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Brighton and Hove Green councillors took over the running of this important unitary authority in May 2011. They are a minority administration, whose initiatives are frequently blocked by Conservative and Labour councillors combined. Here are some of their achievements.Equality, fairness and saving moneyThe council now spends less on seniormanagement than it has in a decade because it cut the chief executive’s salary by 40% and raised the pay of the lowest grades, bringing the ratio between the highest and lowest paidcouncil staff to just over 10:1.Living WageOn taking office the Greens not only introduced a living wage for its staff and care home workers but also supported the Chamber of Commerce to run a Living Wage Commission to encourage private companies to adopt it. As of July 2014 the city is home to 130 of the UK’s 500 living wage paying private companies.Equal payThe Greens grasped the nettle of equal pay for male and female council staff which had been avoided by previous administrations by raising the allowances for some and lowering them for others. It triggered a bin strike but ended with equal allowances for men and women at a time when women lag men by 15 per cent.ReferendumIn 2014 it became the first UK council to propose a referendum on raising council tax 4.75% to protect services for the city's most vulnerable. Labour and Conservative councillors combined to vote down the proposal.Prevention worksIn Oct 2013 new figures showed fewer people in the city are ending up in hospital because of alcohol, more drug users are being treatedand crimes against young people had fallen for the third year in a row.Standing up to homophobiaStonewall put the council in first place in their 2014 Education Equality Index. Stonewall has described the council as ‘leading the way’ in celebrating difference and supporting lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students.Trans inclusivityBrighton’s scrutiny panel was in June 2014 named joint national winner of the Centre for Public Scrutiny’s award for its work investigating Trans inclusivity issues in the city.Restorative justiceThe number of young people entering the criminal justice system in the city fell over the three successive years to Oct 2013 as the council’s youth crime prevention team joined with police to help young people understand the impact of their behaviour and make amends.Open budget discussionThe Green councillors publish annual budget proposals earlier and with more detailThan previous administrations so that they can be scrutinised by everyone, ahead of time, and making this transparent to all – other political parties, citizens and the media.Neighbourhood governanceThe Greens introduced pilots for Neighbourhood Governance schemes, which support communities to take local decisions with local budgets.Urban dereliction to community spaceThey transformed a large, decaying urban open space, Level Park in the centre of town with new gardens, a new water feature, a newchildren’s playground, new public toilets, a cycle café, better lighting and furniture, a new skate park, and more green space. It did this by securing £2.75m of outside funding and using just £250,000 of council taxpayers’ money.Food waste to compostThey expanded community compostingacross the city; in ten of the city’s 26 schemes, residents can turn their food waste into freecompost. More than 500 people are now using the community compost service.Getting recycling rates back upRecycling rates have stabilised and are coming back up after a successful trial of a communal system for blocks of flats in one area has now been rolled out to all blocks. Rates had been falling because new Italian-made communal bins inherited from the Tory administration had proved impractical. Recycling rates were further knocked by bin strikes and lorry breakdowns. Latest figures not yet available.Ethical PurchasingGreens introduced an ethical procurementstrategy to improve minimum standards for the products the council buys in. For example, the World Wildlife Fund has granted the council a Gold standard for timber purchasing.Open-access to green space in perpetuityThey declared over 800 acres of council-owned down land and farm land as‘open access land’, meaning residents can freely use land which was once closedto them. They added another 670 acres in July 2014, protected in perpetuity.Protection for petsNew council tenancy agreements include a requirement that dogs living in council-owned homes should be micro-chipped. This has encouraged more tenants who own dogs to behave responsibly as their pets are much easier to trace.Planting for natureB&H Greens have been including more diverse and sustainable planting in its open spaces such as perennials, wildflowers, and bee and butterfly banks.Affordable HomesBy November 2014, Greens had overseenthe delivery of 389 affordable homes (as part of wider residential and mixed developments). Another 130 are due to be completed before May 2015, and at least another 232 due in the year after the election.Filling empty homesBy July 2014 the Green administration had brought some 416 council homes and more than 460 empty private homes back into use.The average time it takes to re-let an empty council home is now just over two weeks – the lowest in many years and one of the best turn-round times in the UKBuilding new homesIn the Green Party’s term of administration it will have overseen the building 639 homes. A further 681 affordable homes, including more than 200 new council homes, are in the development pipeline.Safety for private tenantsIn Nov 2012 it introduced a new licensing scheme by which private landlords letting a property for sharing by three or more people must bring it up to an agreed standard. More than 1,500 licences were applied for by April 2014 with new fire alarms and other prevention measures installed.Warmer homes, cheaper billsFor the first time in living memory, communal heating bills in some Brighton and Hove council blocks have fallen as council tenants benefit from a major programme of energy efficiency retro-fitting which, where possible, include solar panels and new heating systems.Imaginative SolutionsRather than wait for the Government to provide funds for building new schools, the Green administration bought a disused police station in Hove and revamped it as a satellite to the nearby junior school so that they could increase the number of children they take.Youth employmentIn 2013, thanks to ensuring investment in their team helping young people back into training or work, Brighton & Hove became one of the most improved areas in England with only 6.6% of 16-18 year olds not in employment, education or training – the lowest figure since 2004 when this measure was first calculated.Improving educationEducation in Brighton & Hove was for long a major concern to parents in the city but since the Greens came to office results have improved. The 2013 GCSE results were the best ever, though they fell in 2014 after tougher marking was introduced across the country. A level results continued to improve in 2014. 