front groups. In reality, many wells have been contaminated at some stage of the drilling process. In addition the companies require landowners to sign non-disclosure agreements when settling claims while prevailing upon courts to seal case records—a practice that the EPA documented as early as the 1980s.For more information, see the “Drilling Doublespeak” report by the Environmental Working Group.Eroded Regulations and Government ProtectionsCurrently, there are no national standards that regulate proper disposal of fracking wastewater. This climate of impunity is a direct result of the fracking industry’s political clout and lobbying efforts. Shale companies have successfully wielded their formidable political and media power to suppress attempts at regulation, at both the state and federal level. A glaring example of this is the gas industry’s exclusion from the Clean Water Act, called the “Halliburton Loophole.” Created during the Bush administration, the “Halliburton Loophole” is a piece of legislation that exempts the billions of gallons of toxic frack fluid from being regulated as industrial waste.This stifling of regulators’ oversight has endured for over a decade. The gas industry today resists regulation in any form, especially attempts to regulate from the federal level. Instead, frackers prefer ineffectual regulation at the state level where regulators and politicians are underfunded and beholden to industry promises of donations and jobs. Pennsylvania is a prime example of this, where Governor Tom Corbett overturned a moratorium on fracking in state forests and “put a leash” on fracking regulators, all while accepting upwards of $1.6 million in donations from fracking interests.Compounding the difficulties of underfunding, a Greenwire investigation found that 40% of State drilling regulators have ties to the gas industry. This atmosphere of compromised regulation and enforcement has greatly benefited the industry: In Texas, 96% of the 80,000 violations by oil and gas drillers in 2009 resulted in no enforcement action.West Virginia issued 19 penalties and has 56,000 wells.Even when gas companies are properly investigated and convicted of breaking laws, the fines can beso small that the gas industry has little incentive to change its behavior. When Chesapeake energy was fined $900,000 (the largest such fine in history) for water contamination in Pennsylvania, the penalty represented less than three hours of profits for the company, which made a $2.8 billion profit last year. (Mike Sorhgahan, “Puny fines, scant enforcement leave drilling violators with little to fear” E&E News)Influencing Fracking StudiesAnother way the gas industry has attempted to blunt criticism and control the public debate is byinfluencing the study of gas impacts. Funding studies that obscure the industry’s role in water contamination allow fracking companies to claim that there are no conclusive links between drilling and groundwater contamination.Such is the case in Colorado, where community members found methane bubbling from creeks near a gas development by the company Encana. In lieu of paying a fine, the company convinced the regulatory agency in Colorado to let it fund a study of the impacts of gas drilling in the area. Tellingly, the study never posed the question of whether the company was responsible for any contamination and failed to draw any conclusions, a standard component of any scientific report. A subsequent study of the area, on the cusp of proving a definitive link between fracking and methane contamination of the aquifer, “evaporated into thin air” according to a regulator involved with study (who was fired shortly before the study should have been released).Gas companies also provide a significant amount of funding for university studies.Front GroupsIndustry-funded front groups use studies funded by the companies themselves to promote biased policy and bolster sophisticated PR campaigns designed to undermine fracking regulations. Well-funded groups like the America Natural Gas Alliance or ANGA (founded and funded in part by Chesapeake CEO Aubrey McClendon), and Energy in Depth (funded by a consortium of oil and gas companies) are two such industry front groups.These groups attack journalists and activists that raise concerns about fracking. Journalists such as the New York Times’ Ian Urbina have been subjected to scathing personal and professional attacks by the gas industry. ANGA created a website attacking Josh Fox, the creator of the movie “Gasland,” and advertised the site on google. ANGA hired Hill and Kowlton, a PR firm that was paid by the tobacco industry to disbute the health effects of tobacco smoke to run its pro-fracking advertising campaign.Fracking Industry’s Use of “Psy-Ops”As the truth about the dangers of fracking has become better known, the gas industry has become even more aggressive in its approach to community relations. At an industry conference in 2012, a gas executive was recorded recommending the use of the Army and Marine Corps counterinsurgency manual as a tool for dealing with recalcitrant land owners. The executive recommended treating community opposition to the gas industry like an “insurgency.”At the same conference, another gas industry executive told attendees that his company has several former military psychological operations, or “psy ops” specialists on staff, applying their skills on communities in Pennsylvania.Lying to LandownersThe fact that gas corporations are using military tactics against American citizens underlines the predacious ways that gas companies have treated the people who live on top of shale plays. The irresponsible behavior of gas companies can also be seen in the way they cheat landowners into signing oil and gas leases. In order to secure the right to drill on private property, gas companies must convince the landowner to sign a lease, allowing gas development. In order to lock people into leases favorable to the drillers, gas companies have resorted to manipulative and disingenuous tactics, such as downplaying the footprint of gas drilling. An investigation by the New York Times investigators that analyzed over 11,000 gas leases found that drilling companies rarely explain to landowners the potential environmental and other risks that federal laws require them to disclose in filings to investors.The investigation also found that fewer than half the leases require companies to compensate landowners for water contamination after drilling begins. Furthermore, two-thirds of the leases allow gas companies to extend the length of the lease without additional approval from landowners.Communities faced with proposed drilling projects are encouraged to talk to organizations that have addressed these issued and communities that have succeeded in resisting the industry. A good guide for landowners is Oil and Gas at Your Door? A Landowner’s Guide to Oil and Gas Development published by Earthworks’ Oil and Gas Accountability Project.Fracking: Regulatory Failures and DelaysSince the natural gas boom began in 2000, U.S. regulation of fracking has largely been left to state governments, the result of both lax enforcement and the industry’s resistance to even basic federal oversight. The major federal environmental laws regulating hazardous waste, air pollution and water pollution all have significant loopholes and exemptions for fracking and other oil and gas operations.Ray Kemble of Dimock holds a jug of contaminated water in front of his house with the billboards and banners he has put posted condemning hydraulic fracturing gas drilling operations near homes.