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You arrive at lecture and sit perched on the edge of your seat, notebook open to a clean page and freshly-sharpened pencil in hand. You follow every word the professor says. Well, maybe you zone out a few times in the middle, but who doesn't? Besides, you're copying everything down and can review it later.That weekend, you diligently read the textbook. Maybe you skip a few parts since it's a busy week, but you definitely study the chapter summary and read all the examples. You do the homework problems, even starting three days early. When you're stuck, you go to office hours and ask the TA for help until they show you how to do it.Before the exam, you study your notes and the published homework solutions. You try the practice exam, and it seems the pieces are finally falling into place. You can solve most of the problems and remember most of the formulas and derivations! At last you take the final, referencing the single allowed sheet of notes you prepared at length the night before. You get almost every question right, or at least partial credit, and take home a well-deserved A.Three months later, you can hardly remember what the class was all about. What's going on? Why did you forget so much? Are you the only one? Should you have memorized more and worked even harder?The answer is no. A student who memorizes the entire physics curriculum is no more a physicist than one who memorizes the dictionary is a writer. Studying physics is about building skills, specifically the skills of modeling novel situations and solving difficult problems. The results in your textbook are just the raw material. You're a builder. Don't spend all your time collecting more materials. Collect a few, then build things. Here's how.The Cathedral and the StonesWhile delivering his famous set of freshman lectures on physics, Richard Feynman held a few special review sessions. In the first of these, he discussed the problem of trying to memorize all the physics you've learned:It will not do to memorize the formulas, and to say to yourself, "I know all the formulas; all I gotta do is figure out how to put 'em in the problem!"Now, you may succeed with this for a while, and the more you work on memorizing the formulas, the longer you'll go on with this method - but it doesn't work in the end.You might say, "I'm not gonna believe him, because I've always been successful: that's the way I've always done it; I'm always gonna do it that way."You are not always going to do it that way: you're going to flunk - not this year, not next year, but eventually, when you get your job, or something - you're going to lose along the line somewhere, because physics is an enormously extended thing: there are millions of formulas! It's impossible to remember all the formulas - it's impossible!And the great thing that you're ignoring, the powerful machine that you're not using, is this: suppose Figure 1 - 19 is a map of all the physics formulas, all the relations in physics. (It should have more than two dimensions, but let's suppose it's like that.)Now, suppose that something happened to your mind, that somehow all the material in some region was erased, and there was a little spot of missing goo in there. The relations of nature are so nice that it is possible, by logic, to "triangulate" from what is known to what's in the hole. (See Fig. 1-20.)And you can re-create the things that you've forgotten perpetually - if you don't forget too much, and if you know enough. In other words, there comes a time - which you haven't quite got to, yet - where you'll know so many things that as you forget them, you can reconstruct them from the pieces that you can still remember. It is therefore of first-rate importance that you know how to "triangulate" - that is, to know how to figure something out from what you already know. It is absolutely necessary. You might say, "Ah, I don't care; I'm a good memorizer! In fact, I took a course in memory!"That still doesn't work! Because the real utility of physicists - both to discover new laws of nature, and to develop new things in industry, and so on - is not to talk about what's already known, but to do something new - and so they triangulate out from the known things: they make a "triangulation" that no one has ever made before. (See Fig. 1-21.)In order to learn how to do that, you've got to forget the memorizing of formulas, and to try to learn to understand the interrelationships of nature. That's very much more difficult at the beginning, but it's the only successful way.Feynman's advice is a common theme in learning. Beginners want to memorize the details, while experts want to communicate a gestalt.Foreign language students talk about how many words they've memorized, but teachers see this as the most trivial component of fluency. Novice musicians try to get the notes and rhythms right, while experts want to find their own interpretation of the piece's aesthetic. Math students want to memorize theorems while mathematicians seek a way of thinking instead. History students see lists of dates and facts while professors see personality, context, and narrative. In each case, the beginner is too overwhelmed by details to see the whole. They look at a cathedral and see a pile of 100,000 stones.One particularly clear description of the difference between the experts' and beginners' minds comes from George Miller's 1956 study "The magical number seven, plus or minus two." Miller presented chess boards to both master-level chess players and to novices. He found that the masters could memorize an entire board in just five seconds, whereas the novices were hopeless, getting just a few pieces. However, this was only true when the participants were memorizing positions from real chess games. When Miller instead scattered the pieces at random, he found the masters' advantage disappeared. They, like the novices, could only remember a small portion of what they'd seen.The reason is that master-level chess players have "chunked" chess information. They no longer have to remember where each pawn is; they can instead remember where the weak point in the structure lies. Once they know that, the rest is inevitable and easily reconstructed.I played some chess in high school, never making it to a high level. At a tournament, I met a master who told me about how every square on the chess board was meaningful to him. Whereas, when writing down my move, I would have to count the rows and columns to figure out where I had put my knight ("A-B-C, 1-2-3-4, knight to C4") he would know instantaneously because the target square felt like C4, with all the attendant chess knowledge about control of the center or protection of the king that a knight on C4 entails.To see this same principle working in yourself right now, memorize the following. You have two seconds:首先放花生酱，然后果冻Easy, right? Well, it would be if you were literate in Chinese. Then you’d know it’s the important maxim, “first the peanut butter, then the jelly”.You can remember the equivalent English phrase no problem, but probably don't remember the Chinese characters at all (unless you know Chinese, of course). This is because you automatically process English to an extreme level. Your brain transforms the various loops and lines and spaces displayed on your screen into letters, then words, then a familiar sandwich-related maxim, all without any effort. It's only this highest-level abstraction that you remember. Using it, you could reproduce the detail of the phrase "first the peanut butter, then the jelly" fairly accurately, but you would likely forget something like whether I capitalized the first letter or whether the font had serifs.Remembering an equally-long list of randomly-chosen English words would be harder, a random list of letters harder still, and the seemingly-random characters of Chinese almost impossible without great effort. At each step, we lose more and more ability to abstract the raw data with our installed cognitive firmware, and this makes it harder and harder to extract meaning.That is why you have such a hard time memorizing equations and derivations from your physics classes. They aren't yet meaningful to you. They