80% of sixth form and colleges are good or outstanding as judged by the school inspectorate Ofsted.Early years provisionAll Children’s Centres have been kept open across the city with no loss of services, in contrast to many councils and despite government cuts in this area. All the council’s early years provision is judged outstanding by Ofsted.Helping council tenantsIn October 2012 the Greens set up a Housing Inclusion Team, to offer financial help and advice to tenants hit by benefit cuts. The group joined forces with advice charity MAC and by August 2013 had helped nearly 400 people access £350,000 in unclaimed benefits and savings on household bills.No bedroom tax evictionsIn May 2013 the council was the first in the country to declare a “no evictions” policy for tenants who could not pay the bedroom tax. It has been extended to 2014/15.Community BankingThe Green administration invested £100,000 in a local credit union partly to help it set up an online system for residents to access loans, making the credit union as accessible as high interest ‘payday lenders’. It also banned such lenders from advertising on council billboards.“We are very proud to be starting work on our second major site in Brighton, one of the most forward thinking and creative cities in the UK”Richard Upton, Chief Executive of Cathedral Group (Holdings) July 2014City renaissanceThe Greens signed innovative deals in September 2014 to convert the derelict site Circus Street in the city centre into an “innovation quarter” with an academic building, library and gallery for University of Brighton, a new dance studio, theatre and offices and flats. It signed a similar deal with the university to redevelop a derelict army barracks, which is estimated to create 740 new jobs over a 10-year period, including a new business school, 300 homes, and central research laboratory to support hi-tech start-up companies.Hospital redesign – partnership workingThe Greens worked in partnership with the Royal Sussex Hospital to ensure that the proposals for the £420 million rebuild of its Victorian hospital, the city’s biggest ever regeneration project, were brought forward speedily and successfully to planning after they had stalled under the previous Tory administration.Business start upsThe concentration of start-ups and small and medium enterprises in the city grew while the Greens were in office from 2011 to 2013 by 5% giving it the third highest concentration in the country. In June 2014 it was also rated the third best city in the country for small enterprises with high growth strategies.Two new librariesWhile other councils have been closing libraries Brighton greens opened two in 2014 at Mile Oak and Woodlingdean.Health for all18 months after the Greens introduced a concessionary card for entry to leisure centres for people on certain benefits, 1,300 people had signed up and made 34,000 visits to the council’s leisure centres.Healthy, quality foodIn July 2014, Brighton & Hove city council became the first in the country to introduce Soil Association food buying standards for all catering contracts over £75,000, including local and healthier food.Edible LandscapingIn spring 2011, in a moved later recognised by Sustainable Food Cities network and the World Green Building Council it was the first council in the country to encourage urban food growing in its planning guidance, with encouragement to grow on walls, rooftops and balconies. In the twelve months following 44 out of 98 planning applications (45%) proposed food growing as part of development. Examples include a sixth floor raised bed allotment.“Our experience in Brighton and Hove has shown just what can be achieved if you get the right individuals and organisations together to develop a common vision of how they want to change their food system and then support them in turning that vision into reality. For many years, Brighton and Hove has been ahead of the game.” Clare Devereux, Director at Food Matters August 2013TRANSPORT: The ambitious plans of Brighton and Hove’s Green administration, clearlyarticulated, meant that it was able to beat other areas in competitions to obtain a total of £24million of outside transport that meant council tax payers’ bills were kept to a minimum.Steps taken20mphIt has introduced the largest contiguous20mph area in the UK with the whole ofBrighton centre covered. After it wasimplemented, traffic speeds reduced on 74%of the roads, collisions in a 5 month perioddropped by 20% and casualties by 19%.Phases 2 and 3 extended 20mph to most ofthe suburbs.Cycle hubBehind the train station, work has nearlyfinished on a new three-storey “cycle hub”with shower and changing facilities, a bikeshop, café, cycle repair outlet and bike hire, aswell as storage for 500 bikes, free and open24/7. It cost £900,000 but council tax payersonly contributed £100,000.Cycle priority and ‘head-start’ lights for bikesat junctions.Proper cycle LanesThey built cycle lanes on major arterial routesto segregate bikes from fast traffic. Wherethis was done cycling increased by 14% in oneyear.Cycle contraflowOn narrower one-way roads, cycle contraflowlanes were created.Floating bus stopUnder the Greens, the council has become thefirst in Britain to introduce a “floating” busstop where a cycle lane runs behind it to avoidthe buses. (see picture)Travel planningThey continued the work of earlieradministrations on personal travel planning.Since 2006 some 70,000 people had beenvisited at home and offered advice. They alsointroduce eco driving courses showing howpeople could save petrol. Car club hire vehiclenumbers have grown and the city has thethird largest fleet of such vehicles in the UKafter London and Edinburgh.Improving busesBus initiatives have included electronic realtimeboards at bus stops linked to satellitetracking, smartcard and smartphone ticketing.Junctions for peopleDangerous junctions such as Seven Dials andthe Vogue Gyratory reconfigured.