You Must Fill Out This Form Completely In Order To Be Considered For A Scholarship: Fill & Download for Free

There are things tha one must have in order to apply for a scholarship and these include; transcripts, test scores, photo, copy of passport/ID, parents' financial information as well as medical report. Despite all that, one should have the following as well:Research. To avoid putting yourself and potentially missing out on an excellent scholarship, start your research early. The more time you can put into your scholarship search, the more options you will have. You will need time to research scholarships, request information and application forms, and complete your application by the specified closing date. Some scholarships may even close before the academic year starts.Check if you are eligible. Another important element you want to consider early on is finding out what scholarshis you're actually eligible for, as some will have specific criteria. By doing careful research, you will be able to find the scholarships most appropriate for you and then you can spend time working oon your application for them.Be organised. It pays to be organised when it comes to working on your scholarship application. To begin with, make a note of scholarships you are planning on applying for, so that you can keep track of them easily and not miss any important deadlines. Make sure you have the most up-to-date information.Include all required information. When you are applying for scholarships, you may think that it is more effective to apply for many scholarships, instead of spending more time on just a few. If you do this,however, you may miss out some vital information on your application. Make sure you have all of the information that the selection panel has requested in your application. Am application with missing items does not make the best first impression, particularly if these are items they have specifically requested.Think about presentation. A scholarship application is very similar to a job interview. If you want to make a good impression, spelling mistakes and illegible writing do not look good. Be sure so spend time checking these, and if you are asked to fill in a forming a particular way, make sure you do. Before you send it, ask a family member or friend to proof-read it for you. They may find a mistake you did not pick up on.Provide correct information. This goes without saying, but make sure the details you are entering are correct. Getting your contact details or other personal information wrong, or misspelling something, will make you look extremely unprofessional, as well as potentially delaying the process, so make sure you triple check before sending off the forms.Provide references. In some cases you may need to provide references. It is important to choose these people carefully, after all, there is a lot hanging on this application. You also need to let each of your referees know when you are applying for a scholarship and tell them about the kind of skills and experience you need to demonstrate. This enables them to write a considered reference that highlights the parts of your application that you want to stand out.Do not miss deadline. Always give yourself an extra few days leeway when applying for a scholarship. You may need this if you are getting your application professionally printed, or if you are waiting for confirmation from a referee. Remember, late applications usually will not be considered.With all these, you will be home and dry and your scholarship application will stand out.

The college adjudicates the financial determination for the college’s money and acts as an agent for the Federal money.Every US citizen, permanent resident and legal refugee will fill out the FAFSA forms (FAFSA - Free Application for Federal Student Aid) in order to qualify for any Federal aid, and any US college that awards aid wants to take advantage of the Federal aid first.Many of the private colleges will ask the applicant to fill out the PROFILE (Apply for College Financial Aid) forms (that cost money to fill out) and use the extra information that is gathered to determine the college’s expectation of the Expected Family Contribution (EFC). Those forms require the student to fill out some of the information and All of the parents to fill our information. Without complete forms, there is No financial aid…. None …. Zero…. no matter how poor you are. Therefore, it is Essential that your parents fill out those forms. You MUST have your parents fill out the forms, unless you are 24 years old or older, a member of the US military or honorably discharged, or legally married. However, if you are married, then your spouse must fill out the forms with you.The total cost (TC) of the college is the tuition, mandatory fees, room, board, books and supplies and some miscellaneous expenses.Your need for financial aid is TC - EFC. You can Not negotiate on the EFC. It is what the college perceives it to be. Therefore, be very careful and honest in filling out the FAFSA and PROFILE forms. If you are considered an US applicant then you must (generally) submit your latest Federal Tax forms (for your parents and for you) to the college. If you or your parents own a “small business”, be prepared to be GRILLED for extra information as almost every college believes families Hide money in a small business. I have known families that had to produce evidence that the family was not Hiding money in younger siblings bank accounts or investment accounts. Be prepared for a Lot of forms.If you are an international applicant, then you may Not fill out the FAFSA forms. And the PROFILE or other forms that you and all your parents fill-out must be verified by an independent agency in your country that is trusted by the college. Small business owners could be haunted even more if international.Once the level of financial aid is determined, the US applicants are Expected to take a Federal Pell Grant. And even if the college says otherwise, they will structure your “aid” to almost force an US applicant to take a Federal Direct Loan (they have their ways….)All colleges expect the student to Earn money each Summer (including the Summer before you start college). Period. Many colleges also expect the student to earn some money during the academic year (one way to “force the US student” to take a Federal Direct loan).If you get financial aid from a college, then Expect to graduate with some amount of student loans. That is because you must apply for financial aid Each year, and “surprise, surprise”, I have seen Increase the EFC for rising juniors and seniors…….. (therefore reducing the amount of college money provided to you as a grant).Given that a Private US college can cost as much as $300,000 for four years, most students need to apply for financial aid.Some colleges will award some Merit Scholarship money to excellent students, however the elite Private US colleges (for the most part) do Not award any merit scholarships.Athletic scholarships are a whole different story.Enjoy the process.All the best.

The crucial thing to understand here, is that popular societal perceptions on homosexuality has always varied greatly throughout the 5,000 year long history of China. Thus there is no one constant prevailing view, on how homosexuality was to be perceived by the public at large.Before the Imperial Era for example, homosexuality wasn’t particularly regarded as abnormal, and was even commonly practiced by the highest members of the gentry.Then, with the adoption of Confucianism as the state’s national ideology, came an exacerbated state of conditional tolerance in which being homosexual was only permitted, as long (and only as long) as the core Confucian beliefs of family and the production of an heir, were being adhered to first and foremostly.The first barriers to homosexuality ironically came to China during the tolerant and liberal Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), but at the time was widely suppressed in favour of a more libertarian attitude with regards to an individual’s private life.An artist’s impression of homosexual intercoure during the Ming Era:By the times however of the totalitarian Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) hundreds of years later, with the ever encroaching influences of Western civilization on China’s metaphorical doorstep, homosexuality was now widely looked down upon more so than ever before, as a degenerative and abnormal social behaviour, especially after the attempted modernization efforts of the Late Imperial era.The main dependent factor here; the reason why Sino civilization has had such a varied view on homosexuality over the course of thousands of years, rather than a solitary unchanged view, is because Chinese culture is not, nor was not, ever stationary. Instead over time, as