don't fit into a grand framework you've constructed. So after you turn in the final, they all start slipping away.Don't worry. Those details will become more memorable with time. In tutoring beginning students, I used to be surprised at how bad their memories were. We would work a problem in basic physics over the course of 20 minutes. The next time we met, I'd ask them about it as review. Personally, I could remember what the problem was, what the answer was, how to solve it, and even details such as the minor mistakes the student made along the way and the similar problems to which we'd compared it last week. Often, I found that the student remembered none of this - not even what the problem was asking! What had happened was, while I had been thinking about how this problem fit into their understanding of physics and wondering what their mistakes told me about which concepts they were still shaky on, they had been stressed out by what the sine of thirty degrees is and the difference between "centrifugal" and "centripetal".Imagine an athlete trying to play soccer, but just yesterday they learned about things like "running" and "kicking". They'd be so distracted by making sure they moved their legs in the right order that they'd have no concept of making a feint, much less things like how the movement pattern of their midfielder was opening a hole in the opponent's defense. The result is that the player does poorly and the coach gets frustrated.Much of a technical education works this way. You are trying to understand continuum mechanics when Newton's Laws are still not cemented in your mind, or quantum mechanics when you still haven't grasped linear algebra. Inevitably, you'll need to learn subjects more than once - the first time to grapple with the details, the second to see through to what's going on beyond.Once you start to see the big picture, you'll find the details become meaningful and you'll manipulate and remember them more easily. Randall Knight's Five Easy Lessons describes research on expert vs. novice problem solvers. Both groups were given the same physics problems and asked to narrate their thoughts aloud in stream-of-consciousness while they solved them (or failed to do so). Knight cites the following summary from Reif and Heller (1982)Observations by Larkin and Reif and ourselves indicate that experts rapidly redescribe the problems presented to them, often use qualitative arguments to plan solutions before elaborating them in greater mathematical detail, and make many decisions by first exploring their consequences. Furthermore, the underlying knowledge of such experts appears to be tightly structured in hierarchical fashion.By contrast, novice students commonly encounter difficulties because they fail to describe problems adequately. They usually do little prior planning or qualitative description. Instead of proceeding by successive refinements, they try to assemble solutions by stringing together miscellaneous mathematical formulas from their repertoire. Furthermore, their underlying knowledge consists largely of a loosely connected collection of such formulas.Experts see the cathedral first, then the stones. Novices grab desperately at every stone in sight and hope one of them is worth at least partial credit.In another experiment, subjects were given a bunch of physics problems and asked to invent categories for the problems, then put the problems in whatever category they belonged. Knight writes:Experts sort the problems into relatively few categories, such as "Problems that can be solved by using Newton's second law" or "Problems that can be solved using conservation of energy." Novices, on the other hand, make a much larger number of categories, such as "inclined plane problems" and "pulley problems" and "collision problems." That is, novices see primarily surface features of a problem, not the underlying physical principles.The "Aha!" FeelingIt is clear that your job as a student is to slowly build up the mental structures that experts have. As you do, details will get easier. Eventually, many details will become effortless. But how do you get there?In the Mathoverflow question I linked about memorizing theorems, Timothy Gowers wroteAs far as possible, you should turn yourself into the kind of person who does not have to remember the theorem in question. To get to that stage, the best way I know is simply to attempt to prove the theorem yourself. If you've tried sufficiently hard at that and got stuck, then have a quick look at the proof -- just enough to find out what the point is that you are missing. That should give you an Aha! feeling that will make the step far easier to remember in the future than if you had just passively read it.Feynman approached the same questionThe problem of how to deduce new things from old, and how to solve problems, is really very difficult to teach, and I don't really know how to do it. I don't know how to tell you something that will transform you from a person who can't analyze new situations or solve problems, to a person who can. In the case of the mathematics, I can transform you from somebody who can't differentiate to somebody who can, by giving you all the rules. But in the case of the physics, I can't transform you from somebody who can't to somebody who can, so I don't know what to do.Because I intuitively understand what's going on physically, I find it difficult to communicate: I can only do it by showing you examples. Therefore, the rest of this lecture, as well as the next one, will consist of doing a whole lot of little examples - of applications, of phenomena in the physical world or in the industrial world, of applications of physics in different places - to show you how what you already know will permit you to understand or to analyze what's going on. Only from examples will you be able to catch on.This sounds horribly inefficient to me. Feynman and Gowers both reached the highest level of achievement in their domains, and both are renowned as superb communicators. Despite this, neither has any better advice than "do it a lot and eventually expertise will just sort of happen." Mathematicians and physicists talk about the qualities of "mathematical maturity" and "physical insight". They're essential to moving past the most basic level, but it seems that no one knows quite where they come from.Circular ReasoningThere are certainly attempts to be more systematic than Feynman or Gowers, but before we get to that, let's take a case study. I recall that as a college freshman, I knew that the formula for the acceleration of a ball orbiting in a circle was [math]a[/math][math] = v^2/r[/math]. I wanted to know why, so I drew a picture:I imagined a small ball starting on the right side of the circle, heading upwards where the blue velocity vector [math]v_1[/math] is drawn. The ball moves around the circle, goes counter-clockwise over the top and then heads downwards on the left hand side, where the red velocity [math]v_2[/math] is. The ball's velocity changed, which means it accelerated. The acceleration is[math]a[/math][math] = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t}[/math][math]\Delta v[/math] is clearly [math]2v[/math], and [math]\Delta t[/math] is the time it takes to go half way around the circle, which is [math]\frac{\text{distance}}{\text{speed}} = \frac{\pi r}{v}[/math]. Hence, the acceleration is[math]a[/math][math] = \frac{2v}{\pi r/v} = \frac{2 v^2}{\pi r} \approx 0.64 \frac{v^2}{r}[/math]This isn't quite right. The answer is supposed to be [math]v^2/r[/math]. Somehow there is an extra factor of [math]2/\pi[/math] floating around.If you already understand calculus, this is a silly and obvious mistake. But for me it took quite some time - weeks, I think - until I understood that I had found the average acceleration, but the formula I was trying to derive was the instantaneous acceleration.The way I broke out of this mental rut was to think about the case where the ball has gone one quarter of the way around, like this:Then the same approach gives[math] [/math][math]a[/math][math] = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t} = \frac{2\sqrt{2}v^2}{\pi r} \approx 0.90 \frac{v^2}{r}[/math],which is