“The city has proved itself to be a paradigm of excellence, inspiringand serving as a model to guide and stimulate the furtherdevelopment on sustainable mobility initiatives in Europe.” Civitas- 2013The Results:Seven Dials junction – reconfigured for peopleEuropean City of the Year: Brighton & Hove was named Europe’s City of the Year in September 2014 for its sustainable transport policies by CIVITAS.In 2012 the Campaign for Better Transport named Brighton & Hove the least car dependent city outside LondonBus journeys climbBus usage in the city increased by 5% in 2012 and then by another 3.6% the following year.Bus journeys by Brighton & Hove residents increased from 44.8 million to 46 million, more than residents anywhere else in the UK outside London. It has now doubled in 20 years from 22 million.Air quality improvesIn the last two years nitrous oxidespollution fell at 44 of 46 monitoring stations in Brighton & Hove. Carbon dioxide emissions dropped. Figures from July 2014 show a further fall in CO2 emissions from transport, from 317 tonnes to 301.Bike cityNumber of people cycling to work doubled in the 10 years to 2011. From 2009 to 2012 there was an average 11% rise in daily cycle journeys across the city.Road injuries dropThe latest Dept. of Transport figures showed that casualties on Brighton & Hove’s roads fell for the third year running and by just over 18% in the 3 years since the Greens took office. There were 200 fewer people killed and injured in 2013 than in 2011 before the Greens took office.“Thanks Brighton, it's been fun. We're ready for anything now: the world on two wheels!” Travel writer Joanna Simmons in The Guardian “Bitten by the biking bug in Brighton and Hove”

1 IntroductionThe best way to study economics (in fact probably the best way to study anything) is to study it from an historical development viewpoint, so as to avoid the manifest misdirections of a fixed-focus outlook or the narrow commitment to a single school.That historical development is frequently not only obvious in the frameworks of the development of major systems of economic thought but is also present (if you look for it) in the writing of particular economists. But that is too large an issue to be covered here.The way you study economics is tied up with your objectives in that study. In my view the most important aspect of economics lies in its capability to foster invention and innovation and to produce economic growth which results in a much higher widespread prosperity.2 Major Economic Schools of Economic Thought From An Historical Development ViewpointThere are five major schools of economic understanding which have dominated the world during the last millennium. These areThe German Historical Development SchoolNeo-Classical EconomicsKeynesian EconomicsWashington Consensus MacroeconomicsShimomuran Macroeconomics2.1 The German Historical Development School of EconomicsSee Historical school of economics - Wikipedia which begins by saying“The historical school of economics was an approach to academic economics and to public administration that emerged in the 19th century in Germany, and held sway there until well into the 20th century. The professors involved compiled massive economic histories of Germany and Europe. Numerous Americans were students.[1] The school was opposed by theoretical economists. Prominent leaders included Gustav von Schmoller (1838–1917), and Max Weber (1864–1920) in Germany, and Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883–1950) in the United States.[2]” and“The historical school held that history was the key source of knowledge about human actions and economic matters, since economics was culture-specific, and hence not generalizable over space and time. The school rejected the universal validity of economic theorems. They saw economics as resulting from careful empirical and historical analysis instead of from logic and mathematics. The school also preferred reality, historical, political, and social, as well as economic, to mathematical modelling.” See my blog atThe Most Successful Economic Policy of all timeLet’s examine the data which has led me to that summit-conclusion.2.2 Neo-Classical Economics See Neoclassical economics - Wikipedia which says“Neoclassical economics is an approach to economics focusing on the determination of goods, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand. This determination is often mediated through a hypothesized maximization of utility by income-constrained individuals and of profits by firms facing production costs and employing available information and factors of production, in accordance with rational choice theory.[1]”and“Neoclassical economics dominates microeconomics, and together with Keynesian economics forms the neoclassical synthesis which dominates mainstream economics today.[2]Although neoclassical economics has gained widespread acceptance by contemporary economists, there have been many critiques of neoclassical economics, often incorporated into newer versions of neoclassical theory.”The political utility of neoclassical economics is in its imprisonment of some of the potentially brightest economists in a mental world that bears little relationship to the real one.Neoclassical economics has been part of the Washington Consensus - the the generally-accepted-as-valid dominant theory of economic development since 1980.2.3 Keynesian Economics See Keynesian economics - Wikipedia“Keynesian economics (/ˈkeɪnziən/ KAYN-zee-ən; or Keynesianism) comprises various macroeconomic theories about how in the short run – and especially during recessions – economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total spending in the economy). In the Keynesian view, aggregate demand does not necessarily equal the productive capacity of the economy; instead, it is influenced by a host of factors and sometimes behaves erratically, affecting production, employment, and inflation.