© Les Stone / GreenpeaceU.S. oil and gas producers bring to the surface 60 million barrels per day of wastewater laced with hazardous chemicals and other constituents, including salt in concentrations up to 20 times as high as seawater. Yet the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) – which gives EPA authority to control hazardous waste from “cradle-to-grave” (including generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste)—specifically exempts oil and gas exploration activities, a loophole created by Congress when it first passed RCRA.U.S. EPA proposed new air pollution standards for oil and gas production. Public meetings on the rule were held in CO, PA and TX. Although the new source (NSPS) rules would apply to new fracking operations, as drafted the rules would exempt nearly 500,000 wells already in operation.EPA does not regulate hydraulic fracturing under its groundwater protection laws (Safe Drinking Water Act) because of an amendment to the 2005 Energy Policy Act, commonly known as the “Halliburton Loophole.” This loophole is named after the largest oil and gas services company in the country, whose chairman and CEO was Dick Cheney before he became Vice President of the United States. The legislation protects companies like Halliburton from regulations that would require it to disclose the chemicals they inject underground. (For more information see Earthworks, “The Halliburton Loophole”)After leaving office, Benjamin Grumbles, the EPA administrator in charge of water quality issues during the Bush administration (i.e. when the loophole was created), told ProPublica that the loophole went too far and that a preliminary study done by the EPA should not have been used to deregulate the practice of hydrofracking. In part because of an ensuing backlash, EPA’s Office of Research and Development began a study of fracking impacts on drinking water, which is expected to be completed in 2014.The 2005 Act exempted hydraulic fracturing from the SDWA except when diesel fuel is used. Yet a Congressional investigation found that between 2005 and 2009 fracking companies injected 32 million gallons of diesel or diesel-laced fluids in 19 different states and did not obtain the required permits under the SDWA, an apparent violation of the law. (see Letter from U.S. Reps. Henry A. Waxman, Edward J. Markey, and Diana DeGette to Lisa Jackson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Administrator (Jan. 31, 2011)). In response to the investigation, the industry did not deny that companies had injected diesel without the required permits. Instead, the industry said that it could not comply with the law because the Environmental Protection Agency had never issued regulations to implement the measure. The EPA recently issued guidance for enforcing this provision, yet the law is clear. It says that companies may not inject diesel in hydraulic fracturing operations without a permit. But there is no evidence that the EPA has even investigated these apparent violations.Prompted by high-profile news reports and ongoing citizen concerns, in 2011 President Obama asked Energy Secretary Chu to examine the health and environmental impacts of fracking. After three months, the Secretary of Energy Advisory Board’s Subcommittee on Natural Gas released a set of recommendations highlighting four areas of concern from shale gas production: possible pollution of drinking water from methane and chemicals; air pollution; disruption of communities; and cumulative impacts on communities and the environment.The report calls for full disclosure of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing, disclosure of wastewater and air emissions, a tracking/manifest system for wastes shipped offsite, and a full analysis of the industry’s impact on climate change. The panel also recommended banning drilling in “unique and sensitive areas,” while urging EPA and other agencies to take swift action to implement all of its recommendations.The panel was silent about the industry’s numerous exemptions under federal law.The advisory panel’s report was issued after more than 100 conservation groups, almost 60 New York state elected officials and 28 scientists released letters drawing attention to the fact that six of the seven members of the panel had current financial ties to the oil and natural gas industry.Months after issuing the interim report, panel members began to backtrack on their own recommendations by telling members of Congress that oversight would be best left to state agencies.Model resolutions that leave regulation of the industry up to the states have been circulated by the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), an industry-funded think tank. ALEC, whose members include ExxonMobil, has also pushed legislation that prevents frackers from having to disclose chemicals that qualify as “trade secrets.”Currently state agencies that regulate fracking are woefully understaffed. A study conducted by the Cleveland Plain Dealer found that a large majority of wells in shale states are not inspected. In Pennslyvania for example, the Department of Environmental Protecton has proved unable to kleeep up with the exponential growth in drilling. In 2009, the DEP inspected 23% of Pennsylvania wells, 24% in 2010 and 35% in 2011. The state had 84 inspectors to examine what grew to 69,000 wells by 2011.See the table below for a breakdown of inspections versus number of wells in key shale states:An investigation conducted by Reuters found that New York regulators were similarly unprepared to handle explosive growth of oil and gas drilling. See McAllister, Edward. “Insight: NY Water at Risk from Lack of Natgas Inspectors?” Reuters, Jul. 29, 2011.Disclosure and the “Frac Act”The Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness of Chemicals Act (FRAC Act) has been introduced by members of Congress to close the “Halliburton Loophole” and restore federal regulatory authority over the industry, but so far, the industry and its powerful allies have prevented Congress from passing the bill.In April 2011, members of the House Energy and Commerce Committee reported that 14 gas drilling service companies used hydraulic fracturing fluids containing 29 cancer-causing chemicals, just months after the committee reported that the same companies illegally injected more than 32 million gallons of diesel fuel into the ground between 2005 and 2009.Draft Bureau of Land Management regulations leaked to Inside Climate News would force companies drilling on federal land to disclose the chemicals they use, but would also allow companies to exemptcertain chemicals or mixtures of compounds that are considered trade secrets.Instead of mandatory disclosure, state and federal regulators, along with industry, promote a voluntary website called “Frac Focus” where oil and gas operators can list fracking chemicals, if they so choose.Pipelines UnregulatedA Government Accountability Office (GAO) report to Congress in March, 2012 says the U.S. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration isn’t regulating or inspecting hundreds of thousands of miles of pipeline used to move natural gas and oil obtained through fracking. Just 24,000 miles of over 240,000 miles of gathering pipelines used to ferry gas and oil to processing facilities and larger pipelines in the major energy-producing states are inspected or subject to regulations that require industry to report property damage, injuries or deaths. Many of these pipelines course through densely populated areas, including neighborhoods in Fort Worth, Texas. (Garance Burke, “Audit: Gas Lines Tied to Fracking Lack Oversight,” AP, 3/23/12)State Fracking Laws and RegulationsWithout tough federal laws and enforcement, the job of protecting communities, landowners and the environment has largely fallen back to state and local agencies. But state laws and regulations are an uneven patchwork and, as Greenwire reports, the laws are weakly enforced and the penalties rarely enough to cause large billion-dollar oil and gas companies to alter their behavior. A 2011 Greenwire review of enforcement data from the largest drilling states found that only a small percentage of violations result in fines, and the fines that were levied “often amount to little more than a rounding error for billion-dollar companies.”Although Inside Climate News reports that nine states have fracking chemical disclosure laws , only one state — Colorado — requires that drillers disclose the names and concentrations of the individual chemicals pumped into each well. Colorado’s rules are expected to go into effect in April, 2012.In June, 2011 ProPublica published a chart comparing five states’ regulatory requirements.

