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Australia has a small population and is a long way away.As a result, we are often on the peripheral of world affairs.Despite this we have been at the coal face of EVERY SINGLE major conflict of the past 140 years and lost so many men in both world wars that we had a noticeable lack of them right into the late 1970s, yet the vital role that the ANZACS have played in ALL theaters of BOTH World Wars are thoroughly underrepresented in context with the often overpowering nationalistic narratives of other nations.Other nations, closer to the centers of power have a voice.They have systemic means in which to underscore the courage and sacrifices of their grandfathers and great grandfathers.The Americans have the Hollywood machine and mainstream media platforms that reach the entire world and in modern terms history is pretty well written by the United States.Watch any American movie or documentary and you would be excused for believing there were no Australians or Kiwis in the Pacific at all.- Indeed it is known that Macarthur downplayed Australian involvement in the Pacific in favour of an American narrative.The British are usually more aware but again being a prominent nation at the center of world events, their sacrifices are well understood by the rest of the world.What is often not understood is that when you read “British” forces it can mean various things.It can mean English forces, it can mean British forces or it can mean Commonwealth forces.It can also mean English, British and Commonwealth forces or it can mean a combination of any or all of the above.The problem arises not in the division of troops or their jurisdiction but rather lazy journalism by un-invested people not caring enough to understand the distinctions between England, Britain, the Commonwealth or the individual Commonwealth nations.So why do Australians assert their role in WW2?Because they fear that if they don’t the sacrifices of their forefathers will be whitewashed from popular history.Full-scale Military Engagements:Boer War, The Boxer Rebellion (China), Malayan Emergency, The USSR during the October Revolution of 1917/18, EVERY SINGLE theater of World War One, World War two with an emphasis upon North Africa and Southern Europe, EVERY SINGLE Island of the Pacific, Burma, Malaysia, Borneo, Singapore, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Yugoslavia, Croatia, both Iraq wars, Afghanistan, Timor, The War against ISIL (Syria, Iraq, Nigeria and Afghanistan) as well as operating (often covertly) throughout every corner of the planet through the 70 years of the Cold War.Notable infantry Battles:(in context with the above list of military engagements)Australians were also synonymous with such battles as Gallipoli, Fromelles, The Battle of Britain, Tobruk, El Alamein, The Battle of Messines, The Battle of Hamel, The Charge of the Light Horse (Beersheba), Tarakan, Hill 60, The Kokoda Trail, The Battle of Moquet farm, Polygon Wood, Battle of the Menin Road Ridge, Battle of Broodseinde, Battle of Coral–Balmoral, Battle of Amiens, Battle of Poelcappelle, Battle of Buna–Gona, Battle of Milne Bay, Battle of Ioribaiwa, Battle of Shaggy Ridge, Battle of Arras, Battle of Binh Ba, Aitape–Wewak campaign, Battle of Isurava, Battle of Magdhaba, Battle of Pozières, Battle of Bita Paka, Battle of Villers-Bretonneux, Finisterre Range campaign, Battle for Baby 700, Battle of Mont Saint-Quentin, Battle of Mission Ridge, Battle of Kaiapit, Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt, Battle of Elands River, Battle of Slater's Knoll, Landing at Nadzab, First Battle of Passchendaele, Battle of St Quentin Canal, Kapyong, Long Tan and Khe San amongst a long list of others.(Literally too many in fact to name)Notable naval battles:Battle of Jutland, Battle of Cocos, Naval operations in the Dardanelles campaign, Battle of Rufiji Delta, Operation Abstention, Attack on Convoy AN 14, Attack on Convoy BN 7, Battle between HMAS Sydney and German Auxillary Cruiser Kormoran, Battle of the Bismark Sea, Battle of Calabria, Battle of Cape Matapan, Battle of Cape Spada, Battle of the Coral Sea, Battle of Dakar, Battle of Eastern Solomons, Battle off Endau, Battle of the Espero Convoy, Guadal canal naval order battle, Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, Operation I-Go, Battle of the Java Sea, Battle of Leyte, Leyte Gulf Order of Battle, Battle of the Mediterranean, German attacks on Nauru, Pacific North Western area campaign, Battle of Rennell Island, Battle of Savo Island, First Battle of Sirte, Battle of the Strait of Otranto, Battle of Sunda Strait, Operation vigorous, Action of 13th December 1964, Naval Battle at Han River 1951, The Singapore raid, The Sydney and Emden Engagement - again, amongst many others.UN Operations:Yemen (twice), Cyprus, India (three