[1]The theories forming the basis of Keynesian economics were first presented by the British economist John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression in his 1936 book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.[2] Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply-focused classical economics that preceded his book. The interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy.Keynesian economists generally argue that, as aggregate demand is volatile and unstable, a market economy will often experience inefficient macroeconomic outcomes in the form of economic recessions (when demand is low) and inflation (when demand is high). These can be mitigated by economic policy responses, in particular, monetary policy actions by the central bank and fiscal policy actions by the government, which can help stabilize output over the business cycle.[3] Keynesian economists generally advocate a managed market economy – predominantly private sector, but with an active role for government intervention during recessions and depressions.[4]”Keynesian economics served as the standard economic model in the developed nations during the later part of the Great Depression, World War II, and the post-war economic expansion (1945–1973), though it lost some influence following the oil shock and resulting stagflation of the 1970s.[5] The advent of the financial crisis of 2007–08 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought,[6] which continues as new Keynesian economics.”2.4 Washington Consensus MacroeconomicsAgain, as Washington Consensus - Wikipedia comments:“The Washington Consensus is a set of 10 economic policy prescriptions considered to constitute the "standard" reform package promoted for crisis-wrackeddeveloping countries by Washington, D.C.–based institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Treasury Department.[1]The term was first used in 1989 by English economist John Williamson.[2]The prescriptions encompassed policies in such areas as macroeconomic stabilization, economic opening with respect to both trade and investment, and the expansion of market forces within the domestic economy.Subsequent to Williamson's use of the terminology, and despite his emphatic opposition, the phrase Washington Consensus has come to be used fairly widely in a second, broader sense, to refer to a more general orientation towards a strongly market-based approach (sometimes described as market fundamentalismor neoliberalism). In emphasizing the magnitude of the difference between the two alternative definitions, Williamson himself has argued (see § Origins of policy agenda and § Broad sense below) that his ten original, narrowly defined prescriptions have largely acquired the status of "motherhood and apple pie" (i.e., are broadly taken for granted), whereas the subsequent broader definition, representing a form of neoliberal manifesto,"never enjoyed a consensus [in Washington] or anywhere much else" and can reasonably be said to be dead.Discussion of the Washington Consensus has long been contentious. Partly this reflects a lack of agreement over what is meant by the term, in face of the contrast between the broader and narrower definitions. But there are also substantive differences involved over the merits and consequences of the various policy prescriptions involved. Some critics take issue, for example, with the original Consensus's emphasis on the opening of developing countries to global markets, and/or with what they see as an excessive focus on strengthening the influence of domestic market forces, arguably at the expense of key functions of the state. For other commentators, the issue is more what is missing, including such areas as institution-building and targeted efforts to improve opportunities for the weakest in society. Despite these areas of controversy, a number of developmental institutions and economists (such as Joseph Stiglitz) would by now accept the more general proposition that strategies best work if they are specifically designed to the certain circumstances of the individual countries.”2.4.1 Discussion of Washington Consensus PoliciesThe IMF, OECD and World Bank prescriptions for less developed countries have never taken into account (except in the most minor way in the case of specific projects) the circumstances of individual countries. These US-based institutions have usually applied a “one policy fits all” economic strategy in their IMF, OECD and World Bank reports.Washington Consensus Macroeconomics in all its various policy forms (consisting of Monetarism, the destruction of unions and the political pressure for low wage and salary awards, smaller governments, devaluation, Foreign Direct Investment, Privatisation, Central Bank Independence and Financialisation) or WCE+ has not been helpful in accelerating economic growth anywhere - quite the contrary. Three IMF economists (Jonathan D. Ostry, Prakash Loungani, and Davide Furceri) recognise this. See the June 2016 article in the IMF journal of Finance and DevelopmentNeoliberalism: Oversold? The heads-up abstract of that article is“Instead of delivering growth, some neoliberal policies have increased inequality, in turn jeopardizing durable expansion”In fact nearly all of these policies have done that. Immediately below that article, the IMF’s Chief Economist provides Rethinking Policy at the IMF, an Interview with Chief Economist Maurice Obstfeld, in which he argues for “Evolution Not Revolution.” But as the last four decades have shown, the WCE+ policies have not been capable of progressive evolution, and act as a clutch of Conservative policies which can only benefit the rich.2.4.1 Discussion of Washington ConsensusThe demand equation of national income is C+I+G whereC=Consumption, I=Investment and G = Government Expenditure.If it is an official policy to hold down wage and salary awards, minimise Government investment, and reduce government expenditure, where is the growth in domestic demand expected to come from?Washington Consensus policies are a continually deflationary system for demand and are therefore likely (almost designed) to produce low growth rates and