closer to the right value. If you try it when the ball goes 1/8 the way around, you get[math]a[/math][math] = \frac{4 \sqrt{2 - \sqrt{2}}v^2}{\pi r} \approx 0.97 \frac{v^2}{r}[/math]and you're getting the idea that what you have to do is take the limit as the ball goes an infinitesimal fraction of the way around. (By the way, if I had been clever, maybe I'd have discovered Viète's formula this way, or something like it. I only recognized this now because I remembered encountering Viete's formula. So memory certainly has its place in allowing you to make connections. It's just not as central as beginners typically believe.)How do you do that "infinitesimal fraction of the way around" thing? Well, if the ball travels an angle [math]\theta[/math] around the circle, we can draw the before and after velocities asand[math] \Delta v = 2 \sin (\theta/2) v[/math]which in the limit [math]\theta \to 0[/math] becomes[math] \Delta v = \theta v[/math]and[math] [/math][math]a[/math][math] = \frac{\Delta v}{\Delta t} = \frac{\theta v}{\theta r/v} = \frac{v^2}{r}[/math]But all of this took a long time to come together in my mind, assembling gradually, but in discrete chunks with each small epiphany. As I walk through it now, I can see there are many concepts involved, and in fact if you're a beginning student it's likely that the argument isn't clear because I skipped some steps.The main idea in that argument is calculus - we're looking at an infinitesimal displacement of the ball. To understand the entire argument, though, we also need to do a fair amount of geometry, develop the idea of sliding velocity vectors around in space so they originate at the same point, introduce the concept of an arbitrary angle of rotation [math]\theta[/math], find the time it takes to rotate by that angle for a given [math]r[/math] and [math]v[/math], use the small-angle approximation of the sine function, and maybe a couple other things I'm not seeing.That's a lot of mental exercise. It's no wonder that working all this out for yourself is both harder and more effective than reading it in the book. Just reading it, you'll skip over or fail to appreciate how much goes into the derivation. The next time you try to understand something, you want those previously-mastered ideas about geometry and calculus already there in your mind, ready to be called up. They won't be if you let a book do all the work.Today, I can solve this problem in other ways. For example, I could write down the rectangular coordinates and differentiate, describe the motion in the complex plane as [math]r e^{i\omega t}[/math] and differentiate that, or transform to a rotating reference frame and note the centrifugal force on the stationary ball and conclude it must be accelerating in an inertial frame. A cute one is to write down the position and velocity vectors by intuition, and notice that going from position to velocity you rotate 90 degrees and multiply the length by [math]v/r[/math]. To go from velocity to acceleration is mathematically identical, so rotating another 90 degrees and multiply by [math]v/r[/math] again we obtain the answer.I can argue from dimensional analysis that the only way to get something with units of acceleration is [math]v^2/r[/math], or heuristically point out that if you increase the velocity, the velocity vectors get bigger, but we also go from one to the next in less time, so the acceleration ought to scale with [math]v^2[/math], etc.I also see aspects of the problem that I didn't back then, such as that this isn't really a physics problem. There are no physical laws involved. It would become a physics problem if we included that the ball is circling due to gravitational forces and used Newton's gravitational law, for example, but as it stands this problem is just a little math.So yes, I can easily memorize this result and provide a derivation for it. I can do that for most of the undergrad physics curriculum, including the pendulum and Doppler formulas you mentioned, and I think I could ace, or at least beat the class average, on the final in any undergraduate physics course at my university without extra preparation. But I can do that because I built up a general understanding of physics, not because I remember huge lists of equations and techniques.How to Chunk ItI can do these things now because of years' of accumulated experience. Somehow, my mind built chunks for thinking about elementary physics the same way chess players do for chess. I've taught classes, worked advanced problems, listened to people, discussed with people, tutored, written about physics on the internet, etc. It's a hodgepodge of activities and approaches, and there's no way for me to tease from my own experience what was most important to the learning process. Fortunately, people from various fields have made contributions to understanding how we create the cognitive machinery of expertise. Here is a quick hit list.George Pólya's How to Solve It examines the problem-solving process as a series of stages, and suggests the student ask themselves specific questions like, "Is it clear that there enough information to solve the problem?"Scott H Young, Cal Newport, and many others give specific advice on study skills: how to take notes, how to diagram out the connections between ideas, how to test your knowledge, how to fit what you're learning into the larger scheme of things, etc.When you do need to memorize things, spaced repetition software like Anki takes an algorithmic, research-backed approach to helping you remember facts with the minimum of time and effort.K. Anders Ericsson has tried to find the key factors that make some forms of practice better than others - things like getting feedback as you go and having clear goals. He refined these into the concept of Deliberate Practice. He also believes there is no shortcut. Even if you practice effectively, it usually takes around 10,000 hours of hard work to reach the highest levels in complex fields like physics or music.Chunking and assigning meaning are your mind's ways of dealing with the information overload of the minutiae that inevitably pop up in any field. Another approach, though, is to try to expand your mind's ability to handle those minutiae. If you can push your "magical number" from seven to ten, you'll be able to remember and understand more of your physics work because it takes a bit longer to fill your cognitive buffer. Dual N-Back exercises are the most popular method of working on this. Nootropic drugs may also provide benefits to some people. Low-hanging fruit first, though. If you aren't sleeping 8-9 hours a day, getting a few hours of exercise a week, and eating healthy food for most meals, you're probably giving up some of your mind's potential power already. (There is individual variation, though.)Howard Gardner is one champion of the idea of multiple intelligences, or different learning types. When working on electric fields, for example, Gardner might advise you to study Maxwell's equations, draw pictures of vector fields and intuit their curls, get up and use your body, pointing your arms around to indicate electric field vectors, write or speak about what you're studying, learn with a friend or tutor, or maybe even create musical mnemonics to help you study, depending on where your personal strengths lie. Certainly, all students should build facility with drawing sketches, plotting functions, manipulating equations, visualizing dynamics, and writing and speaking about the material.Psychologist Carol Dweck's research studies the effect of your attitude towards learning on how much you learn, finding, for example, that children praised for their hard work are likely to press on further and learn more when given tough problems, whereas children praised for their intelligence are more likely to give up.Productivity guru David Allen helps people organize their lives and defeat procrastination with specific techniques, such as dividing complicated tasks into small, specific "next actions" and deciding when to do them, then organizing them in a planner system.Mihály Csíkszentmihályi believes that people operate best in a state of "flow", where they are so focused on the task they find it enjoyable