A very, very, silly question. Let’s look at Wikipedia’s list of prominent Muslims in the UK.Actually before we do, let me point out that this is an incredibly long list, it includes politicians, judges, lawyers, authors, journalists, MPs, peers, policemen, military personnel, actors and even fictional Muslim characters on TV, film, stage and book, ( just to show that Muslims play such an important role in UK life that they inevitably get portrayed in the arts too just like everyone else), scientists, and business men. The list is not complete by any means. It includes 9 mayors, not just Sadiq Khan the mayor of London.It does not include all the people who everyday treat our children, teach our children, do our accounts, fix our teeth, drive our planes, ships, taxis, trains and buses, who fix our cars and computers, who just happen to be Muslim too.We in the UK are very proud to have had a Muslim population for so long that there is not a walk of life in which they are not represented, in which Muslims are not playing an I portabt role in maintaining the fabric of our nation. That them being Muslim is not an issue when it comes to them being a useful member of our society.Our healthcare system would just collapse without them for instance.Oh and Muslim children bring yet more joy to our happy laughing schools playgrounds and parks.It is impossible to imagine a UK in the twenty first century without this dynamic, caring community in our midst. We embrace our Muslim brethren. We are all British. First and foremost. Britain is a better place for having lots of Muslims. That diversity is a source strength and hope. That diversity is our future.We have so many important Muslims here in the UK, they win awards, earn medals, deserve praise, get respect. What more do you want? They are integral to the UK, so integral that no one seems to notice and despite that you are concerned about being taken over. Taken over by what? Taken over by all these nice people doing wonderful things just like their fellow Brits who just might happen to be atheist, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, Mormaon, and the indifferent.What happens when people immigrate to Britain is like a magic wand is waved, within a few years or generations, everyone is thoroughly British. All you need to be able to do, to be British, is have a laugh. Once you start laughing at daft jokes you have passed the test.So the only people who are ever going to take over the UK are the ones who tell the best jokes.Here is the list at long last, and it is long, don't say I didn’t warn youAcademia and educationEditAli Ansari – university professor at the University of St Andrews[1]Abbas Edalat – university professor at Imperial College London[2]Ali Mobasheri – associate professor and reader at UniversityAsh Amin – Head of Geography at Cambridge University[3]Tipu Zahed Aziz – professor of neurosurgery at the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford; lecturer at Magdalen College, Oxford and Imperial College London medical school[4]Azra Meadows OBE – honorary lecturer in the Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences at The University of Glasgow[5]Dilwar Hussain – research fellow at The Islamic Foundation in Leicester; co-authored the 2004 book British Muslims Between Assimilation and Segregation; is on the Home Office's committee tackling radicalisation and extremism[6]Ehsan Masood – science writer, journalist and broadcaster; editor of Research Fortnight and Research Europe;[7] teaches International Science Policy at Imperial College London[8]Haroon Ahmed – Emeritus Professor of Microelectronics at the Cavendish Laboratory, the Physics Department of the University of Cambridge[9]Ghayasuddin Siddiqui – academic and political activist[10]Ghulam Sarwar – Director of the Muslim Educational Trust;[11] writer on Islam in English, wrote the first English textbook, Islam: Beliefs and Teachings, for madrasah students in Britain, which is used worldwide in religious education classes, especially in British schools[12]Jawed Siddiqi – professor emeritus of software engineering at Sheffield Hallam University and political activist[13]Kalbe Razi Naqvi – British Pakistani physicist, who has been ordinarily resident in Norway since 1977, working as a professor of biophysics in the Norwegian University of Science and Technology[14]Khizar Humayun Ansari – academic who was awarded an OBE in 2002 for his work in the field of race and ethnic relations.[15]Mohammed Ghanbari – professor at the University of Essex[16]Mohammad Hashem Pesaran – academic, economist, professor of economics at Cambridge University, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge[17]Mona Siddiqui – University of Edinburgh's Professor of Islamic Studies and Public Understanding; regular contributor to BBC Radio 4, The Times, Scotsman, The Guardian, and The Herald[18]Reza Banakar – professor of socio-legal studies at the University of Westminster, LondonSaeed Vaseghi – professor at Brunel University[19]Salman Sayyid – Professor of Social Theory and Decolonial Thought at the University of Leeds[20]Sara Ahmed – Professor of Race and Cultural Studies at Goldsmiths[21] and academic working at the intersection of feminist theory, queer theory, critical race theory and postcolonialismTariq Modood – Professor of Sociology, Politics and Public Policy at the University of BristolZiauddin Sardar – scholar, writer and cultural critic[22]Business and financeEditAbdul Latif – restaurateur known for his dish "Curry Hell"[23]Afzal Kahn – Bradford-based entrepreneur; owns a specialist car design company; broke records in 2008 for paying £440,000 for a distinctive "F1" number plate;[24] previously showed an interest in purchasing Newcastle football club[25]Aktar Islam – restaurateur, curry chef and businessman;[26] in 2010, his restaurant Lasan won the Best Local Restaurant category on Channel 4's The F Word;[27] in 2011, Islam won the Central regional heat to reach the final of the BBC Two series Great British Menu[28][29]Ali Parsa – former chief executive officer of private healthcare partnership Circle[30]Alireza Sagharchi – principal at Stanhope Gate Architecture[31]Aneel Mussarat – property millionaire; his company, MCR Property Group, rents apartments to university students in Manchester and Liverpool[32]Sir Anwar Pervez – Pakistan-born businessman; 6th richest Asian in Great Britain and the richest Muslim; founder of the Bestway Group[33]Asim Siddiqui – chairman and a founding trustee of The City Circle[34]Atique Choudhury – restaurateur;[35] his restaurant Yum Yum won Best Thai Restaurant in London at the 2012 Asian Curry Awards[36]Bajloor Rashid MBE – businessman and former president of the Bangladesh Caterers Association[37][38]Enam Ali MBE – restaurateur; founder of the British Curry Awards and Spice Business Magazine[39]Farad Azima – industrialist, inventor and philanthropist[40]Farhad Moshiri – energy investor; part owner of Arsenal F.C.