no economic miracles. Unfortunately the Washington economists in the IMF, OECD and World Bank did not, and do not, understand the role of investment credit creation in producing economic miracles. Their thinking and their policies are therefore fundamentally flawed.The list of implemented policies are all intended to produce an advantage for the rich and lower incomes or unemployment for the poor :Monetarism - restricting growth and creating a wealth-destroying economic depression so that national assets can be bought more cheaplyThe destruction of unions and the political pressure for low wage and salary awards to improve profits and the incomes of company ownersSmaller governments to force the privatisation of nationalised industries and enable ownership of monopoly services by the rich and government tax cuts for the richDevaluation to decrease imports and increase exportsForeign Direct Investment to enable foreign money to invest in LDCsPrivatisation to place major often monopoly industries of a country in the hands of foreign ownersAusterity to reduce the incomes of workers and salary earners*Central Bank Independence* in order to ensure the major focus of the central bankers is the control of inflation and not the stimulation of economic development.Financialisation to ensure that Government Policy prefers financial speculation and economies experience credit crunches rather than governments having an industrial policy.2.4.1 The Long-Term Results of Washington Consensus Policies (WC+)None of the above-listed policy aspects of WCE+ could be objected to, if it were not for one towering long-term result: Washington Consensus economics does not produce the goods. It has failed since its enthusiastic launch by Reagan and Thatcher in the early 1980s to assist the economic development of less developed countries, and during the last 38 years it has destroyed the capability of many governments to help their people through investment credit creation because of the forced policy of Central Bank Independence.That policy has producedThe relative economic decline of the USA and the UK, because the rule “of the rich, by the rich, for the rich” has been observed to produce low growth ratesThe flushing by the rich of large flows of money into tax-free havens (usually in the residual islands of the British Empire) and the consequent loss of national saving and vast amounts of taxes by government (see George Tait Edwards's answer to What do the Paradise Papers reveal about the world's wealthiest individuals?)The creation of widespread poverty in the previously prosperous industrial areas of the UK and USA, many of which have turned into low-income “rustbelts”In the UK, the attack on the poor by restricting or removing their ability to access previously automatic social benefits by making applications computer-based, time-consuming, liable to withdrawal and long non-payment penalties for the slightest infringement of the rulesThe unpleasant underlying racialism of the Republican and Conservative parties has produced intolerable outcomes in both the UK and the USA. In America, one black person in 11 is denied the right to vote through not restoring the right to vote to previous, mainly black, felons. This has resulted, most prominently, in the election of President George W Bush due to the denial of the restoration of felon voting rights by his brother Jeb Bush, who was then Governor of California. SeeHow Jeb Bush became a player in one of the South's darkest traditions which says:“The 2000 presidential election was ultimately decided by a 537-vote margin in Florida. More than 500,000 ex-felons were barred from the polls, including at least 139,000 African Americans, who vote overwhelmingly for Democratic candidates. Their exclusion almost certainly changed the outcome of the race. The beneficiary, of course, was Jeb Bush’s brother.”In the United Kingdom, the Conservative Government while Theresa May was Home Secretary adopted a targeted policy of “sending blacks back home” when these people were British citizens of Caribbean origin invited to the UK (and there are numerous descendants of these citizens) but the Government had destroyed the documents that proved that. The reverberations of the Windrush Scandal (see Windrush scandal - Wikipedia) is but one illustration of the inherent racialism of the Conservative party. Another is that the removal of voting rights from millions of UK voters by the Cameron Coalition Government through the 2013 Individual Registration and Administration Act Act - see David Cameron’s Partisan Gerrymandering of the British Democracy -which resulted in 40% of the previous electorate being disenfranchised in Hackney, Britain’s biggest black ward. A very racialist result, although the millions of others who were also disenfranchised were women, students, council tenants and the wider BME community - and all of these groups don’t generally vote Conservative, which was the real point of that Act.2.5 Shimomuran MacroeconomicsThe master economist Dr Osamu Shimomura put forward his theory of the Japanese Economy in 1961. But the first Investment Credit Economist was Wang Anshi (1021–1086) [see How did Wang Anshi contribute to the economic world?] The essence of Shimomuran (and Wang Anshi) Macroeconomics was the creation of large flows of targeted investment credit to raise the natural investment level the country. As I say at Section 5 of The Key Relevance of the Writings of Professor Kenneth Kenkichi Kurihara“The Key Shimomuran Growth-Accelerating Amendment to Keynes’ Savings-Investment Equilibrium EquationThere are many key insights in that book, but the most significant of these is on page 77 where Professor Kurihara quotes the equilibrium condition of the central investment-funding equation of the Shimomura Model of the Japanese economy asS+D = Is+Id (Equation [3.1])Or Saving (S) plus Debt (D, equal to investment credit created by investment credit at creation at the Bank of Japan) equals Is (Investment financed by saving) plus Id (Investment financed by debt)That is, the investment level of Japan is increased by credit creation at the Central Bank of Japan. This equation replaces the classic and central Keynesian Savings-Investment equality with a more useful formula because (if the nation’s