and engrossing to the point they're innately motivated to continue. He emphasizes, for example, that the task needs to be the right level of difficulty - not too hard and not too easy - to find the flow state. (Some people think this state doesn't jibe with deliberate practice; others contend it's possible to achieve both simultaneously.)Taken together, this yields enough practical advice to chew on for months or years. To summarize, when you are learning something new:Try to figure it out for yourselfIf you get stuck, take a peek at your textbook to get the main ideaTeach the idea to someone elseOnce you've learned something, repeat the entire reasoning behind it for yourself, working through each detailAsk yourself Pólya's questions when you're stuckUse Young and Newport's techniques to map out the ideas of your class and relate them to your prior knowledgeMake Anki decks and review them a few minutes a day to retain what you've learnedMake sure your study sessions include all the principles of deliberate practice, especially feedback, challenge, and attentionBuild an image of yourself as someone motivated by learning and proud of having worked hard and effectively rather than as someone proud of being smart or renowned.Find a organizational system that lets you handle all the details of life smoothly and efficiently.Search for the flow state, notice when you enter it, and put yourself in position to find flow more and more often.Work on different subjects, reviewing both advanced and basic material. They will eventually all form together in your mind, and you're likely to have to take at least two passes at any subject before you understand it well.Take care of your physical health.This list does not include reading every page of the textbook or solving every problem at the end of the chapter. Those things aren't necessarily bad, but they can easily become rote. Building the material up for yourself while dipping into reference materials for hints is likely to be more effective and more engaging, once you learn to do it. It is a slow, difficult process. It can be frustrating, sitting there wracking your brain and feeling incredibly stupid for not understanding something you know you're supposed to have down. And strangely, once you have it figured out, it will probably seem completely obvious! That's your reward. Once the thing is obvious, you've chunked it, and you can move on. (Though you still need to review with spaced repetition.) This is the opposite of the usual pattern of sitting in lectures and feeling you understand everything quite clearly, only to find it all evaporated the next day, or acing a final only to find your knowledge is all gone the next month.That, I believe, summarizes the practical knowledge and advice about the learning process. Memorizing equations and derivations is difficult and ineffective because they are just the details. You can only handle a few details before your mind gets swamped. To cope, train yourself to the point where you process equations and physical reasoning automatically. This will free your conscious effort up to take in the big picture and see what the subject is all about.It Just Gets In The Way, You SeeSomehow, I've developed a "this is calculus" instinct, so that if I see the problem about acceleration in circular motion, or any other problem about rates of change, I know that it's talking about a limit of some kind. Where does this instinct exist in my brain? What form does it take? How does it get called up at the right time?George Lakoff believes that almost everything we understand is via metaphor. Any sort of abstract concept is understood by linking it to concrete concepts we've previously understood. For example, in Where Mathematics Comes From, Lakoff and coauthor Rafael Nuñez argue that we think of the mathematical concept of a "set" as a sort of box or container with things stacked in it. We reason about sets using our intuition about boxes, then later go back and support our conclusions with the technical details. Learning to reason about sets, then, is learning to think about the box metaphor and translate it back and forth into the formal language of axioms and theorems. This seems to fit with the introspective reports of many mathematicians, who say they build intuitive or visual models of their mathematics when finding results, then add in the deltas and epsilons at the end.This may be why we so often see beginning students asking things like, "but what is the electron, really?" If they were told it is just a tiny little ball, that would work, because it's a very easy metaphor. But instead, they're told it's not a ball, not a particle, not a wave, not spinning even though it has spin, etc. In fact, they're told to dismiss all prior concepts entirely! This is something Lakoff believes is simply impossible. No wonder students are bobbing in an ocean of confused thought bubbles, with nothing but mixed metaphors to grasp at until the last straw evaporates, across the board.Linguists like Steven Pinker believe that the language we use tells us how our mind works. Physicists certainly do have a specialized lexicon, and the ability to use it correctly correlates pretty well to general physics intuition, in my experience. In his review of Pinker's The Stuff of Thought, Douglas Hofstadter summarizes:Pinker shows, for example, how subtle features of English verbs reveal hidden operations of the human mind. Consider such contrasting sentences as "The farmer loaded hay into the wagon" and "The farmer loaded the wagon with hay." In this pair, the verb "load" has two different kinds of objects: the stuff that gets moved and the place it goes. Also, in the first sentence, the destination is the object of one preposition; in the second, the stuff is the object of another. Pinker sees these "alternations" as constituting a "microclass" of verbs acting this way, such as "spray" ("spray water on the roses" versus "spray the roses with water"). Where does this observation lead him? To the idea that we sometimes frame events in terms of motion in physical space (moving hay; moving water) and sometimes in terms of motion in state-space (wagon becoming full; roses becoming wet).Moreover, there are verbs that refuse such alternations: for instance, "pour." We can say "I poured water into the glass" but not "I poured the glass with water." What accounts for this curious difference between "load" and "pour"? Pinker claims that pouring merely lets a liquid move under gravity's influence, whereas loading is motion determined by the human agent. "Pour" and "load" thus belong to different microclasses, and these microclasses reveal how we construe events. "[W]e have discovered a new layer of concepts that the mind uses to organize mundane experience: concepts about substance, space, time, and force," Pinker writes. " . . . [S]ome philosophers consider [these concepts] to be the very scaffolding that organizes mental life. . . . But we've stumbled upon these great categories of cognition . . . by trying to make sense of a small phenomenon in language acquisition."If correct, then in order to think about physics the way an expert does, we should learn to speak the way experts do. If we try to solve physics problems using the words "load" and "pour", we may be carrying around a bunch of distracting anthropocentric baggage. If we don't recognize that, we'll get stuck, saying the problem "doesn't make sense", when really it's our linguistically-instilled expectations that are wrong. To combat this, it may be just as helpful to gain facility with the language of physics as with its equations.Five Easy Lessons provides a clear example of such difficulties: the case study of "force". As I type this, my laptop is sitting on a desk which exerts an upward force on it. Few beginning students believe this is really a force, even after they've been browbeaten into drawing arrows for the "normal force" on exam diagrams.The problem is in the way we use "force":"The robber forced the door open.""Your apology sounded forced.""...the force of the explosion...""