[41]Farshid Moussavi – founder of Foreign Office Architects[42]Gulam Noon, Baron Noon – founder of Noon products, manufacturing chilled and frozen ready meals[43]Husna Ahmad – Bangladeshi-born British humanitarian; chief executive officer of the Faith Regen Foundation; sits on the Advisory Board to the East London Mosque;[44][45] previously sat on the Department for Work and Pensions' Ethnic Minority Advisory Group[46]Iqbal Ahmed OBE – entrepreneur, chairman and chief executive of Seamark Group'; made his fortune in shrimp; the highest British Bangladeshito feature on the Sunday Times Rich List (placed at number 511 in 2006)[47]Iqbal Wahhab OBE – entrepreneur, restaurateur, journalist, publisher; founder of Tandoori Magazineand multi-award-winning restaurant Cinnamon Club[48]James Caan – businessman and entrepreneur; formerly a part of Dragons' Den [49]Javed Ahmed – chief executive of Tate & Lyleplc,[50] – a FTSE 250 company which is one of Britain's oldest brands;[51]Kaveh Alamouti – head of Global Macro Citadel LLC; chief executive officer of Citadel Asset Management Europe[52]Mahmoud Khayami, KSS – industrialist; founder of Iran Khodro[53]Mo Chaudry – born in Pakistan, he was raised in England and went on to become a millionaire businessman in the West MidlandsMohammad Ajman 'Tommy Miah' – internationally renowned celebrity chef, award-winning restaurateur,[54][55] founder and promoter of the Indian Chef of the Year Competition[56]Moorad Choudhry – managing director, Head of Business Treasury, Global Banking & Markets at Royal Bank of Scotland plc[57]Mumtaz Khan Akbar – founder and owner of the Mumtaz brand[58]Muquim Ahmed – entrepreneur; became the first Bangladeshi millionaire at the age of 26,[59] due to diversification in banking, travel, a chain of restaurants with the Cafe Naz group, publishing and property development[60]Naguib Kheraj – vice-chairman of Barclays Bank;[61] former boss of JP Morgan Cazenove[62]Chairman of the Aga Khan Foundation based in KarachiNasser Golzari – principal at Golzari (NG) Architects[63]Leepu Nizamuddin Awlia – car engineer and coachbuilder who converts rusty old cars into imitation supercars in a workshop on Discovery Channel reality television programme Bangla Bangers/Chop Shop: London Garage[64]Ragib Ali – industrialist, pioneer tea-planter, educationalist, philanthropist, and banker[65]Ruzwana Bashir – British businesswoman, founder and CEO of Book Amazing Activities, Tours, and more | Peek, travel company based in San Francisco, California[66]Shelim Hussain MBE – entrepreneur, founder and managing director ofEuro Foods (UK) Limited[67]Siraj Ali – restaurateur and philanthropist;[68]recipient of the 2011 British Bangladeshi Who's Who "Outstanding Contribution" Award[69]Sultan Choudhury – businessman; managing director of the Islamic Bank of Britain[70]Syed Ahmed – entrepreneur, businessman, and television personality; candidate on BBC reality television programme The Apprentice series two in 2006[71]Tahir Mohsan – founder of Time Computers, Supanet, Tpad; manages several investment companies from his base in Dubai[72]Wali Tasar Uddin MBE – entrepreneur, restaurateur, community leader, and chairman of the Bangladesh-British Chamber of Commerce[73][74]Waliur Rahman Bhuiyan OBE – managing director and Country Head of BOC Bangladesh Limited, one of the first British companies to invest in Bangladesh in the 1950s to produce and supply industrial and medical gases[75]Zameer Choudrey – Chief Executive of BestwayGroup[76]EntertainmentEditAbdullah Afzal – actor and stand-up comedian[77]Adnan Sami – singer, musician, pianist,[78][79] actor and composer[80][81]Afshan Azad – actress best known for playing the role of Padma Patil in the Harry Potter film series[82]Ahmad Hussain – singer-songwriter, executive, producer and founder and Managing Director of IQRA Promotions[83][83]Ahsan Khan – film and television actor, host and performer[84]Ahmed Salim – award-winning British producer, known for 1001 Inventions[85]Akram Khan MBE – dancer and choreographer;[86]named Outstanding Newcomer 2000, Best Modern Choreography 2002, and Outstanding Male or Female Artist (Modern) 2005 at the Critics' CircleNational Dance Awards[87]Alyy Khan – film and television actor and host[88]Ali Shahalom – comedian who hosts the comedy YouTube channel Aliofficial1[89]Annie Khalid – English-Pakistani musician and model[90]Aqib Khan – actor; played Sajid Khan in the movie West is West[91]Art Malik – Pakistani-born British actor who achieved fame in the 1980s through his starring and subsidiary roles in assorted British and Merchant-Ivory television serials and films[92]Ayub Khan-Din – actor and playwrightAziz Ibrahim – musician best known for his work as guitarist with Simply Red, The Stone Roses(post-John Squire)[93]Babar Ahmed – British/American writer/director of Pashtun and Pakistani descent; according to the BBC[94]Babar Bhatti – actor; played Punkah Wallah Rumzan in the BBC sitcom It Ain't Half Hot Mum, his first role[95]Badi Uzzaman – television and film actor[96]Bilal Shahid – singer and rapper[97]Boyan Uddin Chowdhury – former lead guitarist of rock band The Zutons[98]Delwar Hussain – writer, anthropologist and correspondent for The Guardian; in 2013, published his first book, Boundaries Undermined: The Ruins of Progress on the Bangladesh-India Border[99]Dino Shafeek – actor and comedian who starred in several sitcoms during the 1970s and early 80s; played Char Wallah Muhammed in It Ain't Half Hot Mum and Ali Nadim in Mind Your Language[100]Eenasul Fateh (Aladin) – cultural practitioner, magician and live artist; named International Magician of the Year in 1991; winner of the 1997 Golden Turban Award from the Magic Academy of Bangalore in India[101]Hannan Majid – documentary filmmaker whose films have been exhibited at international film festivals including Emirates, Cambridge, Durban, and Leeds[102]Jamil Dehlavi – London-based independent film director and producer of Pakistani-French origin.[103]Farook Shamsher – alternative dub/dance music DJ and record producer; received the Commitment to Scene award at the UK Asian Music Awards2006[104]Hadi Khorsandi – comedian[105]Hajaz Akram – British Pakistani actor[106]Humza Arshad – actor and comedian; producer of the YouTube series Diary of a Badman[107][108][109]Ian Iqbal Rashid – award-winning poet, screenwriter and film director, known for the series This Life and Leaving Normal, and the feature films Touch of Pink and How She MoveIdris Rahman – clarinettistImran Sarwar – game designer and producer on the Grand Theft Auto series of video games[110]Jan Uddin – actor best known for his roles as Jalil Iqbal in BBC soap opera EastEnders and Sweet Boy in the film Shank[111]Jay Islaam – award-winning stand-up comedian,[112][113] broadcaster[114] and journalist.