banks give a high priority to commercial and industrial investment) the government of a country can increase the nation’s investment level through investment credit creation at the Central Bank. So no-cost investment credit, created by the Bank of Japan, once transmitted through a co-operative banking system to industry, creates vast flows of wealth through industrial investment, higher employment and the continually updated production of better goods and services.”Or, to look at it another way, the demand equation of national income is C+I+G whereC=Consumption, I=Investment and G = Government Expenditure.And where the official policy of a country is to raise annual Consumption (and living standards) as much as possible by increasing economic growth by creating investment credit at the central bank so as to increase national Investment (by an annual target of 15% of GDP in 1960s Japan, and by 25% of GDP in post-1980 China) to increase economic growth, and to continually raise Government expenditure by investment in high-speed rail and better roads and improved hospitals and higher tech universities and greater public buildings, then the people prosper and the economy grows.2.6 Shimomuran-Wernerian Macroeconomics?It seems to me that the use of the [Wernerian] German Sparkassen Banking system to stimulate SME establishment and growth plus the Shimomuran investment credit creation used in all its aspects can potentially produce the highest available rate of green economic growth.3 Cui Bono? Who Benefits From the Adoption and Operation of Different Economic Understandings?In the German Historical Development School, economists can benefit from the development of a meta-economics, of an economic understanding which places each economic development within its era and of its time, and indicates which policies have a permanent economic relevance by increasing the wealth and welfare of a nation.In Neoclassical Economics, an interesting superstructure of mathematical theory can be and has been developed, which is technically interesting but of limited practical use because its assumption are not concordant with reality. Mathematical economists can have immense fun with that. But it’s like playing a computer game with no connection with reality.In Keynesian Economics, Keynes refuted Says’ Law (that demand creates it own supply) and that natural forces therefore create full employment. The world benefitted from the general adoption of deficit financing to provide fuller employment during the thirty years of 1946–76, which many see in retrospect as a “golden era” when living standards rose rapidly, and when the British and American people experienced fuller employment. And when US institutions recommended relevant policies to developing countries, based upon a detailed analysis and discussions of local needs.In Washington Consensus Macroeconomics, from 1980 in both the USA and Britain, the previous hegemonic dominance of these countries was reduced as their economies failed to grow adequately.Using Shimomuran Macroeconomics,the Tokyo Consensus economies have rapidly created much higher living standards for their people. Shimomura’s Income Doubling Plan 1960–70 was implemented by PM Hayato Ikeda and Japanese living standards doubled from 1960 to 1966. President Park, the Prime Minister of South Korea, adopted the three key Shimomuran accelerators of economic growth (central bank subsidiarity, an EPA, and high levels of directed investment credit creation at the SK central bank) and achieved a spectacular growth rate of 14% pa for the two decades from 1960–80. (Unfortunately for the people of South Korea, President Chung-Hee Park was assassinated on Friday 26 October 1979 by Kim Jae-gyu - Wikipedia his head of Security “during a dinner at a Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) safehouse inside the Blue House presidential compound. See Assassination of Park Chung-hee - Wikipedia)The Chinese sent many delegations of economists and businessmen into Tokyo after the September 1972 Sino-Japanese rapprochement. These delegations, according to the Economist at the time “begged the Japanese to share with them the secrets of high economic growth.” And the Japanese Foreign Ministry of issued a statement on 31 August 1980 that“China will emerge as a tremendous economic and military power in the 21st century.”As we now see.See Eight Questions for Western Government Economic Advisors5 An Illustration From The Chinese Poet Zhi-Huan Wang (Tang Dynasty)To understand more than you can see from a lowly position it is necessary to climb up another level. This is beautifully put in the poem “Climbing the White Stork Tower” as followsSource: John Gao, One Hundred & Four Favourite Classic Chinese Poems In English, printed in Great Britain By Amazon, 2018,p40.6 ConclusionWhen you climb up one intellectual level from the universally-taught-in-the-West neo-classical economics and you survey the entire historical horizon of macro-economic thought, you discover there are more effective, practical and more valid methods of stimulating rapid economic development.

Almost one thousand years of history is testament to the treatment of Jews in Arab dominated land.Currently there are numerous misconceptions surrounding Jewish refugees who were allegedly caused by Arab nations during the years that the state of Israel was established. The notion of collective punishment and discrimination under Arab rule has widely been accepted as a fact based on interpretations from verbal accounts on the historic events surrounding the Arab-Israeli conflict. History paints a different picture of those accusations when the complete story is put into perspective.Since the beginning of the British frontier in the Middle East, not only was Palestine a British colony in the early 1900s, but the Empire had also controlled Egypt since conquering the French in 1882, as well as Sudan in 1899 and Yemen as early as 1839. The land that was once borderless under Islamic rule was slowly being sliced up and became provinces under the British Commonwealth.At the outbreak of World War I (1914 - 1918), the new emerging Zionist movement also stood out as a significantly strong entity with slightly differing motives than that of the British. While the British Empire was