new philosophical and religious ideologies came and went internally and externally, so too did Chinese societal views on being gay likewise change in accordance with the teachings of these philosophies.Regardless of the era however, Lesbianism on the other hand was strangely omitted from China’s written records more so in comparison to its male variant, which has had a widespread plethora of written works focused entirely on the said topic at hand.The reason for this was presumably since literature and scholarship were usually written by men, for men, and as a consequence many aspects of female sexuality unrelated to male concerns were seldom mentioned as such, with more common referencing from the times the Ming Dynasty of China (1368–1644 AD) onwards.Compared to other regions of the world also however in the last 2,000 years especially, Chinese attitudes towards same sex relations, is widely considered today to have certainly been many times more lenient, than elsewhere in the world at the time, especially with the advent of fundamentalist Christian and Muslims societies.Warning: Long answer dead ahead of 10,500 words, good luck.Also, although some of the images used in this answer are of historical relevance, should still be treated as “Not Suitable For Work” (NSFW), nor for minors… but really, who’s actually going to stop minors from reading this anyway?Here are the contents of the answer for ease of navigation:Chapter I: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Pre-Imperial EraChapter II: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early Imperial EraChapter III: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Post-Classical EraChapter IV: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early Modern EraFinal Summary (and TL;DR)Offline Sources UtilizedOnline Sources UtilizedChapter I: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Pre-Imperial EraPrior to the advent of the Imperial Era in 221 BC, the status of homosexuality was one of widespread indifference by the public at large. Same sex love in those days was usually treated with openness, free from vice nor the dangers of death for what would later be considered in certain parts of the world, as a perversion against nature.To this extent, even the legendary “Yellow Emperor”, the earliest pioneer of Chinese civilization, was perceived by the early Chinese to have set the precedent for same sex relations when he begun to acquire a vast harem made up both of wives and concubines, and yet also male lovers in addition.An artist’s impression of the mythical Yellow Emperor, who was traditionally held by Ancient Chinese to have been the first one to set the precedent of homosexuality:Likewise in China’s actual documented history, no one thought it was particularly strange for a person to engage in homosexual activities nor pursuits, but even more still homosexuality was especially widely referenced, and even celebrated in the popular literature and culture of both the Spring and Autumn, and Warring States Periods (771–476 BC and 476–221 BC).The “Intrigues of the Warring States” for example, a compilative military text, made up of stories, speeches and events dating back to the Warring States Era, notes the installation by Duke Xian, 9th ruler of the State of Jin, of many handsome young men into the royal courts of his enemies, where they were to purposefully obstruct the enemy king’s ability to lead, by keeping him perpetually distracted with their physical charm.Such a clever tactic, was referenced by the text itself which insisted that:“The Book of Zhou says, ‘A beautiful lad can ruin an older head’.”In this way, the agents were to gain the trust of the enemy kings, which would in turn allow them to sabotage his plans by purposefully giving him counterproductive advice, thereby allowing the Jin State to eventually hold a comparative advantage on the battlefields over its rivals.An artist’s impression of Duke Xian preparing his army for war, having successfully by this time distracted his enemies with such a cunning tactic:The fact that such tactics were legitimized and endorsed officially even at the royal level, suggests that it was widespread common knowledge, that many of the rulers were “bisexual” (since there was no such thing as homosexuality, as rulers all had to reproduce, those who had same sex relations were just assumed to be automatically bisexual instead), serving therefore to imply that there was no such need to hide one’s sexual preferences, since there was at this time no existing social stigma against it.Similarly, Han Fei (the father of the brutal totalitarian ideology of Legalism) who lived roughly 300 years after the Duke of Jin, observed in his eponymous philosophical book titled after himself, regarding the famous homosexual love between Duke Ling, 28th Ruler of the State of Wei, and his Viscount, Mi Zixia, noting how the Duke went to extra abnormal lengths to bend the law in favour of his lover, in order to protect him from the legal physical ramifications which would have otherwise applied in normal circumstances:“Mizi Xia was a favorite, and a Great Master, during the reign of the duke Ling of Wei: he was the lover of the duke. According to the law of the kingdom, the use of the duke’s carriage without permission was forbidden to all, upon pain of having one’s feet cut off.One time it happened that Mizi’s mother took gravely ill, and a breathless messenger came running to the palace in the middle of the night to bring him the news. He, without a second thought, jumped into the duke’s carriage and took off. When the duke found out, instead of punishing him he praised him, saying:‘What a devoted son! For his mother he risks even losing his own feet!’”An artist’s impression of Mi Zixia and his lover Duke Ling of Wei:On another occasion similarly, the Viscount was even recorded by Han Fei as eating from a Peach intending to consume it all at once, before remembering that it was better to share the remainder with his lover instead:“Another time, on a warm summer afternoon, he was strolling with the duke through the royal orchard. A beautiful peach on a low-lying branch caught his eye and he plucked it. Biting down on it he found it sweet, so he offered the rest to the duke. The duke, touched by the intimate gesture, said:‘He loves me to the point of forgetting his own mouth and giving it to me!’”Another artist’s impression of Mi Zixia and Duke Ling engaging in the act of sexual intercourse (note how Mi Zixia is lighter in skin tone to reflect his femininity, and therefore status as the submissive party, whilst the older Duke is considered to be the dominant party, and is thus dark in skin tone in order to reflect his masculinity):Yet it was indeed a romantic, rather than a platonic or fraternal love, since as the years went on and as the Viscount’s physical attributes faded away, so too did the Duke’s tolerance for his shortcomings:“Later, the beauty of the viscount began to fade, and the duke’s love also waned. When the viscount was one time accused of a crime, the duke said:“That one once hijacked my carriage, and he even gave me a half-eaten peach to eat!”Mizi Xia had not done anything unusual. If the ruler was now accusing him of a crime instead of praising him like he used to, that was because the duke’s love had now turned to hate.”The philosopher Han Fei, who recounted such a tale wrote it to prove a point. He wanted to assert his view that that in the end, the Duke did the right thing by neglecting his lover, but not because homosexuality was an evil abnormality, but because the ruler has to put the State first and foremostly, rather than worry about such earthly and sensual pleasure, as that of romantic love, regardless of what gender his lover actually was.As such, Han Fei even once warned against such an evil, recounting that such a distraction to the efficiency of the ruler could come in the form of both genders, indirectly implying the widespread prevalence of same sex relations:“The ruler is easily beguiled by lovely women and charming boys, by all those who can play and fawn at love.”A portrait of Han Fei, one of the pioneers of the totalitarian ideology of Legalism:The next most prominent story regarding homosexuality in the Warring States was of another unnamed King of the Wei State, and a favoured subject of his by the name of Lord Yang, in which Yang began to cry after he caught two fish in a row, lamenting that he would have to dispose of his first fish because the second was much better in quality, and likewise, he himself would be disposed of one day sooner rather than later by his lover, when a better replacement came along:“Why does that make you cry?” the king asked.Long Yang replied, “When I caught the fish, at first I was extremely pleased. But afterwards I caught a larger fish, so I wanted to throw back the first fish I had caught. Because of this evil act I will be expelled from your bed! There are innumerable beauties in the world. Upon hearing of my receiving your favor, surely they will lift up the hems of their robes so that they can hasten to you. I am also a previously caught fish! I will also be thrown back! How can I keep from crying?”Because of this incident the king of Wei announced to the world, “Anyone who dares to speak of their beauties will be executed along with his entire family”.