[115][116][117]Jeff Mirza – stand-up comedian and actor[118]Jernade Miah – singer, songwriter; signed to 2Point9 Records (Doh Point Nau); won Best Newcomer at the UK Asian Music Awards2011[119][120]Kamal Uddin – Nasheed singer, songwriter,[121]imam, and teacher[122]Kaniz Ali – makeup artist and freelance beauty columnist;[123] named Best Make-Up Artist at the 2011International Asian Fashion Awards[124]Kayvan Novak – actor; star of Fonejacker[125]Kishon Khan – pianist and bandleader of Lokkhi TerraKatrina Kaif – Model, Film-actressLucy Rahman – singer[126]Mani Liaqat – Manchester-based British Asianactor and comedian, known for his bizarre rants, portly figure, witty voice and mixture of Punjabi/Urdu/Hindi and British everyday-humour[127]Munsur Ali – film producer, screenwriter and director; in 2014, he wrote, directed and produced Shongram, a romantic drama set during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War;[128] first time a British film was simultaneously written, produced and directed by a British Bangladeshi[129]Mazhar Munir – television and film actor; before co-starring in the 2005 movie Syriana, he appeared in three British television shows: The Bill, Mile High, and DoctorsMenhaj Huda – film and television director, producer and screenwriter; directed and produced Kidulthood in 2006[130]Mina Anwar – British actress; played Police Constable Maggie Habib in the sitcom The Thin Blue Line[131]Mo Ali – Somali-British film director[132]Mohammed Ali – street artist; combined street artwith Islamic script and patterns, as "Aerosol Arabic";[133][134] in January 2009, he won Arts Council England's diversity award[135]Muhammad Mumith Ahmed (Mumzy Stranger) – R&B and hip-hop singer, songwriter; first musician of Bangladeshi descent to release a single, "One More Dance";[136] namedBest Urban Act at the UK Asian Music Awards 2011[137]Murtz – television and radio presenterNabil Abdul Rashid – comedian of NigeriandescentNadine Shah – singer, songwriter and musician[138]Natasha Khan – known by her stage name as "Bat for Lashes"; half Pakistani half English singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalistNaz Ikramullah – British-Canadian artist and film producer of Pakistani origin[139]Nazeel Azami – Nasheed singer-songwriter signed to Awakening Records[140]Nazrin Choudhury – screenwriter; actress in drama serials;[141] her critically acclaimed radio play "Mixed Blood"[142] won the Richard Imison Award2006Prince Abdi – Somali-born British stand-up comedianRani Taj – dhol player dubbed as "Dhol Queen" after her YouTube video went viral[143]Rita Ora – singerRiz Ahmed – actor who played Omar in the movie Four Lions and Changez in The Reluctant FundamentalistRowshanara Moni – singer and actress[144]Ruhul Amin – film director; has made 13 films for the BBC and Channel 4 including 1986 TV feature film drama A Kind of English;[145] most of his works are documentaries and experimental dramas[146]Runa Islam – film and photography visual artist, nominated for the Turner Prize 2008[147][148]Sadia Azmat – stand-up comedian[149]Sanchita Islam – artist, writer and filmmaker;[150] in 1999, she founded Pigment Explosion, which has branched out into projects including film, painting, drawing, writing and photography[151]Sadik Ahmed – film director, cinematographer, and writer;[152] wrote and directed international award-winning short film Tanju Miah, which was the first Bangladeshi film in the Toronto, Sundance, and Amsterdam film festivals in 2007[153]Saifullah 'Sam' Zaman – DJ and producer associated with the Asian Underground movement, recording as "State of Bengal"[154]Sakina Samo – award-winning actress, producer and director[155]Sami Yusuf – musician[156]Sanober Hussain – British Pakistani; became the first UK Miss Pakistan World 2011Shabana Bakhsh – actress who has appeared in soaps such as River City and Doctors[157]Shahid Khan – known as "Naughty Boy"; British-born Pakistani songwriter, record producer and musician[158]Shahin Badar – singer and songwriter, best known for vocals on The Prodigy's single "Smack My Bitch Up", which earned her a Double Platinum award[159]Shefali Chowdhury – actress best known for playing the role of Parvati Patil in the Harry Potterfilm series[160]Shazia Mirza – comedian from Birmingham, England, whose act revolves around her Muslim faith[161]Shehzad Afzal – writer, director, producer and game designer born in Dundee, Scotland[162]Sohini Alam – singer for Lokkhi Terra and Khiyo bandsSophiya Haque – actress, singer and video jockey;[163][164] played Poppy Morales in Coronation Street, 2008–2009[165][166]Suleman Mirza – lead dancer of Signature, runner-up on Britain's Got Talent 2008[167]Suzana Ansar – singer, actress and television presenter based in the UK and Bangladesh; released her debut band album Suzana Ansar with Khansar in 2009[168]Yusuf Islam[169]Zahra Ahmadi – actressZayn Malik – former member of the British-Irish boy band One Direction[170] and is from Bradford[171]Zeekay – singer, songwriter and performer of Pakistani and Afghan descentFictionalEditAnwar Kharral – fictional British Pakistani character in the teenage television series Skins;[172]portrayed by Dev Patel, who is of Gujarati descentFaiza Hussein Excalibre British Pakistani from the Marvel ComicsSaeed Jeffrey British Bangladeshi/English from Eastenders. Among the first Asian, mixed and Muslim characters in EastendersNaima Jeffrey British Bangladeshi from Eastenders. Among the first Asian and Muslim characters.Ali Osman British Turkish Cypriot from Eastenders. Among the first Muslim and West Asian characters in Eastenders.Hassan Osman British Turkish Cypriot from Eastenders. Among the first Muslim and West Asian characters in Eastenders.Mr Khan British Pakistani from Citizen Khan. Portrayed by British Pakistani/Kenyan Muslim Adil RayBadman British Pakistani from Diary of a Badman web series. Portrayed by British Pakistani Muslim Humza ArshadMalik Begum British Bangladeshi from Cornershop show. Portrayed by British Bangladeshi Muslim Islah Abdur-Rahman.The Karim family British Bangladeshi family in Eastenders consisted of Father Ashraf, Mother Sufia, Daughter Shireen and Son Sohail Karim. Related to the Jeffrey family and first full Asian and Muslim family in Eastenders.The Masood/Ahmed family British Pakistani family in Eastenders. Third Asian family and second Muslim family in the show.Masood AhmedZainab MasoodSyed MasoodShabnam MasoodTamwar MasoodKamil MasoodYasmin MasoodAJ AhmedThe Nazir Family British Pakistani family from Coronation Street.Kush Kazemi British Iranian/English. Portrayed by British Iranian Muslim Davood Ghadami. First West Asian and mixed raced Asian character since the Osman family.Shaki Kazemi British Iranian/English. Portrayed by British Iranian/Welsh Shaheen Jafargholi.Tariq Siddiqui from Waterloo Road. Portrayed by British Pakistani Muslim Naveed Chaudhry. One of the first Asian main student in the series.Trudy Siddique from Waterloo Road. One of the first Asian main student in the series.Naseema Siddique from Waterloo Road. Third Asian main student in the series. Abdul Bukhari Pakistani born British raised Asian from Waterloo Road. Portrayed by British Iranian Armin Karima.Shifty British Pakistani from film Shifty portrayed by British Pakistani Muslim Riz Ahmed.Sweetboy British Bangladeshi from film Shank portrayed by British Bangladeshi Muslim Jan Uddin.Journalism and mediaEditSheikh Abdul Qayum – chief imam of the East London Mosque; former lecturer at the international International Islamic University Malaysia; television presenter on Peace TV Banglaand Channel S[173]Sheikh Abdur Rahman Madani Shaheb – writer, khatib of Darul Ummah Mosque, Islamic scholar and TV presenter on Islamic programs on Channel S[174][175]Sheikh Abu Sayed Ansarey – Chairman and Imam of West London Mosque; television presenter on Channel S; lawyer[176][177]A. N. M. Serajur Rahman – journalist, broadcaster, and Bangladeshi nationalist[178]Aasmah Mir – BBC presenter and former columnist for the Sunday Herald[179]Abdul Gaffar Choudhury – writer, journalist, and columnist for Bengali newspapers of Bangladesh; best known for his lyric "Amar Bhaier Rokte Rangano", which has become the main song commemorating the Language MovementAdil Ray – British radio and television presenter, for BBC Asian Network[180]Adnan Nawaz – news and sports presenter for the BBC World Service[181]Ajmal Masroor – television presenter, politician, imam,[182] and UK Parliamentary candidate for Bethnal Green and Bow constituency representing Liberal Democrats in the 2010 general election;[183]television presenter on political and Islamic programmes on Islam Channel and Channel S[184]Ali Abbasi – former Scottish TV presenter[185]Anila Baig – columnist at The Sun[186]Arif Ali – regional