flourishing from land expansions, Zionism was thriving economically, and many of the Jews of Europe excelled in trade, usury and public relations.Two of its significant leaders, Dr Weizmann and Baron Rothschild, helped fund Britain’s victory in Europe during the Great War. They had only one request in return for the immense favour they bestowed on the Commonwealth for its victory in the First War, and that was the historic Balfour Declaration which was written to Rothschild in order to hand over one of the regions in the Middle East to establish a Jewish-only state.Meanwhile Britain had already begun establishing monarchies for favourable families that were subservient to the Empire, so naturally nations such as Egypt became an open gateway to the Middle East for the Jewish community before they could claim a land of their own.The Kingdom of Egypt subsequently made exemptions to rulings over compulsory visas in favour of Jewish immigrants. Naturally, many Jews flocked to this hub of multiculturalism across the Mediterranean from their origins in Europe. Many Egyptians today tell the tale of Jewish neighbours who had become friends over the years with many cultural exchanges including family recipes and traditions. Egypt provided a safe haven for many Jews who comprised of Sephardi Jews (migrating from Morocco and other Arab countries), Ashkenazim Jews (predominantly from Eastern Europe and those from pre-WWII), Jews from southern Europe, and the native Jews who had already existed in Egypt for centuries (namely the Karaites and Rabbanites) and who were previously living under the laws of the Islamic province of Egypt.Regarding the lifestyle of these indigenous Jews before British rule, the Islamic governor of Egypt had ordered that others could not interfere with their way of life nor in their celebrated holidays. They were considered Dhimmis or "protected subjects". Their protection came with the precondition that a jizya or "poll tax" must be paid to provide security, build roads, help fund places of worship and other benefits that ultimately influenced fundamental practices of modern governance today with modern tax. While Muslims did not pay jizya, they were obligated to pay zakat, which is part of the tenants of their religious obligations. Obviously since Dhimmis were not required to perform one of the obligatory pillars of Islam, another method of taxation was required of them in society.In the Muslim world, Jews also obtained high social positions such as doctors, clerks, tax collectors, and even received special positions in the Egyptian courts as early as the 9th century. There are historians today that prefer to consider these minority groups "second-class citizens" simply because they were excused from Muslim duties and the Shari'a Law, yet they were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract and obligation, and were given rights to maintain their own religious rites and freedoms. Incidentally this provided more flexibility and allowances than what is currently provided in Western society today for those who wish to establish their own religious laws within sub-communities for minorities.Further to this, under British occupation treatment towards Jews was no different. The Jewish community which had otherwise been persecuted abroad was embraced by Egyptians citizens. Some Jews during British rule even had their entries at the royal court and were able to contribute to the nation's public transport, cotton industry, sugar refinery, banking, department stores, real-estate developments, agriculture, as well as having jobs as accountants, shopkeepers, teachers, and merchants. They had just as much opportunity to fulfil a successful life as any other Egyptian citizen at the time.Following the popular uprising against British rule in 1919, Britain ended the protectorate in 1922 and the Kingdom of Egypt became nominally independent, although still dependent on Britain financially. This did not phase Jewish migrants.In 1932 and 1933 the Egyptian government conducted a campaign offering Egyptian citizenship to any resident of Egyptian territory who wanted it. Some Egyptian Jews were among those who took advantage of the offer and became Egyptian citizens, while others chose to remain stateless, though it became more difficult for stateless residents to become citizens later on.Due to the end of capitulations between Egypt and European countries in 1937, which shielded foreign nationals from the law of the land, and due to high unemployment in Egypt which increased dramatically when many businesses closed after WWII, these foreign nationals, including many Jews, found it difficult to maintain jobs especially because they did not have Egyptian citizenship.What was worse was that Jewish migration from Europe was growing during WWII and it didn't take long before the Nazis followed them. Amongst many other things, one of the main reasons why Hitler attempted to conquer Egypt was an attempt to eliminate the Jews from Egypt.These two critical issues created the first wave of Jewish emigration. As a result, they fled based on their own fear and insecurity. But while an attempted eradication of Jews in Egypt was unsuccessful, many Jews still remained in Egypt; especially the higher class citizens that had much of their wealth invested in the country.After the Nazis failed, the Kingdom continued to maintain its own laws. Some of the Ottoman systems that still existed were sustained by the Egyptian monarchy. At the time, Ottoman systems maintained legal protection for non-Muslim minorities which obviously included the autonomous Jewish communities. Any crimes committed against these Jews were not represented by the Kingdom of Egypt, and were rather considered criminal acts of racism. Although demonstrations and riots broke out following the commemoration of the Balfour declaration with some Egyptians lashing out violently against all who supported the letter to Rothschild, these protests consequently subsided with increased security by the Egyptian government to provide guards to protect the Jewish Quarter.The Egyptian Kingdom's protection was maintained even after the independence of the state of Israel regardless of the fact that war was declared against the Zionists who took Palestinian territory