-Passions of the Cut Sleeve, Bret HinschAn artist’s impression of Lord Yang catching his fish beside the King of Wei:Thus it was, that the status of homosexuality in Pre-Imperial China, was one of widespread acceptance most evident from its widespread referencing, and lack of condemnation from writers and the public alike, a fact which was further exemplified by the lack of an apparent desire to hide what would otherwise be “scandalous” affairs, deeply serves to imply the widespread view of homosexuality in Pre-Imperial China as one of widespread acceptance.Though this would be the prevailing view on the subject matter for the rest of the Pre-Imperial period, such an open view with regards to homosexuality would be damaged slightly with the introduction and subsequent adoption of the philosophy of Confucianism.Though Confucianism was very lenient in comparison to the totalitarian ideology of Legalism, it still stressed order and the family unit first and foremostly, and as a result, this conflicted with homosexuality:“To put the world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, we must put the family in order; to put the family in order, we must cultivate our personal life; and to cultivate our personal life, we must first set our hearts right.”-Confucius (551–479 BC), founder of ConfucianismA statue of Confucius, the father of Confucianism, the ideology which changed the way the Chinese viewed homosexuality during the Early Imperial Era:Confucianism extended down to the individual itself, it forced and obligated one to comply with its teachings for maximized societal benefit, and it promoted collectivism at the expense of the individual. Therefore, any private reservations and inclinations as a result had to be swept aside as such. Confucianism and freedom, even the freedom to pursue a same sex relationship, were thus incompatible.And of course in time, such a development would prove to be all too inevitable, as Confucianism was adopted and sponsored officially, by the ruling Imperial Liu Family of the mighty Han Dynasty of China (206 BC-220 AD), as a means to safeguard the prosperity of the Empire, at the expense of same sex relations.Chapter II: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early-Imperial EraStrangely enough however, Confucianism actually had little to say about the act of homosexuality itself directly, and likewise had little to say against the act of same sex relations also. Its major concern, was with whether or not the family unit was stabilized. This theoretically permitted for there to be a continuation of same sex relations, on condition that the concerned parties’ families were first put in order.Thus, Confucianism was not overly damaging to homosexuality, as many men eventually found that they were free to do whatever they pleased outside their normal and public lives, as long as they followed the teachings of Confucianism, by having children as was popularly encouraged by Han society, whilst also financially taking care of their family.Some have also claimed that in fact, Confucianism had the opposite effect regarding homosexuality, and perhaps may have even indirectly encourage it, by encouraging men of all classes to not only maintain a harmonious relationship with one another, but to take up an intimate master-disciple relationship also.A Qing Era illustration of Liu Bang, First Emperor of the Han Dynasty, and implementer and patron of the philosophy of Confucianism:Anyways, if all of the above was satisfied, then all would be fine, and nobody would care as to what one was doing in one’s spare time. Exclusive homosexuality on the other hand however, which brought about no socially “productive” nor obvious societal benefits, was greatly frowned upon during the Han Dynasty unlike in Pre-Imperial China. In this way, Early Imperial China differed from the Warring States, and Spring and Autumn Periods which came before, regarding same sex relations.Anyways, the fact that conditional homosexuality was still permitted, was a social “loophole” which saw 10 out of the 13 Emperors of the Western (first half of the) Han Empire (206 BC-9 AD), continue to pursue homosexual relations concurrently whilst also possessing an army of concubines and wives. The most famous of these said rulers, was Emperor Ai of Han (reigned 27–1 BC), who had a very particular lover named Dong Xian.In the case of Emperor Ai and his lover, the former was a notorious seducer of men, and sexually favoured Dong, a government official, because he claimed that Dong’s personality, which was extremely simplistic, direct and drama free, was in direct contrast to the ever calculating malices of the Imperial Court, giving him lengthy periods of respite from the treacheries of public appearances, and official Imperial business.Thus it was that before long, the two pursued an openly announced homosexual relationship, which still to this day is remembered in China best for the story of the “Passion of the Cut Sleeve”, in which the Emperor had to leave to meet with his officials, but couldn’t as Dong was still asleep, his head lying on the Emperor’s sleeve. Not wishing to disturb his lover, he instead cut off the sleeves of his presumably expensive robes, before leaving to attend the crucial meeting:“Emperor Ai was sleeping in the daytime with Dong Xian stretched out across his sleeve. When the emperor wanted to get up, Dong Xian was still asleep. Because he did not want to disturb him, the emperor cut off his own sleeve and got up. His love and thoughtfulness went this far!”-Records of the Han, Ban GuAn artist’s impression of Emperor Ai of Han cutting of his sleeve, in order to not disturb his sleeping lover Dong Xian:After finally reaching the meeting with his officials, he even publicly informed the Imperial Court as to the events which had just transpired before, and showed off his cut sleeves to the present officials. And in response, his subjects in turn showed off their approval to the Emperor, by cutting their own sleeves off in turn, to voice their assent at such a thoughtful action.As is thus obvious, homosexuality despite being partially damaged by the advent of Confucianism, was still extremely normal as viewed by Chinese society at this point in time. The most notable thing about their relationship, was that not only was it publicly known by all individuals in the Imperial Court, but both were also married, directly proving that even the highest men in the Han Empire fully exploited social loopholes, in order to pursue homosexual relations with one another, but only after first fulfilling the commonly agreed upon Confucian norms.This lack of care regarding their homosexuality was a fact which was most evident in the way in which the Han Historian Sima Qian (who wrote about Emperor Ai and Dong Xian) recorded his events.Though he is often equated with the Roman Historian, Suetonius, unlike his Roman counterpart who sometimes passed judgement on the homosexual activities of the individuals on which he was studying in his “Lives of the Twelve Caesars”, Sima refrains from passing similar judgement on his subjects, preferring to focus instead on their influences on Court Politics, partly implying to this author, that homosexuality was perhaps even more accepted by Han China, than it was in Imperial Rome.Sima himself however, did also note the potential of the male aesthetic to be used as a weapon to distract:“It is not women alone who can use their looks to attract the eyes of the ruler; courtiers and eunuchs can play at that game as well. Many were the men of ancient times who gained favor this way.”A portrait of the Historian Sima Qian, the most authoritative figure on the History of China up until his contemporary Han Dynasty, whose writings have allowed sinologists to learn much about Chinese attitudes to homosexuality today:Other noteworthy occasions referenced in the official histories of the Han Dynasty meanwhile, extended to Huo Guang also, a politician in the Western Han Empire. Huo, who was infatuated with his slave master it was noted, was subsequently made fun of publicly by all non-Chinese foreigners alike who were informed of such a story, but his fellow countrymen by contrast, didn’t even so much as raise an eyebrow at the mention of such a fact.A certain General Liang Ji in the Eastern (later half of the) Han Empire (25–220 AD) was particularly noted meanwhile for his exceptional devotion to his wife, allowing her to share him with his male de facto “concubine”, Qin Gong, when the time came for him to be sexually pleasured, in which all three parties would partake in a “threesome” whensoever he asked them to.It was also during the times of the Han Dynasty, that one of the first, if not the first mention regarding female homosexuality surfaces. A Historian in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Ying Shao, made observations regarding several Imperial Palace women forming homosexual attachments with one another, in a relationship titled “Duishi” (a term interpreted to refer to reciprocal cunilingus), in which the two acted as husband and wife. Ying noted regarding many of the pairs that:“Duishi refers to ladies of honor pairing together like husband and wife; they are very jealous of one another.”