...the force of righteousness...""I'm being forced to take physics even though I'll never use it."Literally or figuratively, we think of "force" as implying not only motion, but intent or purpose, and also control. Force is for people pushing on things, or maybe for cars and projectiles. These things are using energy and will run down if left alone. But the desk under my laptop? It's just sitting there, totally passive. How could it be "exerting a force" when it doesn't even get tired? Needing some sort of rationalization for why the laptop doesn't fall, beginners say that it's not that the desk exerts a force on the laptop, the desk just provides something for the laptop to sit on. Or if something falls on the desk, the desk didn't exert a force to stop it. It just got in the way is all. Why doesn't the professor understand this obvious difference? A desk exerting a force? Come on...Five Easy Lessons describes how students only overcome this difficulty after seeing a classroom demonstration where, using a laser pointer and a mirror laid on the desk top, the professor demonstrates how when a heavy cinder block is laid on the desk, the surface responds by bending out of its natural shape, exerting force on the cinder block like a compressed spring would.You may need to find many such visualizations before you can reconcile your colloquial use of words with their use in physics. But this might also be dangerous, because although finding a way to make physics obey your idea about what a word means works decently in this case, in other instances it's your expectations for the word that ought to change. (Relativity, with words like "contraction", "slowing down", etc. is a good example.)Mythologist Joseph Campbell believes that we understand the world primarily through story. Perhaps we understand derivations, experimental evidence, and the logic behind physical conclusions as a sort of story, and it's in building this story that our cognitive chunks are formed.Mind The Neural Gap JunctionsYou are the pattern of neural activity in your brain. When a part of you changes, building a new memory, installing a new habit, or constructing a tool to approach a class of problems, that change must be reflected somewhere in your brain.Lesswrong user kalla724 describes this process in "Attention control is critical for changing/increasing/altering motivation"First thing to keep in mind is the plasticity of cortical maps. In essence, particular functional areas of our brain can expand or shrink based on how often (and how intensely) they are used. A small amount of this growth is physical, as new axons grow, expanding the white matter; most of it happens by repurposing any less-used circuitry in the vicinity of the active area. For example, our sense of sight is processed by our visual cortex, which turns signals from our eyes into lines, shapes, colors and movement. In blind people, however, this part of the brain becomes invaded by other senses, and begins to process sensations like touch and hearing, such that they become significantly more sensitive than in sighted people. Similarly, in deaf people, auditory cortex (part of the brain that processes sounds) becomes adapted to process visual information and gather language clues by sight.But, they caution, these neural changes occur primarily to those parts of our minds to which we pay conscious attention:A man is sitting in his living room, in front of a chessboard. Classical music plays in the background. The man is focused, thinking about the next move, about his chess strategy, and about the future possibilities of the game. His neural networks are optimizing, making him a better chess player.A man is sitting in his living room, in front of a chessboard. Classical music plays in the background. The man is focused, thinking about the music he hears, listening to the chords and anticipating the sounds still to come. His neural networks are optimizing, making him better at understanding music and hearing subtleties within a melody.A man is sitting in his living room, in front of a chessboard. Classical music plays in the background. The man is focused, gritting his teeth as another flash of pain comes from his bad back. His neural networks are optimizing, making the pain more intense, easier to feel, harder to ignore.You need to pay attention not just to doing physics, but to the right parts of doing physics - the parts most related to intuition.James Nearing gave his advice on how to do this in Mathematical Tools for PhysicistsHow do you learn intuition?When you've finished a problem and your answer agrees with the back of the book or with your friends or even a teacher, you're not done. The way do get an intuitive understanding of the mathematics and of the physics is to analyze your solution thoroughly. Does it make sense? There are almost always several parameters that enter the problem, so what happens to your solution when you push these parameters to their limits? In a mechanics problem, what if one mass is much larger than another? Does your solution do the right thing? In electromagnetism, if you make a couple of parameters equal to each other does it reduce everything to a simple, special case? When you're doing a surface integral should the answer be positive or negative and does your answer agree?When you address these questions to every problem you ever solve, you do several things. First, you'll find your own mistakes before someone else does. Second, you acquire an intuition about how the equations ought to behave and how the world that they describe ought to behave. Third, It makes all your later efforts easier because you will then have some clue about why the equations work the way they do. It reifies the algebra.Does it take extra time? Of course. It will however be some of the most valuable extra time you can spend.Is it only the students in my classes, or is it a widespread phenomenon that no one is willing to sketch a graph? (\Pulling teeth" is the cliche that comes to mind.) Maybe you've never been taught that there are a few basic methods that work, so look at section 1.8. And keep referring to it. This is one of those basic tools that is far more important than you've ever been told. It is astounding how many problems become simpler after you've sketched a graph. Also, until you've sketched some graphsof functions you really don't know how they behave.(To see the advice on graphs, along with a detailed step-by-step example, see his book, free online)Brown Big SpidersOne of the difficulties with chunks is that they're mostly subconscious. We may ultimately know of their existence, as did the chess master who told me he knew how each square of the chess board felt, but their precise nature and the process of their creation are almost immune to introspection. The study methods I've talked about above are empirically useful in creating chunks, so we have guidelines for how to make new chunks in general, but we usually don't know which ones we are creating.Lesswrong user Yvain comments on the essay Being a teacherI used to teach English as a second language. It was a mind trip.I remember one of my students saying something like "I saw a brown big spider". I responded "No, it should be 'big brown spider'". He asked why. Not only did I not know the rule involved, I had never even imagined that anyone would ever say it the other way until that moment.Such experiences were pretty much daily occurrences.In other words, the chunkiest cognitive process we have - language - develops largely without our awareness. (In retelling this story, I've met a surprising number of people who actually did know about adjective order in English, but most of them either learned English as a second language or had studied it in psychology or linguistics course.)This makes it incredibly difficult for physics teachers or textbook writers to communicate with beginners. It's inevitable that beginners will say that a certain lecturer or book just doesn't explain it clearly enough, or needs to give more examples. Meanwhile, the lecturer has no idea why what they said wasn't already perfectly clear and thinks the example was completely explicit. Neither party can articulate the problem, the student because they can't see the incorrect assumption they're making, the professor because they don't realize