times), Pakistan (three times), Yugoslavia, Croatia, Indonesia (three times), Kashmir, Korea (Three times and separate from their US coalition engagements), Israel (and neighbouring nations), Congo, Western New Guinea, Sinai, Lebanon, Iran and Iraq ( three times and separate from their American coalition engagements), Thailand, Cambodia (three times), Namibia, Western Sahara, Somalia (three times and separate from their US coalition engagements), Rwanda, Mozambique, Guatemala, East Timor (five times), Ethiopia, Eritrea, Afghanistan (separate from their US coalition engagements), Sudan.Home Soil:Weipa, Cairns, Cooktown, Broom and Darwin were also almost completely destroyed by areal bombing (Darwin was bombed 64 times), Sydney Harbour attacked by submarines and Japanese ground forces engaged on the Australian mainland on various occasions. Australia was also vital as the forward operating base for all allied forces (with an emphasis upon the US Marines and Pacific Fleet) and in supplying food and various armaments throughout the Pacific war. Today we allow US defense installations and personnel on our soil, offer safe harbour for allied naval and air assets, joint train with US, British, Canadian and New Zealand forces and are highly strategic and regarded in the allied intelligence community.Australians also managed to hold back the full might of the Japanese invasion force alone and unaided in the mountains of New Guinea for almost two years while they waited for American (and other ANZAC) forces to island-hop across the Western Pacific and reinforce them.Lastly an honorable, solemn and heartfelt acknowledgment of the 4000 Aussies taken prisoner by the Germans in WW1, the 8000 taken prisoner by the Germans in World War Two and especially the 22000 that suffered unspeakable atrocities as pows at the hands of the Japanese.~The ANZACS had amongst the very highest military losses PER CAPITA in BOTH world wars - for the most part supporting their allies on the opposite side of the planet in conflicts that would otherwise not have directly affected them and have, it must be said, been treated pretty badly.They are certainly amongst the top five most experienced militaries in the world and yet without some form of vocalization, we fear that our sacrifices would be largely lost behind the background din of other more dominant nations loudly and relentlessly circle jerking themselves into a nationalistic fervor at the expense of the truth and how shit really went down.~ I lost my Great grandfather at Gallipoli and my grandfather was on the railway in Burma.Not even counting great uncles ect.I also have an uncle who served in Vietnam and lost a close friend in Afghanistan.That means something and is mirrored in families in every street right across this nation.That's why we speak.Kiwis and Canadians too.Lest we forget.

Lack of jobs.Historically Southern Oregon was among the last parts of the state to be populated. The Wagon trains typically took the path of least resistance and traveled along the Columbia River Gorge to settle in the Willamette Valley. While the Applegate Trail into Southern Oregon was established relatively early the distance of the Rogue Valley from ocean access was a huge deterrent to settlement.While Portland grew into a huge seaport, those in the Rogue Valley saw a huge influx of people due to Gold Rushes. But most of them left quickly before any large scale transportation between the Coast or between Southern Oregon and the Willamette Valley was established. Stage Coaches and Wagon Roads were common, but frequently impassible due to weather. Dirt roads turned to mud quickly. Even today the same route can still be snowed out.Then there was also the Rogue Indian Wars. This further discouraged settlers in the area, and many decided to go north where first contact with White Settlers and their diseases had long ago wiped out the bulk of the Native Population and by default made the Willamette Valley safer during the wars.Several people tried to remedy the lack of transportation into the Rogue Valley. But even the most successful railroad ended up far north of this area spearheaded by a rogue and ex-Confederate officer named Colonel T.E. Hogg. It’s failure was due in part to the terrain, but also embezzling of funds by Hogg.If we look at Southern Oregon at the Coast, the treacherous (and shallow) river crossings did a lot to discourage ships from trying to land settlers. The few coastal communities created ended up far apart, didn’t spread far inland, and were often isolated from each other due to weather and terrain. The Oregon Coast Highway was started in 1914 and used the actual beach in most areas for access. This still left a lot of the Southern Communities isolated and wasn’t finished until the 1930s. The lack of access meant that Southern Oregon Coastal towns didn’t generally