-Passions of the Cut Sleeve, Bret HinschIt was a term which was also used by the Empress Zhao Feiyan to refer to her observations regarding two of her female palatial servants, who she interestingly noted especially for “sharing their meals together”. The Empress Chen, wife of the great Emperor Wu of Han likewise was known to have had sexual liaisons with other women, having said to have fallen in love a shamaness she hired to cite incantations to bear her husband a son, having failed to have done so up until then.The fact that contemporary archaeologists have discovered double-ended dildos recovered from tombs dating back to the Han Dynasty, suggests also that Lesbian sexual relations was quite commonly practiced during the Early Imperial Era, although as they were found in princely tombs, suggests also that such activities were merely limited to the highest orders of Han society.The double-ended dildos in question, recovered from the Princely Han Era tombs:The greatest times in Imperial China for homsexual activities however, came with the collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 AD, and its subsequent replacement many hundreds of years later under the turbulent era of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD). This would in turn be the era which would be most open to homosexuality in Imperial China, akin to the levels of acceptance reached in the Pre-Imperial Era.The reason for this was simple, with the end of the Han Empire ended an era of extreme power and centralization. All the dynasties which followed the Han for the next 400 years were all too weak and decentralized to return to a Confucian led society, and Confucianism was thus widely disregarded during this time period, letting loose a wave of tolerance once more, a wave which had once existed hundreds of years earlier in Feudal China.As such, homosexuality once more accelerated greatly, and soon enough it was commonplace yet again, and sometimes even went against the non-existent Confucian teachings, as some men begun to neglect both their family duties, and wives, and became exclusively homosexual.In the 5th Century AD in the case of the Southern Dynasty of Liu Song (420–79 AD), it was even recorded that the act of homosexuality had even become so widespread, that there was even now a surplus of bitter single women all over China:“All the gentlemen and officials esteemed it. All men in the realm followed this fashion to the extent that husbands and wives were estranged. Resentful unmarried women became jealous.”-Passions of the Cut Sleeve, Bret HinschTerritories of the tolerant Liu Song Dynasty in 440 AD:Poetry especially, during the Age of Disunity (220–581 AD) in the 6th Century AD, despite often writing about homsexuality indirectly (for direct sexual mentions of any kind were commonly considered to be vulgar), were so obsolete due to the widespread existence of homosexuality, that everyone would understand what a certain poet was truly alluding to in his poems. One of the such relevant works of poet, Liu Xiaozhuo, was an excellent example of this:“She dawdles, not daring to move closer,afraid he might compare her with leftover peach** (“Leftover Peach” is a reference to the story of Viscount Mi Zixia and Duke Ling of Wei in Pre-Imperial China as mentioned back in Chapter I, where Mi shared his Peach with the Duke instead of consuming it himself entirely).”Another example meanwhile of this obvious allusion, was certainly also very evident likewise with the poet, Xu Ling, who likewise recounts in a poem of his (titled “Charming Boy”), the physical beauties of any certain young men:“Charming boy—You look so handsome!You surpass Dong Xian and Mizi Xia.Our feather curtains are filled with morning fragrance,Our curtained bed is inlaid with ivory …Your face is more beautiful than rosy red dawn clouds …You’re enough to make the girls of Yan envious,And cause even Zheng women to sigh.”And thus by now, it should be clear, that even in the Early Imperial Era of China’s long history, homsexuality at this point in time was still viewed very positively by society at large.An artist’s impression of a woman engaging in the act of voyeurism, as she spies on a homosexual couple engaged in the act of intercourse:Though initially during the Han Empire Confucianism did place a few restrictions with regards to the limits of homosexuals, such restraints were once again as was the case under the Pre-Imperial Era, far removed for the most part in practice, due to the aforementioned loopholes, which allowed for a more libertarian attitude to apply to one’s private life, if his public life was put in order first and foremostly, as a precondition.This was not to be the case for long however, for soon with the imminent reunification of China under the Sui Empire (581–618 AD), and its subsequent replacement by the ironically liberal Golden Age of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), barriers to the absolute freedoms of homosexuality, rose again once more.Chapter III: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Post-Classical EraWhilst the Tang Empire is both widely recognized and celebrated as the single greatest Chinese dynasty to this day, this great period of Cosmopolitanism and openness which acted to encourage both the Imperial Li Family, and the Tang citizenry to import from overseas, the very best aspects of the International community, unavoidably served to also bring back some of its more negative facets.Homosexuality thus in comparison to the Early Imperial Era, became noticeably less in the Post-Classical Era, regarding the instances where we have written records of such trends taking place.Buddhism for one, which became the main national ideology of the common Tang people, generally advocated for the ideal individual, to have been one which favoured not, the value of a physical relationship, instead encouraging the view that sex was merely for procreational purposes. Thus homosexuality was not to be encouraged according to this strict religious view, which it believed would only distract one from attaining a state of enlightenment; a state of “Nirvana”.However, this was certainly not a universal Buddhist rule which had to be obeyed by all. Only certain schools of Buddhism believed such to be the case, other schools by contrast maintained a more neutral view on the matter, as did Buddhism’s most prominent religious rival; the native Chinese philosophy of Taoism, which though not as strong as it once was, acted to further diversify popular thought on homosexuality.Taoism most notably, even perhaps acted instead to normalize the notion of homosexuality, as it was an ideology which preached balance between the forces of Heaven and Earth. This was and still is represented today by the Yin and Yang symbol, representing a balance between the feminine and masculine energies of Yin and Yang respectively.In case it is unclear, this is the Yin and Yang symbol which represents the Taoist value of balance:Every human being, was widely regarded by Taoists to have contained both, therefore men also possessed Yin, whilst women also possed Yang. Thus, whenever there was an instance of homosexuality, the homosexual male for example was considered to have an overabundance of the feminine energy of Yin, hence by Taoist logic, it was to be expected that they would of course be attracted to the masculine energy of Yang belonging to other men.Given that there were many differing schools of Buddhism also, it would of course be expected that certain schools of thought would be more favourable to homosexuality, than others. Certain schools for example strongly believed in the existence of a past life, and the notion of “Karma”, which was then subsequently used to support the naturality of homosexuality.It was believed by these certain schools, that in the event a man fell in love with another man, that it was surely