product director for the Associated Press news agency in Europe, Middle East and Africa[187]Asad Ahmad – BBC journalist and news presenter[188]Asad Qureshi – filmmaker who was kidnapped on 26 March 2010 by a militant group called the "Asian Tigers" in Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas[189]Azad Ali – IT worker and civil servant for the HM Treasury; Islamic Forum of Europe spokesman; founding chair of the Muslim Safety Forum; vice-chair of Unite Against Fascism[190]Azeem Rafiq – English cricketer[191]Faisal Islam – economics editor and correspondent for Channel 4 News; named 2006 "Young Journalist of the Year" at the Royal Society of Television awards[192]Fareena Alam – editor of British Muslim magazine Q News;[193] named Media Professional of the Year by Islamic Relief in 2005 and at the Asian Women of Achievement Awards in 2006[194]Faris Kermani – film director based in the UK, now head of production company based in London, Crescent Films[195]Hassan Ghani – Scottish[196][197] broadcast journalist and documentary filmmaker, based in LondonJaved Malik – television anchor; publisher of the UAE's first diplomatic magazine, The International Diplomat; Executive Director of the World Forum; served as Pakistan's Ambassador at Large and Special Advisor to The Prime Minister; close friend of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif of PakistanKamran Abbasi – doctor, medical editor, and cricket writer; editor of the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine; acting editor of the British Medical Journal; editor of the bulletin of the World Health Organization[198]Kanak 'Konnie' Huq – television presenter, best known for being the longest-serving female Blue Peter presenter[199][200]Lisa Aziz – news presenter and journalist, best known as the co-presenter of the Bristol-based ITV West Country nightly weekday news programme The West Country Tonight;[201] one of the first Asian presenters to be seen on television;[202] won the Ethnic Multicultural Media Academy Best Television News Journalist Award[203][204]Mary Rahman – press and public relations consultant; director of MRPR[205]Maryam Moshiri – BBC News presenter[206]Mazher Mahmood (also known as the "Fake Sheikh") – often dubbed as "Britain's most notorious undercover reporter"; in a GQ survey was voted as the 45th most powerful man in Britain;[207] the News of the World paid his six-figure salary, plus an editorial and technical support budget [208]Mehdi Hasan – senior politics editor at the New Statesman and a former news and current affairs editor at Channel 4[209]Miqdaad Versi – assistant secretary general of the Muslim Council of Britain, media commentator, and advocate for accurate reporting on Muslims.[210][211]Mishal Husain – anchor for BBC World[212]Muhammad Abdul Bari – Chairman of the East London Mosque; Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain, 2006–2010Nafeez Mosaddeq Ahmed – environment writer for The Guardian,[213] t[214]Nazenin Ansari – journalist, former correspondent for Voice of America's Persian News Network; Iranian analyst for BBC Radio 4, CNN International, Sky News and AljazeeraNazia Mogra – television journalist for BBC North West Tonight news on BBC One[215]Nima Nourizadeh – film director[citation needed]Nina Hossain – journalist, newscaster, and sole presenter of ITV London's regional news programme London Tonight[216]Nurul Islam – broadcast journalist, radio producer, and presenter best remembered for his work with the BBC World Service[217]Osama Saeed – Head of International and Media Relations at the Al Jazeera Media Network[218]Rageh Omaar – Somali-born British journalist and writerReham Khan – journalist and anchor currently working at Dawn News[219]Riz Lateef – news reader and the BBC Deputy News Manager[220]Rizwan Khan – works for Al Jazeera English; has his own show called Riz KhanSadeq Saba – journalist, head of BBC Persianservice[221]Saima Mohsin – British journalist[222]Saira Khan – runner-up on the first series of The Apprentice, and now a TV presenter on BBC's Temper Your Temper and Desi DNA[223]Sarfraz Manzoor – British writer, journalist, documentary maker, and broadcaster; writes regularly for The Guardian; presents documentaries on BBC Radio 4[224]Shaista Aziz – journalist, writer, stand-up comedian, and former international aid worker[225]Shagufta Yaqub – journalist and commentatorShamim Chowdhury – television and print journalist for Al Jazeera English[226]Shereen Nanjiani – radio journalist with BBC Radio Scotland[227]Syed Neaz Ahmad – academic, writer, journalist, columnist and critic; best known for anchoring NTVEurope current affairs talk show Talking Point[228]Tasmin Lucia-Khan – journalist, presenter and producer;[229] delivered BBC Three's nightly hourly World News bulletins on in 60 Seconds;[230]presented E24 on the rolling news channel BBC News;[231] presents news on the ITV breakfast television programme Daybreak[232]Tazeen Ahmad – British television and radio presenter and reporter[233]Waheed Khan – documentary television director working in British television[234]Yasmin Alibhai-Brown – journalist and author born in Uganda; regular columnist for The Independentand the Evening Standard[235]Yvonne Ridley – journalist and Respect Partyactivist[236]Zarqa Nawaz – freelance writer, journalist, broadcaster, and filmmaker[237]Law and justiceEditJudgesEditDr Fayyaz Afzal OBE – appinted as a District Judge in 2017[238]Khalid Taj Malik – appointed as a District Judge in 2013[239]Khalid Qureshi – appointed as a District Judge (Magistrates’ Courts) in 2006[240]Khatun Sapnara – appointed as a Circuit Judge in 2014[241]Khurshid Drabu CBE – retired judge of the Upper Tribunal in the Asylum and Immigration Chamber[242]Karim Mostafa Ali Ezzat – appointed as a District Judge (Magistrates’ Courts) in 2016[243]Nadeem Khan – appointed as a District Judge in 2010[239]Najma Mian – appointed as a District Judge in 2016[244]Parveen Lateef – appointed as a District Judge in 2013[239]Shamim Ahmed Qureshi – appointed as a District Judge (Magistrates’ Courts) in 2004[240]Shomon Khan – appointed as a District Judge (Magistrates’ Courts) in 2016[245]Tan Ikram – appointed as a District Judge (Magistrates’ Courts) in 2003[246]Queen's CounselsEditAbbas Lakha QC – barrister at 9 Bedford Row, London[247]Abdul Shaffaq Iqbal QC – barrister at Park Square Barristers, Leeds[248]Aftab Asger Jafferjee QC – barrister at 6KBW College Hill, London[249]Ajmalul Hossain QC – barrister at Selborne Chambers, London[250]Akhil Shah QC – barrister at Fountain Court Chambers, London[251]Akhlaq Ur-Rahman Choudhury QC – barrister at 11KBW, London[252]Ali Naseem Bajwa QC – barrister at Garden Court Chambers, London[253]Amjad Raza Malik QC – barrister at New Park Court, Leeds[254]Karim Asad Ahmad Khan QC – barrister at Temple Garden Chambers, London[255]Karim Raouf George Ghaly QC – barrister at 39 Essex Chambers, London[256]Kerim Selchuk Fuad QC – barrister at Church Court Chambers, London[257]Khawar Qureshi QC – barrister at Serle Court Chambers, London[258]Mohammed Jalil Akhter Asif QC – barrister at Kobre & Kim[259]Mohammed Khalil Zaman QC – barrister at No5 Chambers, London[260]Muhammed Luthful Haque QC – barrister at Crown Office Chambers, London[261]Naeem Majid Mian QC – barrister at 2 Hare Court, London[262]Nageena Khalique QC – barrister at No5 Chambers, Birmingham[263]Nina Soraya Goolamali QC – barrister at 2 Temple Gardens, London[264]Riaz Hussain QC – barrister at Atkin Chambers, London[265]Sadeqa Shaheen Rahman QC – barrister at One Crown Office Row, London[266]Saira Kabir Sheikh QC – barrister at Francis Taylor Building, London[267]Salim Abdool Hamid Moollan QC – barrister at Essex Court Chambers, London[268]Shaheed Fatima QC – barrister at Blackstone