see the huge population influxes during the summer that Northern towns did in those days so they missed out on the economic opportunities.East of the Cascades, Southern Oregon had the same lack of access to transportation coupled with the desert. During the time of settlement, Oregon’s High Desert was even dryer then it is now with years of drought at a time. Only the most hardy of people settled there, and even then any kind of agriculture was hard. Sheep became a common source of income and places like Shaniko grew fast to help transport sheep. But the railroad didn’t come to town until 1900.So over all the Southern Oregon Population remained relatively low. Lack of access to good transportation meant settlers didn’t have a market outside of their local area to sell goods. And when they did, prices of transportation made it hard to compete and make a profit.It wasn’t until the start of WWI that Southern Oregon in general saw any industry in the area. The need for Spruce created tens of thousands of jobs all across Northern California, Oregon and Washington. This need only expanded again during WWII, during the post WWII building boom until it crashed in the late 50s/early 60s. Many of the timber workers in those days ended up moving back to wherever they came from. A second building boom in Japan created demand again but that ended with their economic crash in the 80s and still more jobs were lost.In general, most southern Oregon towns, coastal, Rogue Valley, Central/Eastern Oregon had their economies too closely tied to timber and weren’t able to diversify. When the crash happened, it affected everyone. Coos Bay was a huge shipping port for timber from all over Southern Oregon and Northern California and is still limping along on the business of a few dozen ships a year vs. the 5 or 6 a day it used to see. Medford and Grants Pass are fairly large towns but their economies are still fairly isolated. Tourism, travelers through town, local agriculture and some logging keeps them going. But their distance from rail and the ocean, and the US’s general inability to keep industrial/manufacturing jobs means that even these towns are going to slowly die over time.On the southern Oregon coast, things are getting worse as climate change and pollution cause issues with the fishing industry. Southern Oregon in the High Desert is a lost cause. Dozens of towns are only a name on the map. Plowed under by industrial wheat farming that employees a few dozen people and a few family owned farms that scrape by each year.There is no real solution here. Manufacturing isn’t coming back to the United States. And even if it did, there are hundreds of better places for it to come back to then Southern Oregon. Technology isn’t a savior like it is for Portland. Large Scale Data Centers and Solar Farms only need a few dozen people to run the facilities. Outside of timber and rock, there isn’t a lot of resource extraction work in Southern Oregon, and tourism only goes so far due to the distance from Portland.

Illuminated Manuscript Letters S Printable Alphabet LettersNot all manuscripts during the Middle Ages and Renaissance were religious in nature. This period abounded with volumes that contained histories, romances, fables, and legal and scientific writings. The rise of universities paralleled the need for a variety of books to fill their libraries. Additionally, as literacy increased in a growing middle class, so did the number of volumes written in vernacular languages.[1]By the high Middle Ages, the making of a manuscript was often divided among four distinct craftsman: the parchment maker, scribe, the illuminator and the bookbinder.[2] Typically, each belonged to a guild with specific guidelines and standards.The construction of an illuminated manuscript began with the parchment maker, who prepared the animal skins used to make the leaves of a manuscript. Although paper was present in Europe as early as the 14th century, manuscripts were most often written on the specially prepared skin of calves, sheep, or goats, though sometimes parchment makers used smaller animals including rabbits and even squirrels.[3] Though expensive, parchment provided a surface that was beautifully textured, translucent, and durable.St. Mark, about 1120–1140, unknown, German, Helmarshausen. (Saint Mark (Getty Museum)Once the skins were prepared and cut, the scribe wrote the manuscript’s text by hand. A scribe usually made his own quills and ink.[4] In the manuscript page above, St. Mark is portrayed as a scribe dipping his quill into a pot of ink as he sits before a lectern. Mark holds a knife in his left hand, used not only to sharpen his quill, but also to “erase” any mistakes on the manuscript by scratching away the top layer of the parchment along with the mistake.Up to the 12th century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium.[5] Within the walls of a scriptorium were individualized areas where a monk could sit and work on a manuscript without being disturbed by his fellow brethren. If no scriptorium was available, then “separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk.”[6]By the 14th century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium had almost fully given way to commercial urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands.[7] While the process of creating an illuminated manuscript did not change, the move from monasteries to commercial settings was a radical step. Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that Monastic libraries began to employ secular scribes and illuminators.[8] These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.[9]In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would “undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe’s agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation.[10]Once the text was completed by the original scribe, the manuscript was sent to the rubricator (specialized scribes)[11] who supplimented (in red or other colors) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on for emphasis. The term rubrication comes from the Latin rubrico, "to color red".[12]If the book was to be illustrated, it was sent to the illuminator.The Image of the IlluminatorIn reality, illuminators were often well known and acclaimed and many of their identities have survived. Nuns, friars and the clergy in cathedrals and parish churches – as well as monks – played a vital role in manuscript production throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.[13] Depictions of illuminators are rare, but the prolific artist William de Brailes, based in 13th-century Oxford, left at least three images of himself.[14] Here he is shown in the lower right semi-circle, being saved on Judgement Day. St Michael lifts him away from the sinners who are condemned to eternity in Hell. William holds a scroll inscribed ‘W[illiam] de Braile[s] made me.’[15] It confirms his identity, advertises his authorship of the image and reveals the spiritual anxieties of a highly successful member of the professional book trade.A manuscript was not considered complete without an equally fine binding to protect the manuscript, hold the leaves together, and keep them from absorbing moisture and therefore curling. The bookbinder affixed metal clasps or ties of leather or fabric to keep the manuscript tightly closed.[16] Bindings were sometimes embellished with paint, enamel, or with designs stamped into leather with metal tools. The most precious bindings were adorned with metalwork and jewels, particularly in the early Middle Agces.[17]Through most of the Middle Ages, however, manuscripts were sewn onto bands or thongs or cords running at right angles horizontally across the spibe. The stitching of each gathering goes through the centre fold and around the band, through the centre fold again and out around the next band, back through the centre fold again, and so on. The next gathering is the same, and the next, and the next, until all the gatherings are attached securely to the thongs across their spines.[18]The Garima Gospels, Possibly the Earliest Surviving Illuminated Christian ManuscriptsThe earliest extant substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire.[19] Their significance lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, but also in the maintenance of a link of literacy offered by non-illuminated texts. Had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished.[20] As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians.[21] Illumination of manuscripts, as a way of aggrandizing ancient documents, aided their preservation and informative value in an era when new ruling classes were no longer literate, at least in the language used in the manuscripts.Compared to today, few people were able to read and write. Those who could were mainly church men (and, to a lesser extent, women), who read and composed works (mostly in Latin) ranging from commentaries on the Bible, philosophy, history, and the saints, to romances, ghost stories, and bawdy tales of misadventure.[22]However, as an ever-more wealthy, literate and largely urban population developed in the high and later Middle Ages, so too did the audience for sophisticated writings. People read (or listened) for entertainment as well as education. A growing number of rich and aristocratic patrons had an appetite for many kinds of writing: books told of the exotic adventures of noblemen and women; of ancient battles and love stories; of the crimes of sinners and villains, and of the deeds of saints and heroes.[23]This growing interest in literature is also reflected in the emergence of vernacular texts - texts written in Italian, French, English and so on - especially from the 1100s onwards.