because the latter was in fact once his wife from a past life, but their marriage, was one of complete unhappiness. Thus as was interpreted by these particular Buddhist schools, the homosexual relationship was the universe’s way of giving the couple a second chance at happiness. Thus the two had to make their amends in this life, or risk the cycle restarting all over again.This acted to normalize homosexuality in the same way as Taoism, and counter the homophobic tendencies of the other less “gay-friendly” philosophies and religions, such as Christianity and Islam, by providing a natural explanation as to why homosexuality existed in the form in which it did.Confucianism also, whilst not particularly strong as was once the case with the masses, was not only present there during the Tang Era, but also officially endorsed still by the Imperial Court, as the Li Family’s primary “go to” ideology.The Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam meanwhile also served to reinforce the first barriers against homosexuality. Hinduism in the form of many homophobic Hindu texts, has also been suggested by many Historians today as a reason for grassroot resistance to Chinese homosexuality during the reign of the Tang Empire.A wall painting originating from a Nestorian Christian Church, depicting the a procession of Nestorian priests celebrating Palm Sunday (during the Tang Dynasty, Christianity came to the Celestial Empire, greatly affecting how homosexuality was seen in the Tang Dynasty):To this extent, not only did the first pejorative term against homosexuality originate during the Tang Era, which at the time insulted all homosexuals with the term “Jijian”, but China’s first officially endorsed efforts into enforcing a more “moral” societal order, in accordance with the views of these new ideologies were sponsored and implemented. They were all in vain however, and no Tang Chinese ever really took them seriously.Despite these negative influences on Tang society however, the benevolent and libertarian precedent set by the reign of the Imperial Li Family (under Li Shimin or Emperor Taizong), would in time finally overwhelm the external influences of the foreign ideologies, and in doing so allow for the Tang citizenry to negate these barriers to their individual freedoms, and thus return to the “Han Model” regarding popular views on same sex relations.To this extent, by the time the Arabs (most of whom were Muslims) came to trade in China en masse, they were disgusted with the common Tang Chinese norm of sodomizing pre-pubescent boys, acting as temple prostitutes.Lesbainism meanwhile, like under the Han Empire before it, was also rampant, this time however in the Buddhist nunneries as well, as many Buddhist nuns seeked relationships with one another according to the “The Memoir on the Music Academy”, a treatise on music (written between 742–907 AD) which mentions that many lesbian unions modeled after heterosexual marriage existed. Taoist nuns meanwhile were recorded as having exchanged many upon many love poems to one another.A modern film reenactment of a Lesbian gathering during the Tang Dynasty (note the clothing of the woman in the center, she is in fact cross-dressing, and is donning the male attire of the Persian and Xianbei influenced “Yuanlingpao”):The Tang Dynasty, being the Golden Age of Chinese poetry as well at this time most memorably, is noted by 21st Century sinologists for being especially difficult to differentiate, as the word both for “he” and “she” were written using the same character in Classical Chinese: tā (他). Given that the poets refused to disclose the sexes, and that Middle Chinese did not have grammatical genders, has led scholars to believe that the poems were supposed to have been read either through heterosexual, or homosexual lenses, based purely on the reader’s desire.Tang poems were also often wrote by men masquerading as women, using a female voice upon writing their poems, to lament being abandoned by a close male comrade or lord.Sometimes, teenage girls were also depicted in heavily suggestive sexual relationships, who were shown to have done so directly because of the knowledge that they were destined to one day sooner than later, end up in an arranged and forced marriage to someone that they did not love. In this way, Tang poems often acted as social commentary, raising awareness of many societal issues during the Tang Era.It was during the Tang Period also, that the first attempts at the compilation of the history of what is recognized today, as the homosexual and therefore an awareness of the existence of homosexuality, was first referenced to by the Tang poet, Bai Xingjian, in his work titled, “Rhapsody on the Supreme Joy of the Sexual Union of Heaven and Earth and Yin and Yang”.After the reign of the Cosmopolitan Tang Era came the society of the Proto-Industrialized Song Empire (960–1279 AD), in which the first official laws against homosexuality, but more specifically against male prostitution were passed.This was despite the fact that the Song, like the Tang before it was also an ironically tolerant, liberal and quasi-free society. An edict from the Zhenghe Era (1111–1117 AD) especially, called for the arrest and subsequent flogging of male prostitutes for gross public indecency.An Imperial portrait of Taizu of Song, First Emperor of the Song Dynasty, who set the precedent of relative liberalism in China for next 300 years of the Empire’s existence:However as time would have it otherwise, these Imperial efforts were all in vain. For the Song unlike the Tang before it, was less cosmopolitan and accepting of foreign influences, and this therefore as such acted to curb the negative influences against homosexuality, which were once pervasive throughout the preceding Tang.Given also, that during the Song, a state of economic and scientific pre-industrialization was attained, these phenomenons combined with the liberalism and widespread quasi-free society which was allowed to exist under the Song Empire, would in time render any new legal legislation passed to curb homosexuality, entirely redundant and non-enforceable (a fact which was well known by all of Song society).Under the Song, as China’s population grew to account for roughly 1/3 of the world’s population, and as a vastly accelerating rate of urbanization continued, combined with the invention and introduction of paper currency, simultaneously allowed both the beginnings of an ever wealthy Capitalist “Middle Class” to thrive, and also prostitution rates to increase en masse directly as a result.A small section of the famous “Along the River During the Qingming Festival” Song Era painting (a painting which was 25.5 centimetres in height and 5.25 meters in length, and contained a total of 814 humans, 28 boats, 60 animals, 30 buildings, 20 vehicles, 8 sedan chairs, and 170 trees) depicting the great economic prosperity of Song China, resultant from International Trade which would in time lead to the imminent rise of the Capitalist Middle Classes, directly leading to a rapid rise in male prostitution, and steady monetization of all things sexual:Using their new found power and wealth, the traditional position of the “Mandarin” Bureaucrat as the preeminent power in Chinese society, was severely displaced by the Song Capitalist, who then became the most economically dominant class of Chinese society. With an overabundance of money to spend, little else to expend on, and unfulfilled sexual fantasies to fulfill, Song Capitalists turned instead towards both heterosexual and homosexual prostitution in their spare time as a common recreational activity.Such a trend saw the monetization of all things sexual, and therefore increased male prostitution in response, actually negating the Imperial laws which were once passed to halt such a phenomenon from further spreading. Now, more than ever before, the middle classes often frequented brothels to visit their favoured male courtesans, more often than not who would today be considered “underage”, who were to in turn cater for their wealthy clients who were eager to promote their masculinity, by taking on a feminine, “submissive” role instead.Homosexuality during the Song Dynasty, was also beginning to be more greatly obstructed by new advances in Confucianism. The former philosophy, adopted since the times of Han was now during the Song Era “updated” with a new philosophy, which valued both secularism and puritanism, by the name of “Neo-Confucianism”.Neo-Confucianism, advocated for abstinence, and advised against sexual gratification and indulgence in any form, both heterosexual and homosexual. Though, due to the aforementioned reasons cited earlier, combined with the fact that the ideology was just newly formed, and also that the Song had no official “religion”, instead preferring to balance