Chambers, London[269]Sam Karim QC – barrister at King's Chambers, Manchester[270]Syed Mohammad Sa'ad Ansarul Hossain QC – barrister at One Essex Court, London[271]Syed Raza Husain QC – barrister at Matrix Chambers, London[272]Tahir Zaffar Khan QC – barrister at Great James Street, London[273]Zafar Abbas Ali QC – barrister at 23 Essex Street, London[274]Zia Kurban Bhaloo QC – barrister at Exchange Chambers, London[275]OtherEditAamer Anwar – Glaswegian solicitor; named as Criminal Lawyer of the Year by the Law Awards of Scotland in 2005 and 2006[276]Amal Clooney – London-based Lebanese-Britishlawyer, activist, and author[277]M. A. Muid Khan – barrister who was selected as the Best Human Rights Lawyer of England and Wales for 2012 by the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives; in September 2012, he was ranked as third in the top five Chartered Legal Executive Lawyers of England and Wales by the Law Society[278]Maya Ali – solicitor and Labour Party councillor in Westwood[279]Mirza Ahmad – attorney at St. Philips Chambers in Birmingham[280] and Chancery House Chambers in Leeds;[281] managing director of a private consultancy , Massachusetts (Law & Governance) Limited[282]Mumtaz Hussain – solicitor and radio presenter; since 2010, she has presented Health and Healing with Mumtaz on RedShift Radio[283]Nazir Afzal OBE – Chief Crown Prosecutor for North West England;[284] one of his first decisions in that role was to initiate prosecutions in the case of the Rochdale sex trafficking gangSadiq Khan – current mayor of London, senior member of the Labour Party; former Chair of the Fabian Society think tank; serving as the Shadow Lord Chancellor[285]Tahir Ashraf is a Barrister in England and Walesand Solicitor-Advocate and Founder of 5 Chancery Lane Commercial Barristers Chambers. first British Muslim man of Pakistani descent to be an Editorial Board Member of the Journal of International Banking and Financial Law . Also the first British Muslim man of Pakistani descent to have established a set of commercial barristers chambers in London, United KingdomLiterature and artEditAamer Hussein – short story writer and critic.[286]Abdur Rouf Choudhury – Bengali diaspora writer and philosopher; numerous literary awards from Bangladesh including the Granthomela award and life membership from Bangla Academy[287]Eenasul Fateh (Aladin) – cultural practitioner, magician and live artist; named "International Magician of the Year" in 1991; winner of the 1997 Golden Turban Award from the Magic Academy of Bangalore, in India[101]Diriye Osman – Somali-British writer and visual artist[288]Mohammed Mahbub "Ed" Husain – author of The Islamist, an account of his experience for five years with the Hizb ut-Tahrir[289][290]Emran Mian – author and policy advisor at Whitehall[291]Ghulam Murshid – author, scholar and journalist; numerous literary awards from India and Bangladesh, including the Bangla Academyaward[292]Idris Khan – artist based in London[293]Imtiaz Dharker – poet and documentary filmmaker[294]Kaniz Ali – makeup artist and freelance beauty columnist;[123] won the "Best Make-Up Artist" category at the 2011 International Asian Fashion Awards[124]Kia Abdullah – novelist and journalist; contributes to The Guardian newspaper[295] and has written two novels: Life, Love and Assimilation[296] and Child's Play[297]Mohsin Hamid – Pakistani writer; novels Moth Smoke (2000), The Reluctant Fundamentalist(2007), and How to Get Filthy Rich in Rising Asia(2013)[298]Monica Ali – author of Brick Lane, a novel based on a Bangladeshi woman[299]Moniza Alvi – poet and writer[300]Nadeem Aslam – novelist[301]Nadifa Mohamed – Somali-British novelist[302]Nafeez Mosaddeq Ahmed – author, lecturer, political scientist specialising in interdisciplinary security studies, and participant of the 9/11 Truth Movement[303]Nasser Azam – contemporary artist, living and working in London[304]Omar Mansoor – London-based fashion designer, best known for his couture occasionwear[305]Qaisra Shahraz – novelist, journalist, Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and a director of Gatehouse Books[306]Rasheed Araeen – London-based conceptual artist, sculptor, painter, writer, and curator[307]Razia Iqbal – arts correspondent for the BBC; born in East Africa, of Muslim Punjabi origin[308]Rekha Waheed – writer and novelist best known as the author of The A-Z Guide To Arranged Marriage[309]Rezia Wahid MBE – award-winning textile artist whose work has been exhibited both in the UK and abroad[310]Rizvan Rahman – [311]Roopa Farooki – novelist[312]Ruby Hammer MBE – fashion and beauty makeup artist;[313] founder of Ruby & Millie cosmetics bran[314]Ruh al-Alam – Islamic artist, founder of Islamic calligraphic artwork project Visual Dhikr[315][316]Runa Islam – film and photography visual artist, nominated for the Turner Prize 2008[147][148]Rupa Huq – senior lecturer in sociology at Kingston University, writer, columnist, Labour Partypolitician, music DJ and former Deputy Mayoress of the London Borough of Ealing[317]Sanchita Islam – visual media artistShahida Rahman – award-winning author of Lascar, writer and publisher[318]Shamim Azad – bilingual poet, storyteller and writer[319]Shamshad Khan – Manchester-based poet born in Leeds; editor of anthology of black women's poetry; advised the Arts Council of England North West on literature[320][321]Shezad Dawood – artist based in London[322]Suhayl Saadi – literary and erotic novelist and radio/stage playwrightTahir Rashid – British-born poet, manager and entrepreneur in the Islamic media and Nasheed industryTahmima Anam – author of A Golden Age, the "Best First Book" winner of the 2008 Commonwealth Writers' Prize[323]Ziauddin Sardar – scholar, writer and cultural critic[22]Military and policeEditAli Dizaei – senior police officer[324]Jabron Hashmi – soldier who was killed in actionin Sangin, Afghanistan on 1 July 2006[325]Amjad Hussain – senior Royal Navy officer. He is the highest-ranking member of the British Armed Forces from an ethnic minority[326]Muhammed Akbar Khan – served as a British recruit in the First World War and an officer in Second World War; first Muslim to become a general in the British Army[327]Tarique Ghaffur – high-ranking British police officer in London's Metropolitan Police Service; Assistant Commissioner–Central Operations[328]Syed abdul Quayum jelani high ranking British police office of Bradford metropolitan police.he was the first pakistani to become a British police officer in 1965.PolicyEditFormer British High Commissioner to Bangladesh Anwar ChoudhuryAbul Fateh – diplomat and statesman;[329][330] first Foreign Secretary of Bangladesh after independence in 1971Anwar Choudhury – British High Commissioner for Bangladesh, 2004–2008; first non-white British person to be appointed in a senior diplomatic post; Director of International Institutions at the Foreign & Commonwealth Office[331]Asif Ahmad – British diplomat who served as the British Ambassador to Thailand from November 2010 until August 2012;[332] since July 2013, he has been British Ambassador to the Philippines[333]Dr Halima Begum – civil servant, international development manager and Director Education of East Asia at the British Council; previously first secretary for development at the Department for International Development[334]Nahid Majid OBE – civil servant, Chief Operating Officer of Regeneration Investment Organisation and Deputy Director within the Department for Work and Pensions[335] the most senior British Bangladeshi Muslim woman in the civil serviceRohema Miah – independent policy adviser and former political adviser for the Labour Party, 1992–2005[336]Saleemul Huq – scientist and Senior Fellow in the Climate Change Group at the International Institute for Environment and Development; recipient of the 2007 Burtoni Award for his work on climate change adaptation[337]Talyn Rahman-Figueroa – director of diplomatic consultancy Grassroot Diplomat.