unilaterally.Egyptian rulers implemented martial law and stamped down their authority on any Zionist supporters living in Egypt as they were officially declared enemies of the state following the invasion of Palestine. Particular emphasis on "Zionist supporters" rather than Jews themselves was made because it was the growing secular movement with it's intention to take Arab land that was a threat to the nation. This law was not exclusive to Zionists however, as many Egyptians were arrested for violence within a nation that suddenly became volatile. The Muslim Brotherhood became outlawed and so were many other opposition organisations. Egypt was completely alienated due to being in a state of war.Some Jews (primarily Ashkenazim Jews) were extremely fearful of the animosity of the war between Israel and the Arab world that they decided to migrate to the newly formed state especially because Zionist campaigns encouraged them to run to the hills and take land while it was "there for the taking". This is in contrast to what many people describe as an "exodus" in 1948, especially when the Jews themselves describe this ritual as the spiritual "aliyah" or ascension as was the Jewish aspiration since the Babylonian exile.Egypt's status changed over the next few years when a military coup overthrew the monarchy in 1952 for failure to protect their neighbours from the humiliating defeat against the Zionist movement's invasion. Other reasons for the coup also included political corruption due to remnants of British influence which had helped form the Zionist state.The state of Egypt was then transformed into a military ruling nation where emergency laws were enforced. One of the most significant changes due to this law was the deportation of those who lived in Egypt without visas or any other kind of evidence to prove Egyptian citizenship. This wasn't a direct attack on Jews, especially since British and French supporters were primarily considered enemies of the state for their support in the attempted invasion of 1956 by France, Britain and Israel, and so were subsequently expelled from Egypt.Despite these expulsions, there were still Jews who claimed they were still making a good living from their growing businesses even up until the late 1960's and were reluctant to leave the country empty-handed. They were able to stay because they had citizenship and were not supporters of the enemies of state.Egypt was drastically changed from having open borders to being in a state of security. This behaviour is common throughout the world today and is mirrored in Western countries such as the US with the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security in response to the September 11 attacks in 2001.This harsh environment regarding the changes in Egyptian policies were mainly due to the undeniable and overwhelming fear that resulted from the establishment of Israel because the Zionist state posed a very imminent threat for a potential expansion beyond Egypt's borders, as it ultimately did in 1967.Thus military rule created instability and political uncertainty in Egypt, even when considering the significant shifts in alliances from the Soviet Union to the US and up until the days of Mubarak's downfall. Many Jews actually decided to leave Egypt voluntarily, pre-empting repercussions from the political instability. This is no different than the Egyptian citizens who also fled from their own homeland and became migrants in countries across the world including the United States, Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, particularly after the 1967 invasion. These Egyptian migrants were not considered refugees, just as the Jews were not. They fled for much the same reasons, and were considered migrants because applications were never made for refugee status with the UN. Jews either migrated to the United States, France and Australia or had answered to the Israeli call to establish settlements on Palestinian soil.Currently, some Jews claim that racial discrimination against the few remaining Jews in Egypt still exist today especially because of an isolated incident recently regarding the prevention of a marriage between an Egyptian and a Jew. The reality is that even amongst Jewish sects there are significant cultural differences. The Karaite Jews (followers of the Torah) and the Rabbanite Jews (followers of the Talmud) have their own separate synagogues and their own separate schools, and although they both recognise each other as the indigenous Jews of Egypt who lived there for centuries, mixed marriages were an issue for their cultural traditions, let alone cultural differences between Sephardi Jews from Spain, or the Ashkenazim from Eastern Europe.Some also claim that discrimination against Jews existed because they were denied the right to vote in elections, however this claim does not take into consideration the fact that all of Egypt including its citizens were denied the right to vote in any national election that existed ever since military rule took control of the country, with the staged formalities of elections to try and show Egypt's "democracy".There has been a common trend amongst the Jewish Diaspora to isolate the sufferings of Jewish people during the time of war so that their own stories would be vindicated by excluding stories of suffering from the general population in the region as a result of the cruelties of war.Incidentally this victimisation is also used with the constant reminders of genocide that occurred as a result of the holocaust during WWII while failing to describe the many tens of thousands of men, women and children who also suffered collectively from the war. Somehow the words "holocaust" and "exodus" have only been attributed to the Jewish people and astonishingly these words are not accepted nor tolerated to be used in conjunction with any other suffering people as a result of collective punishment in warfare.Its time that we started sympathizing for humanity collectively when a population suffers at the hands of invasions and political and economic instabilities throughout the world. This ongoing story of suffering is not exclusively kept for the Jews.Sources:Jewish Emigration from Arab and Muslim Countries Following Israeli IndependenceOmar's Conduct Towards The Dhimmis