they've already made such an assumption.For example, once I was proctoring a test in a physics class for biology majors. A question on the test described a certain situation with light going through a prism and asked, "What is the sign of the phase shift?" A student came up to ask for clarification, and it wasn't until they'd asked their question three times that I finally got it. They thought they were supposed to find the "sign" as in a signpost, or marker. There would be some sort of observable behavior that would indicate that a phase shift had occurred, and that was the "sign of the phase shift." Until then, I was only able to think of "sign" as meaning positive or negative - did the wave get advanced or retarded?If you want to learn a language with all those rules you don't even know about, you need to immerse yourself. Endless drills and exercises from a book won't be enough, as millions of Americans a decade out of high school straining to remember, "Dondé esta el baño?" can attest. You need to read, speak, see, and hear that language all around you before it takes.To learn physics, then, read, speak, and hear it all around you. Attend colloquia. Read papers. Solve problems. Read books. Talk to professors and TA's, and expose yourself to all the patterns of thought that are the native language of the field.As you learn, you will build the right chunks to think about physics without realizing what they are. But there's a flip side to this problem, which is that when you're not doing physics, you can build the wrong chunks. They can get in the way, and again you don't realize it.In Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, Betty Edwards discusses an exercise she gave her art students:One day, on impulse, I asked the students to copy a Picasso drawing upside down. That small experiment, more than anything else I had tried, showed that something very different is going on during the act of drawing. To my surprise, and to the students' surprise, the finished drawings were so extremely well done that I asked the class, "How come you can draw upside down when you can't draw right-side up?" The students responded, "Upside down, we didn't know what we were drawing."When we see a recognizable image, unconscious chunking immediately gets to work, interpreting, imparting meaning, and inevitably distorting. Learning to draw, according to Edwards, involves circumventing harmful chunks as much as building helpful ones.So it is with physics. The ideas about force, animation, and intent discussed in the laptop-and-desk example seem to illustrate just this problem. Five Easy Lessons lists many of the known misconceptions that students have somehow taught themselves in each topic of introductory physics - for example that electric current gets used up as it goes around a circuit. But I think it's likely that there are many more such obstructive thought patterns that we don't yet know exist. These might be more general notions about such things as cause and effect, what nature "wants" to accomplish, etc.I Feel DumbEducators are perpetually frustrated by what seems like an outrageous pattern. They explain something clearly. The students all claim to understand perfectly, and can even solve quantitative problems. Still, when you ask the students to answer basic conceptual questions, they get it all wrong. How is this possible?In this YouTube video, Veritasium explores what happens when you explain something clearly:Amazingly, the clearer the explanation, the less students learn. Humans have a huge array of cognitive biases. In general, these various biases work so that we'll keep believing whatever it was we believed to begin with, unless there's a really good reason not to. Someone giving a clear, authoritative physics lecture does not register in your mind as a good reason to check your beliefs, so you listen happily and rave about what a great lecture it was, all while maintaining your wrong ideas.However, with the right stimulus you can get your brain to throw out the old, wrong ideas. Entering such a state is a prerequisite to true learning, and fortunately we can detect it in ourselves. We call it confusion.Confusion is a message from your emotional mind (the part that tells your analytical mind what decisions to start justifying). It's saying, "Hey, something about our beliefs is very wrong, and this is actually important. Pay attention and figure it out."A great lecturer, instead of being clear, will confuse students by asking them to predict ahead of time what a demonstration will show, then do it, and the opposite actually occurs. Or they will ask students to solve questions that sound straightforward, but in fact the students can't figure out. Only after confusion sets in will the teacher reveal the trick.You want to defeat your biases, toss out your wrong beliefs, and learn physics to the Feynman level - the level where you create the knowledge as you go along. Even many specialists never fully get there, instead rising to increasingly-sophisticated levels of rehashing the same memorized arguments in a way that can carry them quite far and trick most people. The only way to avoid this is to spend many, many hours thoroughly confused.Have you ever lost an argument, only to think of the perfect retort two days later when stopped at a traffic light? This shows how your mind will continue working on hard problems in the background. It eventually comes up with a great answer, but only if you first prime it with what to chew on. This works for physics problems just as well as for clever comebacks, once you find good problems to grapple with. I conjecture that engaging this subconscious system requires a strong emotional connection to the problem, such as the frustration or embarrassment of being dumbstruck in an argument or the confusion of being stumped by a hard problem.Confusion is essential, but often also unpleasant. When you repeatedly feel frustrated or upset by your confusion, your mind unconsciously learns to shy away from hard thinking. You develop an ugh field.This could happen for different reasons. A common one arises in people who judge themselves by their intellect. Confusion for such people is a harsh reminder of just how limited they are; it's a challenge to their very identity. Whether for this reason or some other, it's common for students and academics to fall into patterns of procrastination and impostor syndrome when navigating the maze of confusion that come with their chosen path.I don't have the answer for this. I have heard many people tell their stories, but I have yet to figure out my own. Sometimes confusion feels awful, and my story in physics is a jerky, convoluted one because of how I've dealt with that. But once in a while a problem is so good that none of that matters. When I find one of these problems, it hijacks my mind like Cordyceps in a bullet ant, jerking me back to a fresh piece of scratch paper again and again, sometimes for days. If you reach this state over and over, you'll know Feynman meant by, "What I cannot create I do not understand"Get confused. Solve problems. Repeat. The universe is waiting for you.ReferencesIn order of appearance in this answerFeynman's Tips on Physics: Richard P. Feynman, Michael A. Gottlieb, Ralph Leighton: 9780465027972: Amazon.com: Bookssoft question - Memorizing theorems - MathOverflowThe Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two (wikipedia)The Magical Number Seven (original paper)Google Translate (Chinese phrase)Knight, Randall. Five Easy Lessons pp 37Reif and Heller, 1982Viète's formulaHow To Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method (Amazon)How To Solve It (summary)How to Solve It (Wikipedia)Learn Faster with the Feynman Technique (Scott Young. His page is start to get spammy.)Study Hacks " About (Cal Newport)Anki - powerful, intelligent flashcardsSpaced repetition (review by Gwern)K. Anders Ericsson (Wikipedia)The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert PerformanceDual N-Back FAQ (gwern)Food Rules An Eater`s Manual (Amazon, how to eat)Core Performance Essentials (Amazon, exercise) Exercise is an interesting case because not everyone responds very well. For the majority of