[338]PoliticsEditMembers of ParliamentEditAfzal Khan - Labour MP for Manchester Gorton[339]solicitor and former Labour MEP for North West region; first Asian Lord Mayor of Manchester; currently Manchester City Council's Executive Member for Children's ServicesAnas Sarwar – former Scottish Labour deputy leader and Labour MP for Glasgow CentralFaisal Rashid - Labour MP for Warrington South, elected in 2017.[340] Mayor of Warrington in 2016.[341]Imran Hussain – Labour MP for Bradford EastKhalid Mahmood – Labour MP for Birmingham Perry Barr[342]Mohammad Sarwar – former Labour MP for Glasgow Central;[343] first British Muslim and Pakistani origin MPMohammad Yasin - Labour MP for Bedford, elected in 2017.[344]Naz Shah – Labour MP for the constituency of Bradford West[345]Nusrat Ghani – Conservative MP for WealdenRehman Chishti – Conservative MP for Gillingham and RainhamRosena Allin-Khan – Labour MP for Tooting[346]Rupa Huq – Labour MP for Ealing Central and Acton constituencyRushanara Ali – Labour MP for Bethnal Green and Bow Labour Party constituency; first person of Bangladeshi origin elected to the House of Commons;[347] one of the first three Muslim women elected as a Member of Parliament[348]Sajid Javid – Conservative MP for Bromsgroveand current Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport[349]Sadiq Khan – Mayor of London, former Labour MP for Tooting and former Shadow Secretary of State for Justice and Shadow Lord Chancellor[350]Shahid Malik – former Labour MP for Dewsbury; Minister for International Development in Gordon Brown's government[351]Shabana Mahmood – Labour MP For Birmingham LadywoodTasmina Ahmed-Sheikh – former SNP MP for Ochil and South PerthshireTulip Siddiq – Labour MP for Hampstead and Kilburn constituencyYasmin Qureshi – Labour MP for Bolton South EastPeersEditAdam Hafejee, Lord Patel of Blackburn[352]Amirali Alibhai, Lord Bhatia – life peer[353]Arminka Helic, Baroness Helic – Bosnian-born British Special Adviser (SPAD) and Chief of Staff to the Former British Foreign Secretary William Hague[354][355]Gulam Khaderbhoy, Lord Noon MBE – life peer, businessman and Chancellor of the University of East LondonHaleh, Baroness Afshar – Professor in Politics and Women's Studies at the University of York, EnglandKhalid, Lord Hameed – Chairman of Alpha Hospital Group; chairman and chief executive officer of the London International HospitalKishwer Falkner, Baroness Falkner of Margravine – lead Liberal Democrat Spokesperson for Foreign Affairs in the House of Lords[356]Meral, Baroness Hussein-Ece – Liberal Democrat life peeressMohamed Iltaf, Lord Sheikh – Chairman of Conservative Muslim ForumNazir, Lord Ahmed – Crossbench life peer, formerly Labour[357]Nosheena Mobarik, Baroness Mobarik – Conservative Baroness of Mearns in the County of Renfrewshire; former Chairman of CBI Scotland[358]Manzila Pola, Baroness Uddin – Labour Party life peer, community activist, and first Muslim and Asian to sit in the House of Lords[359]Qurban, Lord Hussain – Liberal Democrat life peer[360]Sayeeda Hussain, Baroness Warsi – Lawyer & British politician for the Conservative Party and a former member of the Cabinet[361]Shas Sheehan, Baroness Sheehan – Liberal Democrat and Baroness of Wimbledon in the London Borough of Merton and of Tooting in the London Borough of Wandsworth [362]Tariq Mahmood, Lord Ahmad of Wimbledon – life peerWaheed, Lord Alli – Labour life peerZahida Manzoor, Baroness Manzoor – Liberal Democrat Baroness; former Legal Services Ombudsman; former Deputy Chair of the Commission for Racial Equality[363]Members of the European ParliamentEditAfzal Khan – solicitor and former Labour MEP for North West region;first Asian Lord Mayor of ManchesterAmjad Bashir – Conservative MEP for Yorkshire and Humber; former UKIP Small & Medium Business spokesmanBashir Khanbhai – former Conservative MEP for East of EnglandSajjad Karim MEP – born in Brierfield, Lancashire; qualified as a solicitor before being elected as a Member of the European Parliament in 2007; Conservative Legal Affairs Spokesman; sits on the Industry, Research and Energy CommitteeSyed Kamall – Conservative MEP for LondonWajid Khan - MEP for the North West EnglandEuropean constituency[364]Nosheena Mobarik, Baroness Mobarik – Scottish Conservative MEP[365]Members of Scottish ParliamentEditAnas Sarwar – Labour MSP for the Glasgowregion[366]Bashir Ahmad – former SNP MSP[367]Hanzala Malik – Labour MSP for GlasgowHumza Yousaf – SNP Member of the Scottish Parliament for Glasgow and Minister for External Affairs and International Development[368]Members of Welsh AssemblyEditMohammad Asghar – Welsh politician, representing Plaid Cymru[369]Altaf Hussain – former regional Assembly Member in the National Assembly for Wales from 2015 to 2016[370]MayorsEditChauhdry Abdul Rashid – former Lord Mayor of Birmingham[371]Mohammed Iqbal – former Lord Mayor of Leeds(2006)Karam Hussain – was the mayor of the metropolitan borough of Kirklees in West Yorkshire, England from 2008 to 2009.[372]Jilani Chowdhury – Labour Party politician, councillor in Barnsbury and former Mayor of London Borough of Islington; in 2012, became Islington's first Asian mayor[373]Lutfur Rahman – Cllr, community activist, local Independent politician; became the first directly elected Mayor of Tower Hamlets in 2010; first Bangladeshi leader of the council[374]Mohammed Ajeeb – former Lord Mayor of Bradford; first Asian (Pakistani) Lord Mayor in the UK[375]Muhammad Abdullah Salique – mayor of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets from 2008 to 2009[376]Sadiq Khan – elected Mayor of London in May 2016OtherEditMushtaq Ahmad – Lord Lieutenant of Lanarkshire. He was the first Asian to serve as Provost of a Scottish council[377][377]Anwara Ali – Cllr, Conservative Party councillor in Regent's Park, Cabinet member for health and well-being in Tower Hamlets and General practitioner in Spitalfields Practice[378]Shahnaz Ali – British Muslim woman known for her leadership role in equality, inclusion and human rights in the National Health Service and local government in England[379]Bashir Maan – Pakistani-Scottish politician, businessman and writer[380]Maya Ali – Cllr, Labour Party councillor in Westwood and solicitor[279]Muhammad Abdullah Salique, Cllr – Labour Party member, Councillor for Bethnal Green North ward, Mayor of London Borough of Tower Hamlets for 2008/09 municipal year[381]Munira Mirza - was the Deputy Mayor for Education and Culture of London. Born in Oldham.[382][383]Murad Qureshi – Labour Party politician; Greater London Assembly Member[384]Cllr Nasim Ali – Labour Party politician, councillor in Regent's Park, Cabinet Member for Young People in Camden Council and former Mayor of Camden; in May 2003, at age 34, he became the country's youngest mayor as well as the UK's first Bangladeshi and first Muslim mayor[385]Rabina Khan, Cllr – Labour Party politician, councillor in Shadwell, cabinet member for housing in Tower Hamlets London Borough Council, community worker and author of Ayesha's Rainbow[386]Rohema Miah – Independent policy adviser and former political advisor for the Labour Party between 1992 and 2005[336]Salma Yaqoob – former leader of the left-wing Respect Party and a Birmingham City Councillor[387]Syeda Amina Khatun MBE – Labour Party councillor for Tipton Green in the Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council; first Bangladeshiwoman to be elected in the Midlands region, in 1999[388]And there we must leave the list, but on Wikipedia you can find even more Muslims, prominent in the UK for the following things…ReligionScience and medicineSportOther