[24] Whereas Latin writing was produced by and for a largely clerical audience, this new literature was accessible to a broader public. Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, secular illuminated manuscripts increased in volume and incorporated all aspects of knowledge and non-fiction as well fiction and novels. What follows is only a minute representation of some of the larger categories of manuscripts.The bestiaryBestiary - WikipediaIn the Middle Ages, animal stories were immensely popular throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The people of the time were, of course, dependent on wild and domestic animals for their survival, and so had an obvious interest in the animals around them. But there is more to it than just a requirement for knowledge of the animals they knew and used; there is a distinctly spiritual and even mystical aspect to the animal lore of the Middle Ages.[25]Animals had been written about for centuries before the Christian era, but it was Christianity that took the stories and made them into religious allegories. The first known text to do this was the Physiologus, written in Greek in Alexandria in the second or third century CE. [26] This collection of animal lore is explicitly Christian; it briefly describes an animal, and continues with an Christian allegorical interpretation. The Physiologuswas a "bestseller" that was translated into most of the major languages of Europe and western Asia; it is said that it was the most widely-distributed book in Europe after the Bible.[27] Many variations on the text appeared over the centuries. The original Physiologus text, describing less than 50 animals, continued to evolve, accumulating more beasts and additional moral interpretations. Around the seventh century, Isiodore of Seville wrote his Etymologiae[28] , an encyclopedia of which part was about animals, derived from the books of Classical authors such as Pliny the Elder.[29] When thePhysiologus combined with the Etymologiae and other texts, the book known as the bestiary was born.The bestiary, or "book of beasts", is more than just an expansion of the Physiologus, though the two have much in common. The bestiary also describes a beast and uses that description as a basis for an allegorical teaching, but by including text from other sources it goes further; and while still not a "zoology textbook", it is not only a religious text, but also a description of the world as it was known.[30]Learning moral lessons from animals: The Aberdeen BestiaryBestiaries are collections of stories about animals both real and fantastical. These pseudo-scientific catalogues reached the height of popularity in the 12th and 13th centuries. The texts were filled with moralizing animal descriptions overlaid with Christian symbolism and principles.[31] They satisfied the abundant curiosity about the natural world while simultaneously honoring God.A large number of bestiary manuscripts were written in Latin, in the Middle Ages the common language of scholars and clerics, with many more written in vernacular languages, mostly French. The Latin bestiary was primarily a product of England, though a few were produced elsewhere, particularly in France.[32] Their authors or compilers are unknown, but there are several distinct groups or “families" of manuscripts.[33] In France, several vernacular verse bestiaries appeared, in various dialects of what is now French, and in these the author usually gives us his name. Gervaise wrote his Bestiaire in the Norman French dialect around the beginning of the thirteenth century[34] , as did Guillaume le Clerc[35] ; Phillippe de Thaon wrote his in the Anglo-Norman dialect around 1121.[36] In the early thirteenth century Pierre de Beauvais wrote two versions of a prose French Bestiaire.[37] Many copies of the French bestiaries remain.Manuscripts of chivalryThe medieval reader could learn Christian morals from the bestiary, and then turn to law books, romances, and other texts to better understand codes of chivalry. Chivalry was a system of values that permeated almost every aspect of aristocratic culture, from fashion to hunting to codes of law.[38]Vidal Mayor, about 1290–1310 (Vidal Mayor | Worlds of Law)One fine example of a manuscript that highlights the chivalric protocol is a Spanish volume from the late 13th century. Called the Vidal Mayor, the book includes laws devoted to a variety of issues, from the legal rights of orphans to those of women leaving their husbands.[39]One of the most powerful aspects of the Vidal Mayor is how it portrays people engaged in everyday legal activities and disputes. The illuminated manuscript shows the law in action, and it depicts law as a human creation.