people it's worth the time.Howard Gardner (wikipedia)The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think And How Schools Should Teach: Howard E. Gardner (Amazon)The Perils and Promises of Praise (article by Dweck)Mindset, Dweck's book.Flow (psychology) (Wikipedia)Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: 9780061339202: Amazon.com: BooksDavid Allen, Getting Things Done® and GTD®Online to-do list and task management (One possible GTD software)How to Setup Remember The Milk for GTDGeorge Lakoff (professional site)George Lakoff (Wikipedia)Where Mathematics Come From: How The Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics Into Being: George Lakoff, Rafael Nuñez: 9780465037711: Amazon.com: BooksLoaded sentences (Hofstadter reviews Pinker)The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature: Steven Pinker: 9780143114246: Amazon.com: BooksThe Power of Myth: Joseph Campbell, Bill Moyers: 9780385418867: Amazon.com: BooksAttention control is critical for changing/increasing/altering motivationMathematical Tools for Physics (Nearing)Being a teacher - Less WrongDrawing on the Right Side of the Brain: The Definitive, 4th Edition: Betty Edwards: 9781585429202: Amazon.com: BooksVeritasium (channel)List of cognitive biases (wikipedia)Dunning–Kruger effect (wikipedia)Ugh fields - Less WrongUseful Quora AnswersSomeone anonymous's answer to What is it like to understand advanced mathematics? Does it feel analogous to having mastery of another language like in programming or linguistics?Satvik Beri's answer to How do math geniuses understand extremely hard math concepts so quickly?Qiaochu Yuan's answer to Why is it almost impossible to learn a mathematical concept on Wikipedia? They are very difficult to follow, especially if one doesn't have a solid background in the subject.Christopher VanLang's answer to What should I do if my PhD advisor and lab colleagues think I'm stupid?What did Richard Feynman mean when he said, "What I cannot create, I do not understand"?Debo Olaosebikan's answer to What are some words, phrases, or expressions that physicists frequently use in ordinary conversation?Paul King's answer to How does the arbitrary become meaningful? How does the human mind convert things like art into emotion and experience?What are some English language rules that native speakers don't know, but still follow?User's answer to What's an efficient way to overcome procrastination?Further ReadingI feel a little sleazy writing this answer because when I mention, for example, Carol Dweck doing research on the psychology of mindsets or K. Anders Ericsson studying deliberate practice, in fact there are thousands of people working in those fields. The ones I've mentioned are simply the most public figures or those I've come across by chance. I haven't even read the original research in most of these cases, relying on summaries instead.The answer is also preliminary and incomplete. There's lots of research left to be done, and I'm not an expert in what's out there. Still, here is a guide to some further resources that have informed this answer.For an overview of the psychology of learning, I like Monisha Pasupathi's audio course How We Learn from The Teaching Company. It covers many clever experiments designed to help you build a model of what happens in your mind as you learn.Bret Victor explores software solutions to visualizing the connection between physical world, mathematical representation, and mental models. Check outThe Ladder of AbstractionExplorable ExplanationsI think it's helpful to build an innate impression of your mind as not perceiving the world directly, but as concocting its own, tailored interpretation from sense data. All your consciousness ever gets to experience is the highly-censored version. The books of Oliver Sacks are great for making this clear by illustrating what happens with people for whom some of the processing machinery breaks down.The LessWrong Sequences were, for me, a powerful introduction to the quirks of human thought, preliminary steps towards how to work best with the firmware we've got, and what it means to seek truth.Selected BibliographyThese are some physics books to which have helped me so far. I'm not choosing them for clear exposition or specialty knowledge in a certain subject, but for how I think they helped me understand the way to think about physics generally.Blandford and Thorne, Applications of Classical PhysicsEpstein, Thinking PhysicsFeynman, Lectures on Physics------------ The Character of Physical Law------------ QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter------------ Tips on PhysicsGeroch, General Relativity from A to BLevi, The Mathematical MechanicLewin, Walter "Classical Mechanics", "Electricity and Magnetism" (video lectures with demonstrations on MIT OpenCourseWare)Mahajan, Street-Fighting MathematicsMorin, Introduction to Classical MechanicsNearing, Mathematical Tools for PhysicsPurcell, Electricity and Magnetism----------, Back of the Envelope ProblemsSchey, Div, Grad, Curl, and All ThatThomas and Raine, Physics to a DegreeThompson, Thinking Like a PhysicistWeisskopf, "The Search for Simplicity" (articles in Am. J. Physics)ImagesFeynman's Tips on Physics, Feynman, Gottlieb, LeightonArchitectural detail- cut stone wallFile:NotreDameI.jpg

It was 2007. The most annoying survey had just been conducted: “How many Asian countries can you name?”It didn’t matter who I asked, most could only name one, and the answer was always the same one country: “China”To them, China was apparently the only country in Asia. There seemed to be no other Asian countries according to the people I interviewed.I was only 10 back then, but it still got me thinking:“Why do people think that the only country in Asia is China?”Soon however, it became painfully obvious: China was a country so large that it would nearly be impossible to miss it on the world map.But if you went back to 1820 (197 years ago), you’d get a different map (red indicates the borders of Modern China):At 14.7 million km^2, the Qing Empire (1644–1912 AD) was the 4th largest empire ever in world history (by area) making it 1.5 times larger than Modern China today.So the question is: who made it that large?The ruler I admire the most of course.Well actually no…… there wasn’t just one person who made it that huge but in fact two, and to be precise two of the longest reigning rulers (top 60 longest rulers) ever in Human history made China larger than she had ever been before. All by the hands of two men, China entered a long mini-Golden Age of prosperity.The First Chinese Emperor I admire the most is Kangxi (reigned 1661–1722 AD):The Second Chinese Emperor I most admire is Qianlong (reigned 1735–96 AD):Let’s look at what they managed to accomplish shall we?Warning: As always, my answer will be long, this particular answer is very extra extremely long (even for me) at 6,600 words long.If this is something you hate, please literally stop reading right now, there is nothing for you here to see.But if you stay, I promise you a very interesting read of Chinese History. If you do read it, I’d suggest reading several times to absorb all the information you would have missed from reading it the first time.Here are the contents (for ease of navigation):Chapter I: “Not by my blood-redefining what it meant to be Chinese”Chapter II: “Glory before the Sun sets, China’s last era of prosperity”Chapter III: “From the Mountain, to the Oceans white with foam”Final SummaryChapter I: “Not by my blood- redefining what it meant to be Chinese”In the vast plains of Manchuria (Northeast China), a group of Manchurian nomads who had been hunting, were now huddled around their campfire. Their leader, a man who appreciated history told them of the heroism of their ancestors, the “Jurchen” people. According to him, their people had once been so brave and so vigorous in combat that they even managed to invade and steal “Heaven on Earth” from the “Heavenly People”.It was true, he was talking about the establishment of the nomadic Jin Empire (1115–1234 AD) who had just conquered the northern half of China in 1127, forcing the weak Chinese Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) to share China