the three ideologies of Buddhism, Taoism (which was either gay neutral or gay friendly) and now Neo-Confucianism equally, saw to it that such puritan teachings on sexuality, were likewise also largely ignored by all of Song society for the most part.A Qing Era impression of Lu Zhishen, one of the many characters from the 1 of the 4 Great Classical Novels of China, Water Margin, uprooting a tree (the novel, which was set in the Song Era has sometimes been interpreted to subtly refer to the homsexual relations between all of the 108 outlaws which feature in it):The only notable influence, was on the modest clothing of Song women, which contradicted their Tang counterparts, regarding the fact that they no longer exposed cleavage, nor were loosely fitted. Otherwise however, the effects of Neo-Confucianism were quite minimal, neither affecting heterosexual activities, nor homosexual relations for the most part.Thus it was that homosexuality during the Post-Classical Era of China was adversely altered, and more restricted than under the Pre or Early Imperial periods of China, due to new developments in the adoption of foreign ideologies, and also of “homegrown”, Chinese domestic ideologies.For the most part however, such developments remained purely nominal, and the negative effects of such a phenomenon were largely ignored by the liberal and prosperous Dynasties of Tang and Song, under the reign of the Imperial Li and Zhao Families respectively.The same could not be said however, for the Early Modern Period of China, which soon followed thereafter, which though still retained some pro-homosexual features here and there, often reflected the totalitarian natures of the Ming and Qing Administrations. China, long an open civilization with regards to same sex behaviour, was open no longer by the very end of it.Chapter IV: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early Modern EraUnlike the Tang and Song before it, the Early Ming Emperors of Hongwu and Yongle (reigned 1368–98 and 1402–24 AD) did not practice neither tolerance nor liberalism, and instead promoted the former Song Dynasty ideology of Neo-Confucianism, as the new dominant state philosophy of the Celestial Empire. Totalitarianism was the Emperor’s new weapon, and he used it to enforce his will.Neo-Confucianism however, had the opposite effect of what it was intended for, and instead only broadly acted to halt Mandarin Officials especially from visiting female courtesans, forcing them to turn instead en masse to young male prostitutes instead for their “horizontal exercises”.The brutally restrictive yet puritan nature of the Ming Administration, meant that they were forced to maintain a homophobic stance on same sex dalliances, this was true such that many laws were passed by the Mid-Ming period, which explicitly prohibited sodomy.Before such a law was finally amended in 1526 AD, legislation involving anal penetrations was compared to forcing garbage down into an individual’s mouth, and such a “disgusting” practice was therefore punished with 100 bamboo cane strokes, to whosoever participated in such a act.The Imperial Portrait of Zhu Yuanzhang, First Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and the man who begun a new age in Imperial Chinese History, by starting the precedent of 500 years of Chinese totalitarianism:By the time of the Mid to Late Ming Era however, as the power of the Ming Emperors became more and more non-existent, and as they retreated back from ruling due to either an unwillingness or inability to continue to rule, so too did official restrictions on homosexuality before long return. And as a result, homosexuality was on the rise once more in the now, anarchic country of Ming China.Mirroring the Song period, which had seen a steady increase of homosexuality amongst the Middle Classes, the Capitalists of the Ming likewise begun to once again consider such an activity to be extremely luxurious, with many practicing it eventually once more, after the totalitarian reigns of Hongwu and Yongle were over, now replaced with more laissez-faire rulers who were either too lazy or unintelligent to take control of the Empire.Homosexuality became so widespread in fact, that the Ming writer Xie Zhaozhe (a contemporary of Shakespeare) once noted regarding homosexuality in Ming China:"From Jiangnan and Zhejiang to Beijing and Shanxi, there is none that does not know of this fondness."Xie likewise also recorded how young men were “shared around” at business meetings in the Capital of Beijing, whenever it was time for the Capitalists to congregate with one another.The famous Ming Era “Blue and White” Porcelain Vase, which was internationally desired by all the countries of the world (16% of Ming Vases were exported to Europe during the Ming Period), was partly responsible for allowing Ming Capitalists to emerge as an economically dominant class once more:In the restrictive Ming Era strangely enough of all time periods, homosexuality ironically thrived to a seemingly greater extent arguably even more so than in the liberal periods of Tang and Song. One Chinese province in particular, Fujian, was widely noted, and stereotyped by other Chinese provinces during the Ming Era, to be the only existing hotbed of homosexuality at the time. If you were a homosexual, you had to be from Fujian province, or so they thought.Homosexuality even became so widespread in Fujian in fact, that the Mandarin Official Shen Defu once commented regarding such a phenomenon that:“The Fujianese men are extremely fond of male beauty. No matter how rich or poor, handsome or ugly, they all find a companion of their own status. Between the two the older is called the “adoptive elder brother” (qixiong), the younger the “adoptive younger brother” (qidi).When this elder brother goes to the house of the younger brother, the parents of the latter take care of him and love him like a son-in-law. And the younger brother’s expenses, including those of his marriage are all covered by the elder brother. They love each other and at the age of thirty are still sleeping in the same bed together like husband and wife.”Most notably, this passage today, is commonly regarded by sinologists as a reference in support of the phenomenon of nominal and de facto “gay marriages” occurring in the Ming Empire, at that time roughly 400-500 years ago.Further regarding the notion of the homosexual marriage, the Ming playwright Li Yu also noted that:"They do not skip the three cups of tea or the six wedding rituals- it is just like a proper marriage with a formal wedding."Afterwards, the younger party was to move into the household of the older party, where he would give himself over to his husband, and come to depend entirely on him. As a result, his husband’s parents were to treat him as a son in law, and he was to even help raise children adopted by his husband, in the event that such a case was to occur.Such a trend was most notable for the fact that the Fujianese were able to incorporate homosexuality into the traditional Confucian order, even altering it to fit their new lifestyles, unlike before from the Han, Tang and Song, where individuals rather, were to alter themselves to conform to Confucianism. Virgin men, made for a more “marriageable” adoptive “younger brother” (qidi).A map of the Ming Empire in the Late Ming Era, with all its provinces displayed (Fujian is on the Eastern Coast, in the Southern half of China in Green next to the Island of Taiwan):It was- make no mistake -indeed a same sex formal union, but it did not last forever by itself of course, and according to Confucian traditions originating back to the Han, the parties were of course sooner than later expected to marry women, and thus subsequently produce heirs as a result. After 20 or so years of an uninterrupted same sex marriage, this was to occur, and the former union dissolved.Yet, even then they often made arrangements with their new wives, which allowed for the two parties’ families, to live together in the same household, so that former husband and “wife” could also live together under the same roof. Exclusive homosexuality as is evident, was still clearly disregarded by Chinese society now under the Ming, as it once was under the Han Era, and only tolerated if children were to be produced somewhere along the course of such an affair.Ming Emperors too, likewise in the Mid-Late Era also did not refrain from homosexual affairs, but instead actively participated in them. A Historian named Mao Qiling from the succeeding Qing Dynasty noted that the Ming Emperor Zhengde had many male lovers, meanwhile the Emperor Tianqi was claimed to have kept two private palaces, one exclusively for his female lovers, the other especially for his male lovers.The Ming Era most notably was also the Chinese Golden Age of Lesbianism, which was widely