[40]The functioning of [their] representative mode can be grasped when perceived in the context of the larger meaning attributed to the category of the imago in the Middle Ages: not only as a symbolic material product—miniatures or metaphors—but equally as a mental image, an imaginary mental operation, in this case the juridical enunciation of a case. Through this structure, the Vidal Mayor’s images adopt the formula of juridical casuistry. Not only do they reproduce the casuistic methodology by giving yet another juridical example for each fuero, but also the image itself reproduces the casuistic procedure undertaken by the judge as he is shown stating a particular case in his court. Through reproducing the methods of jurisprudence, the images of this manuscript on customary law, make up, in this manner, the core of juridical complexities. Their visual movement originates in the court, moves through the particular case stated, and then takes us back to the court where the fuero is being applied—thus to the text.[41]How to Make the Most of Digitised ManuscriptsRomancesMirth and Gladness lead a Dance in this miniature from a manuscript of the Roman de la Rose (Le Roman de la Rose (The Romance of the Rose)The very word romance comes from the word roman—that is, a narrative written in one of the Romance languages derived from Latin (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian).[42] These tales often followed the adventures of a knight, whose aim was to prove himself in battle and in the bedroom. Over time the French word roman has come to stand for the genre of fiction known in English as the novel. Amorous love, in the Middle Ages and even today, was so bound up in the literature of love that it is difficult to know what came first: Did French medieval stories (romans) create the vision of love we now call romantic, or did romantic love exist prior to the storytellers?[43]Romances grew in popularity in the Middle Ages—most especially, the Romance of the Rose. The story centers on a lover who dreams of a beautiful rose kept captive in a castle.[44] The rose represents the object of romantic love. Allegorical characters in the story, such as Courtesy, Youth, Fear, and Idleness, either help or hamper the lover's attempts to win the rose.[45]The heart extolled by 12th-century storytellers was always faithful to its one true love. As Chrétien de Troyes wrote in his masterful Lancelot, “Love, which rules / All hearts / allows them only / One home.”[46] Similarly the chaplain Andreas Capellanus, who also enjoyed the patronage of Marie de Champagne, wrote in his Latin treatise On Love (De arte honeste amandi), “True love joins the hearts of two people with so great a feeling of love that they cannot long for the embraces of others.”[47] Fidelity to the beloved was a given in medieval literature, whatever the truth might be outside the text in the lives of real people.The Anatomy of Sight: Poetic Eyedentity in Shakespeare’s Sonnets to...The belief in faithfulness applied whether the sought-after woman was a virginal maid or already married.[48] Obviously, when the desired woman was someone else’s wife, love was, to say the least, problematic. The stories of Tristan and Isolde, Lancelot and Guinevere, and other adulterous couples spoke for the appeal of forbidden fruit. Though we can never know the extent to which adultery existed in real life, medieval society seems to have been obsessed with the subject of the adulteress[49] , as reflected in numerous high-culture verse narratives and popular satirical tales known as fabliaux. Fabliaux were short metrical tale made popular in medieval France by the jongleurs, or professional storytellers, characterized by vivid detail and realistic observation and were usually comic, coarse, and often cynical, especially in their treatment of women.[50]Given the fear that women would produce bastard offspring, feudal practices made it difficult for them ever to be alone. Women of noble birth were constantly surrounded by other women—relatives and servants commanded by the male head of the house to keep careful watch over his wife or daughters.Scientific textsLiberal arts education - WikipediaThe basic course of learning in the Middle Ages was the study of the seven liberal arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy.[51] A renewed interest in the natural world in the 1200s ensured a prominent place for astronomy in the growing universities of Europe.The trivium (Latin for three ways), included the literary disciplines: Grammer, the science of the correct usage of language. It helps a person to speak and write correctly; Dialectic (or logic), the science of correct thinking. It helps you to arrive at the truth; Rhetoric, the science of expression, especially persuasion. Ways of organizing a speech or document to inform a particular audience.The quadrivium (Latin for four ways), included the disciplines connected with mathematics. They were: arithmetic (taught about numbers), geometry (taught about calculating spaces), astronomy (taught about the stars) and music (taught ratio and proportion related to melody and song as it was in the Middle Ages.