referenced in Ming China’s popular culture at the time. Both written and visual pornographic works at the time, widely referenced and or focused around lesbianism, with many fictional stories in particular depicting women engaged in Lesbianism, to have been “experimenting” with one another, in order to maximise sexual pleasure.During the Ming Era, lesbian sexual practices even expanded to meet with the rapidly rising trend of sapphism, which were created all in the name of pleasure. This included, but was not limited to the act of frottage, informally called “grinding beans to make tofu” (mo doufu), cunilingus and mutual masturbation.Dildos like in the Han Era meanwhile, came in all sorts of sizes, shapes and makeups, in the form of bronze, wood and ivory. They were denoted and differentiated in the form of many names such as that of "Dumb Husband" (Bu Yu Xiansheng), "Master Horn" (Jiao Xiansheng), or "Cantonese Love" (Guangdong Renshi).A hollow bronze dildo dating back to the Han Dynasty, believed to have been utilized as a strap on makeshift instrument, used both for heterosexual, and of course Lesbian sex:Several mentions in addition, were also made during the Ming Dynasty claiming to have witnessed either first or second hand, stories of concubines, stepmothers, daughters-in-law and especially actresses in female only theatres, falling in love all over China, all of which were keen to initiate a same sex relationship with one another.Mid and Late Ming attitudes remarkably even changed little, despite increasing contacts with European civilization at this point in time, which formally begun when the first Portuguese traders arrived in China for economic purposes in 1557 AD, and thus along with them also came Christian missionaries, and thus also, the morals of Western civilization.Using the biblical books of Exodus and Leviticus, the Christians begun to terrorize the Ming population by promising that God would send them all to the everlasting fires of eternal damnation, should they continue along the sinful path as “Sodom and Gomorrah” once did.To this extent, Dominican Monk, Gaspar da Cruz even begun to rewrite Chinese History, to claim that a series of Earthquakes which had occurred during the Song Dynasty in the 12th century, were directly as a result of the homosexual perversions to which the Chinese subscribed to.The famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci, who was one of the westerners most privileged, as to be shown around the Isolationist Empire of Ming, most notably showed utter disdain for what he described as “unnatural perversions”. He was also especially disturbed by the fact that the Ming Chinese were all so open about it also.An artist’s impression of Matteo Ricci in Ming China, notably wearing the attire of the Ming:But the Chinese didn’t care for his condemnations, and even begun to make fun of the outwardly celibate “holy” men, insisting that the only reason they condemned homosexuality, was because they were forced to refrain from sexual pleasures themselves, the only potential source which could presumably only come about from being intimate with other Jesuit monks, as they were restricted often from meeting with women.For all the widespread animosities introduced by Christianity into the mighty Celestial Empire, China’s attitudes towards homosexuality, despite the fact that many thousands of Ming Chinese had been converted by this point in time, was still one of relative though noticeably waning tolerance, in comparison to Christian Europe at this point in time, or even the Islamic Middle East.The Ming’s generally open attitudes towards homosexuality, was however not accepted by all Ming Chinese alike. Neo-Confucian scholars especially, detested what they saw as a morally corrupt society, and one scholar in particular, Pu Songling, especially detested the notion of exclusively homosexual relationships, and wrote the following lines in response to this rapidly growing national development, which was of course monopolized by Fujian Province:“Illicit trystsTwixt men and womenWere once thought foul;How much fouler reeksThe passion of Cut Sleeve,Of Half-Eaten Peach,Of love twixt man and man!Only the mightiest warriorCan penetrate that tiny bird-track!The narrow grottoLeads to no Peach Blossom Spring:Surely the fishermanPoled up it by mistake!”It was the arrival of the Europeans however, that finally signalled the beginnings of a new era of morality, morals which were non-Chinese in origin, instead imported from the West, which at first slowly made its way into the Celestial Empire, before rapidly accelerating towards the very last days of the Manchurian Qing Dynasty, acted to slowly overtime end thousands of years of Chinese tolerance towards homosexuality.A Dutch illustration below of the surrender of the Island of Formosa (Taiwan) by the Dutch East India Company to Ming China (the arrival of the Europeans often also led to full on battles between the Chinese, and at times the Dutch or Portuguese):And as a result of this rapidly ascending wave of Western cultural influence, tolerance was henceforth replaced with a new cultural system, which instead favoured Western influenced homophobia.Prior to such later times however, such a widely “celebrated” attitude during the Late Ming Era, continued onwards even under the totalitarian Early Qing Era which soon succeeded the Ming Period thereafter. Both male and female homosexuality continued ahead, barriers free for the most part at this point in time.As early as 1651 AD (merely 7 years after 25 million people were killed and the entire nation destroyed in the Manchu Invasions), the Chinese play, “Pitying the Fragrant Companion” for example was composed by the playwright Li Yu, centered on the premise of a Lesbian infatuation between two young teenage girls, as they fought for their right to love one another:“Madame Fan, who is seventeen, meets a girl two years younger in a Buddhist convent. They fall desperately in love and take oaths of devotion before the Buddha in the presence of their approving servants. The girl laments that they must be separated and wishes they could be reincarnated as man and wife.In a charming scene they playfully try on a man’s robes to see who might better fit the part. Then Madame Fan hits upon a more practical solution: she asks her husband to take the younger woman into the household as a concubine. He agrees, and the play ends happily.”-Louis Crompton, Homosexuality and CivilizationAn artist’s impression of the two female protagonists and lovers in the play, “Pitying the Fragrant Companion”:Soon thereafter though, Early Qing attitudes took a slight turn once more, as those who had lived in the last days of the Ming Dynasty complained, and claimed that the reason the Ming had collapsed was because of its widespread lack of morality with regards to the Neo-Confucian way. An even stricter form of Neo-Confucianism was thus upheld by the Qing Empire, and male homosexuality especially, was discouraged through official legislation.To this extent, Emperor Hong Taiji of Qing (reigned 1626–43 AD) implemented a punishment system which prescribed for a punishment of 100 lashes for any form of homosexuality, a punishment which European observers considered to be very lenient. Instead of halting homosexuality however, it served to only legitimize homosexual relations, which were then put on an equal footing with heterosexual relationships. And thus in time, such efforts were abandoned entirely for the next couple of decades, and homosexuality prevailed once more.It wasn’t until 1740 under the great Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–96 AD), that China’s first major, large scale and permanent laws were finally put in place against homosexual tendencies. The new legislation, not only outlawed exclusive homosexuality, but even consensual homosexual intercourse, and even sex in any form outside of marriage full stop.It should be noted however, that the punishment for breaking such a law was not too serious, with offenders only recorded as being dealt with the least damaging punishment available: one month in jail, and 100 heavy blows from a wooden stick. In addition to such a “lenient” punishment, the Qing Police often did not take the disobedience of such a law to be all too serious, and thus often subtly gave offenders every possible chance to be more discreet with their private lives. Arrests for this crime were thus for the most part, very limited in scale.An Imperial Portrait of Emperor Qianlong, pioneer of China’s first major laws against homosexuality in China, henceforth affecting how homosexuality was seen in the Celestial Empire from then on:During this point in time the might of both the totalitarian Qing Empire, and of Neo-Confucianism in the 5,000 year long history of China, reached its almighty