[52]Constellation Diagrams, early 1200s, unknown (Miscellany of Texts on the Quadrivium (Getty MuseumThis period also saw the birth of medieval universities, which benefited materially from the translated texts and provided a new infrastructure for scientific communities. Some of these new universities were registered as an institution of international excellence by the Holy Roman Empire, receiving the title of Studium Generale.[53] Most of the early Studia Generali were found in Italy, France, England, and Spain, and these were considered the most prestigious places of learning in Europe. This list quickly grew as new universities were founded throughout Europe. As early as the 13th century, scholars from a Studium Generale were encouraged to give lecture courses at other institutes across Europe and to share documents, and this led to the current academic culture seen in modern European universities.[54]The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle allowed the full development of the new Christian philosophy and the method of scholasticism.[55] By 1200 there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of Aristotle, Euclud, Ptolemy, Archimedes and Galen—that is, of all the intellectually crucial ancient authors except Plato.[56] Also, many of the medieval Arabic and Jewish key texts, such as the main works of Avicenna, Averroes and Maimonide now became available in Latin.[57] During the 13th century, scholastics expanded the natural philosophy of these texts by commentaries (associated with teaching in the universities) and independent treatises.[58] Notable among these were the works of Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, John of Sacrobosco, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus.[59]A Medieval Multiverse - Medievalists.netScholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic.[60] The most famous was Thomas Aquinas (later declared a "Doctor of the Church"), who led the move away from the Platonic and Agustinian and towards Aristotelianism[61] (although natural philosophy was not his main concern[62] ). Meanwhile, precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mmathematics as a way to understand nature and in the empirical approach admired by Roger Bacon.[63]Calligraphy model booksThe Model Book of Calligraphy (1561–1596): A Stunningly Detailed Illuminated Manuscript Created over Three DecadesThe Mira calligraphiae monumenta, or calligraphy model book was first created in 1561–62 by Georg Bocksay to demonstrate his mastery of writing styles.[64] Thirty years later, court artist Joris Hoefnagel was asked to illuminate the work. He added fruit, flowers, and insects to nearly every page.[65]Mira Calligraphiae Monumenta was produced at a time when printing had overtaken writing in the production of books. The work was a bit of an anachronism in that it not only relied on calligraphy created by hand, but also emphasized the preservation of information — rather than its dissemination — with luxurious materials like gold, silver and vellum, rather than cheap ink and pedestrian paper.[66] The rise of the printing press did, however, give skilled scribes a new artistic status.The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in c. 1440 CE marked the beginning of the end of hand-made, illuminated books[67] , but they remained popular among the wealthy, and some collectors, in fact, disdained printed books and continued to commission hand-made works. Even though Gutenberg’s press made books less costly and more available, it took about 20 years for print books to become a profitable venture. [68] Gutenberg himself, in fact, never profited from the invention; his press was seized for debt shortly after its invention and any profits were made by his patron Johan Fust who perfected Gutenberg’s techniques and popularized the printed word.[69]Footnotes[1] Medieval manuscripts in the vernacular[2] What is an illuminated manuscript?[3] What is an illuminated manuscript?[4] The Medieval Scribe and the Art of Writing[5] Secrets of Scriptoria[6] http://Calkins, Robert G. "Stages of Execution: Procedures of Illumination as Revealed in an Unfinished Book of Hours." International Center of Medieval Art 17.1 (1978): 61–70. JSTOR.org. Web. 17 April 2010. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/766713[7] http://De Hamel, Christopher. Medieval Craftsmen: Scribes and Illuminations. Buffalo: University of Toronto, 1992[8] http://De Hamel, Christopher. The British Library Guide to Manuscript Illumination: History and Techniques. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001. [9] http://Jones, Susan. "Manuscript Illumination in Northern Europe". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–[10] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.gresham.ac.uk/lecture/transcript/download/the-making-of-medieval-illuminated-manuscripts/&ved=2ahUKEwi96KfcuIPkAhWKHc0KHSPMBHAQFjAVegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw27kZzKXEIHvfaCHEybevg9[11] Rubrication | Notabilia[12] https://latinlexicon.org/definition.php?p1=2051890[13] The Image of the Illuminator[14] De Brailes Hours[15] The Image of the Illuminator[16] Bookbinding, Medieval Manuscript Manual[17] Revel in These Beautiful, Bejeweled Medieval Books[18] Bookbinding, Medieval Manuscript Manual[19] An introduction to illuminated manuscripts[20] Loss and Preservation of Ancient Literature[21] Medieval Book Production and Monastic Life[22] Illuminated manuscript[23] Literature, music and illuminated manuscripts[24] Illuminated Manuscripts[25] https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4v32fh[26] Medieval Bestiary : Physiologus[27] Epiphanius Physiologus: Physiologus[28] LacusCurtius • Isidore of Seville[29] Pliny the Elder - Livius[30] Bestiary, The Book of Beasts: Compendiums of Medieval Monsters and Moral Lessons[31] The Medieval Bestiary[32] Medieval Bestiary : Bestiary Families[33] Bestiary Families[34] Animots[35] Guillaume le Clerc de Normandie[36] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://bestiary.ca/etexts/wright1841/bestiary%2520of%2520philippe%2520de%2520thaon%2520-%2520wright%2520-%2520parallel%2520text.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwijv7eVxIPkAhWFWc0KHRlFDi8QFjAGegQIChAB&usg=AOvVaw3NPw5VuH0mplTtp4lOALI9[37] A medieval book of beasts : Pierre de Beauvais' Bestiary / translated into English by Guy R. Mermier ; followed by a diplomatic transcription of the Malines (Mechelen) manuscript of Pierre de Beauvais, short version, and with, in appendix, an English translation of the Cambrai Bestiary ; with illustrations by Alexandra Eldridge. - Version details[38] Chivalry[39] Vidal Mayor (Getty Museum)[40] Vidal Mayor | Worlds of Law[41] Vidal Mayor: A Visualisation of the Juridical Miniature - Gwendollyn Gout Grautoff, 2000[42] How Medieval Storytellers Shape Our Understanding of Romance[43] The Amorous Heart[44] The 'Romance of the Rose': A Medieval Guide to Love[45] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/roman-de-la-rose&ved=2ahUKEwiGi-SqzIPkAhUGV80KHTjfAdcQFjASegQIBhAB&usg=AOvVaw0C8kJ2p96CLSCeF-1MGK1h[46] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.heroofcamelot.com/docs/Lancelot-Knight-of-the-Cart.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwju6t3Xy4PkAhUUCs0KHfi2AIAQFjARegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw27nZFTbyevnB5xyWdkJnQy[47] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://www.nku.edu/~rkdrury/206/capellanus.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjewbb_y4PkAhVBXM0KHdQaDiAQFjACegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw357yMD6dYu4V8Q9yy9uyeM[48] Sex, Society and Medieval Women by N. M. Heckel[49] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/2123/2186/3/LahteelaHeli.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjZ7974yoPkAhXCLc0KHTeDBYgQFjAMegQICRAB&usg=AOvVaw13_bOdaeuQ_L8nqH38JfkZ[50] Fabliau | medieval French poem[51] The Seven Liberal Arts - The Foundations of Modern Day Education[52] Liberal arts - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia[53] The Rise of Universities in the Middle Ages and the Discovery of Aristotle[54] The Rise of the Universities[55] https://www.theopedia.com/scholasticism[56] Why the Arabic World Turned Away from Science[57] Manuscripts and their Importance in Islamic Cultural and Religious Studies - Maydan[58] Literary Forms of Medieval Philosophy[59] The Rise of Science in Islam and the West[60] Ancient and Medieval Empiricism[61] Aristotelianism - Greek Aristotelianism, Arabic Aristotelianism, Medieval Jewish Materialism, Medieval Latin Aristotelianism, Renaissance Aristotelianisms, Modern Study Of Aristotle[62] Bring back science and philosophy as natural philosophy – Nicholas Maxwell | Aeon Essays[63] History of the Scientific Method - How Science Became Important[64] http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/1487/joris-hoefnagel-and-georg-bocskay-mira-calligraphiae-monumenta-flemish-and-hungarian-fols-1-129-written-1561-1562-illumination-added-about-1591-1596/?dz=#264c33f0579a1b3f2b112b8ba3f9ae4698e12402[65] Bocskay and Hoefnagel[66] The Mira Calligraphiae Monumenta: an artifact somewhere between painting and writing - Aleph[67] The Invention and History of the Printing Press [68] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1010%26context%3Dlib_pubs&ved=2ahUKEwjVhLb_0YPkAhUKCawKHeV4Bu8QFjAPegQICBAB&usg=AOvVaw3L-B-5_czNx4W9JnrkbJSV[69] Gutenberg’s Entrepreneurial Failure and The Man Responsible