zenith, allowing for most freedoms to be restricted in general anyway. The only exception to this rule, was the relative freedom of expression which was granted exclusively only to the Theatre Industry, due to the low status of actors in Chinese culture, which as a result served to only imply that their ability to harm the social stability of the Qing would be mostly ineffective.As such, it was from the Theatre Industry that new forms of homosexuality and a “brothel culture” begun to spring back to life, slowly at first, then rapidly accelerating as time went on, especially after Imperial Authority was greatly weakened post 1840, after the advent of the First Opium War (1840–42).Professional actors, titled as “Young Gentlemen” (Xianggong), were often hired by the Upper and Middle Classes to perform recitals of their poems at banquets and parties. The Xianggong who specialized in playing female roles (as women were banned from theatre like in Ancient Greece), were especially sought after for their feminine physique and higher pitched voices.Much like their Japanese counterparts (the Onnagata), the Xianggong quickly became celebrated sex symbols all throughout the Qing Empire, and were always at any given time harassed by their screaming fans, male and female alike who followed them wheresoever they went.As time went on, and as the Qing Empire’s strength grew ever so weaker as to finally be non-existent, the power of the Xianggong grew rapidly by contrast. In time, male homosexual relations grew so much, that by the times of the late 19th Century, those who came to Beijing’s pleasure quarters to find female prostitutes, would not only be disappointed by the overwhelming lack of female courtesans, but would also even be laughed at and mocked by their peers for even trying to look for women, to sleep with.A Qing Era impression of two men engaging in sexual intercourse:Not only was that the case, but prior to the times of the late 19th Century, many individual thrill seekers who were willing to risk both life and limb likewise also begun to seek sensual pleasure, at the risk of being caught by the Qing Police in the act of breaking the law.Students begun to seek homosexual relations with their peers, the rich often on many occasions frequently practiced indiscriminate casual sex with their many young, boy servants, and even the great Emperor Qianlong, who had passed the anti-gay laws of 1740 in the first place fell in love with Heshan, his 25 year old Captain of the Imperial Guard, who was 40 years younger than him.For all intents and purposes, the anti-gay laws of the Qing Dynasty were now all but non-existent such, that Westerners who journeyed to China before and during the 100 Years of National Humiliation Era (1840–1949), such as John Barrow, First Baronet were still disgusted as the Jesuit Matteo Ricci once also was, at the overwhelming prevalence of such a deplorable act:“The commission of this detestable and unnatural act is attended with so little sense of shame, or feelings of delicacy that many of the first officers of the state seemed to make no hesitation in publicly avowing it. Each of these officers is constantly attended by his pipe-bearer, who is generally a handsome boy, from fourteen to eighteen years of age, and is always well dressed.”A portrait of John Barrow, an English statesman who was thoroughly disgusted with the homosexual tendencies of the Celestial Empire:Towards the end of the Qing Empire however, faced with external military threats from abroad, and widespread internal dissatisfaction as China came to be publically perceived to be a bastion of backwardness relative to the Industrialized West, caused the Qing Administration to embark on a widespread modernization effort, attempting to import the very best of Western civilization into China in order to modernize the nation.The “Self-Strengthening Movement” (1861–95), as it was called was thus adopted in order to learn in full the ways of the West in order to re-invigorate the dying Qing Empire.Western Science, Technology and even Economic practices were all adopted by China, yet it is also believed by many to this day, that by doing so the Qing as a side effect also imported into their empire, the homophobic tendencies of the West, which had the effect of finally putting an end, to the centuries old Chinese traditional notion, of relative tolerance with regards to homosexuality.And long thereafter, such norms became finally and fully incorporated into Chinese culture during the Republican Era (1912–1949), where it was widely believed during the said period that anything Western had to be automatically superior to anything of native origins. And thus it was, that thousands of years of Chinese indifference to homosexuality finally concluded, and subsequently thus begun the Age of Repression with regards to being gay.Even today in the Contemporary People’s Republic of China (1949-Present Day), traditional homosexual attitudes have never again still to this day, ever been fully recovered to the levels once seen prior to the Republican Era.Final Summary (and TL;DR)As should be extremely obvious by now, “Ancient” China’s attitudes towards homosexuality varied greatly throughout the ages. Even in times in which it was widely accepted, there were still widespread anti-gay sentiments all over the nation. And likewise, even in times of repression, there was still an abundance of same sex activities occurring all over China. At any given time, the status of homosexuality in Imperial China, was always complex.It was only in the Pre-Imperial Era, that homosexuality was a non-complicated matter which saw overwhelming support for such an act, so far as to even deem it normal. At that time, there was no moral or social ramification for homosexuality, should one decide to partake in such pleasures.Then with the advent of Confucianism, then Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam into the Celestial Empire through the Early Imperial and Post-Classical Eras, saw a state of affairs which acted to limit the normalities of homosexuality. Now compared to before, approval of homosexuality was conditional, and dependent on whether one also had a wife and children first, before being permitted to partake in homosexual liaisons.A “buttplug” dating back to the Han Dynasty, was often used in both heterosexual and homosexual intercourse to maximise sexual satisfaction amongst all the concerned parties:Under the totalitarian Ming and Qing Dynasties of the Early Modern Period, the freedom to practice homosexuality consistently declined as the centuries went on, but during the Ming Era especially, saw great advances in the documentation of Lesbianism, and even in certain provinces of China, especially Fujian Province, gay marriages.With the adoption of the Self-Strengthening Movement however, Chinese attempts at Westernization were in full bloom, even regarding morals, and this acted to once and for all end thousands of years of tolerance regarding homosexuality, in the Middle Kingdom, an effect which lasts up until this very day, which contrary to popular belief, was only recently promoted in Chinese culture, over the last few decades especially, and up to the last 300 years at best.And thus, this was precisely the status of homosexuality in Ancient China: one of extreme variation in how it was seen, perceived and treated. As the new ideologies came and went, and as the foreign influences increased at times and decreased at others, so too in unison followed Chinese attitudes to homosexuality. Hence the vastly differing views over the time in how homosexuality was seen by the Ancient Chinese.Offline Sources UtilizedBan, Gu. (66 AD). Records of the Han. Imperial Publishing Agency.Crompton, Louis. (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization. Harvard University Press.Hinsch, Bret. (1990). Passions of the Cut Sleeve. University of California Press.Li, Yinhe. (1992). Their World: a Study of Homosexuality in China. Shanxi People’s Press.Shen, Defu. (1620 AD). Miscellaneous Musings from the Humble Broom Book Room. Imperial Publishing Agency.Sima, Qian (90 BC). Records of the Grand Historian. Imperial Publishing Agency.Xu, Ling. (551 AD). New Songs from a Jade Terrace: ‘Charming Boy’. Imperial Publishing Agency.Online Sources UtilizedLGBT history in China - WikipediaHistory of Chinese homosexualityhttp://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk3/theint1.pdfA Brief History of Homosexuality and Bisexuality in Ancient ChinaA Queer History | Imperial China | Part 4 | polarimagazine.comHomosexuality in ancient China • r/AskHistoriansA brief history of same-sex relationships in ChinaHomosexuality and religion - WikipediaHomosexuality in Chinahttp://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/China.pdfglbtq >> social sciences >> China