with it until the Mongol Invasion in 1279 ended both empires forever.Below is a map to illustrate the territories of the Jin and Song Empires, note how equal they were geographically:The men around the campfire couldn’t stop laughing. In their minds it was a good story but it was just that: a story, it happened such a long time ago -500 years to be exact- and it could never happen again they insisted. They were not their ancestors, they could never conquer China as their ancestors did, and with the end of that thought, they got up and left to return to hunting.But they were wrong. So very wrong. Something soon happened that none of them could ever have foreseen.A Manchurian by the name of Nurhaci rallied together all the various Manchu tribes and united them under one banner against all odds, united for one sole purpose: to invade the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD). Although he died soon after, his descendents eventually conquered all of China in her entirety, and not just the northern half this time. After 500 years, the Manchu/Jurchen people had control of the “Middle Kingdom” once more.Manchurian Invaders at the Great Wall of China:But the cost of the Manchu Conquest of Ming had been devastating. Around 25 million Chinese (Han) people had been slaughtered (15% of China’s population at the time). Ming’s Economy which had accounted for 30% of the world’s wealth before the Manchu Invasion, was now non-existent. The Manchurians had destroyed, looted, raped and killed their way through all of China, destroying everything they could see, and now they held all China at their mercy.In fact, the Manchu Conquest of China had devastated China so badly that her Economy’s wealth as a percentage of world wealth had actually decreased from a peak of 29% in 1600 (under Ming) to 22% in 1700 (under Qing), a difference of 7%:Source of photo: homeFor reference, China in GDP PPP terms makes up for only 18.31% of world GDP (PPP) as of 2017, up from 17.81% in 2016 and 16.86% in 2015.But what of the Han Chinese people themselves? The Manchus continued to humiliate them:In July 1645, Dorgon (the Manchu leader) forced all Chinese men to adopt the Manchu way of life. The most significant of these lifestyle changes was that of forcing all Han males to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a “queue” just like the Manchurians. It was done to show submission, a symbolic gesture of China’s surrender to Manchu superiority. The penalty for refusal to shave was immediate death.But it was a fate worse than death for Chinese men. According to the Chinese Philosophy of Confucianism, cutting off one’s hair was the ultimate “sin” because it showed an infinite amount of disrespect to one’s parents. The Ancient Chinese believed that your hair was a unique gift from your parents to you, thus cutting it would be an unspeakable and treacherous act of betrayal and indeed the spiritual equivalent of a felony.This was no small matter, for all Chinese people even to this day, one’s parents are the dearest (or at least should be) things in one’s life. Thus, it should not be a surprise to you then that the Han absolutely hated the Manchurians at this point, and this showed as well. Long after the Ming Dynasty collapsed back in 1644, Han resistance composed of individuals claiming loyalty to the Ming Court held out on the Island of Taiwan for 39 years until 1683.Chinese men’s hairstyles under the Han Chinese and Manchu Dynasties (and modern as well), and what it meant to cut off your hair/be different to accepted norms:Source: http://indescentdream.com by Nancy DuongThe Manchus and Han were two totally different people at this point in time. Language, culture, genetics and history divided the two great peoples. Though they lived in the same country under the new Qing Dynasty, it seemed as though they could never be rid of these major segregational differences. Though the Manchus lived in China, the Han vowed never to view them as Chinese people- in other words, as one of them.But that was also wrong. Call it what you want but “destiny” had other plans for Manchu and Han alike.In 1661 at the young age of 7, a boy called “Xuanye” became the new Emperor of the Qing assuming the Imperial title of “Kangxi” (in 1662 a year later). Though he was very young, he possessed an intelligence which put even the wisest scholars of his day to shame.The young (not so much here though) Kangxi Emperor:The young Emperor understood the perilous situation that China was in. He knew for a fact that the Han people he ruled over still absolutely hated their lives under the Manchus even after 17 years under their rule. They had and still were refusing to give the Kangxi Emperor their full undivided attention and loyalty.“More than fifty years have passed since the founding of the Qing dynasty, and the empire grows poorer each day. Farmers are destitute, artisans are destitute, merchants are destitute, and officials too are destitute. Grain is cheap, yet it is hard to eat one’s fill. Cloth is cheap, yet it is hard to cover one’s skin.Boatloads of goods travel from one marketplace to another, but the cargoes must be sold at a loss. Officials upon leaving their posts discover they have no wherewithal to support their households. Indeed the four occupations* are all impoverished!”- Tang Chen, retired Chinese Scholar, 1690s*Note: The Four Occupations refer to the Social Hierarchy that existed in Ancient China, listed in descending order from greatest to least important:Shi (士) or Gentry ScholarNong (农/農) or Peasant FarmerGong (工) or Artisans and CraftsmenShang (商) or Merchants and TradersThus, for the first half of his 61 year reign he focused only on stabilizing the Qing Empire. And he did. For 30 years, the “workaholic” Emperor (said to have woken up early, and slept late every single day) tried to present the Manchus as not just a foreign conqueror, but as the legitimate successor of the previous Chinese led Ming Dynasty.Yet he never once had to “fake it”. Kangxi actually made real, genuine attempts to integrate the Han into the Qing Empire, likewise he also made an honest attempt to assimilate the Manchu people into Han culture. He wanted to show the Han people that in fact, you didn’t need to be a Han person to be “Chinese”. No, Kangxi wanted to assert the importance instead of culture. Culture he argued was what made a Chinese person Chinese, not their blood and not their ancestors.An artist’s impression of Kangxi’s tour of Southern China, Kangxi was a very hard working man who personally oversaw the efficient and just administration of his empire instead of merely staying inside the Forbidden City all the time:As long as you adopted Chinese culture (and spoke “Chinese”) he thought, a Manchu was just as legitimately Chinese as a Han person. Thus he encouraged all Manchurian people to actively adopt Han culture in order to not be seen as invaders anymore, but as Chinese people ruling China for the benefit of Chinese people.This acted well to convince some people (mainly the common people) of Manchurian benevolence and thus emphasised their legitimacy (legitimacy was based off a concept called the “Mandate of Heaven”: only a good ruler could be considered legitimate).But the main issue (and Kangxi knew this) was winning over the elite educated class who were still sceptical of his rule.The solution in his mind was simple:“In 1679 Kangxi announced a special civil service examination, in which eminent scholars who had formerly refused to serve the Manchus and who had remained loyal to the defunct Ming dynasty would be permitted to compete.Showing exceptional sensitivity to the feelings of the loyalist scholars, Kangxi also declared that the successful candidates in this examination would be permitted to work on an official history of their beloved Ming dynasty.”Source: Emperor of China Kangxi facts, information, pictures:Kangxi was also well aware of the need to start “practising what one preaches”.Previously, he had stated before that only the adoption of Chinese culture was required to be recognised as a Chinese person. Thus he commissioned (in 1710) the famous “Kangxi Dictionary”, a collection of 47,000 Chinese characters all in one place. In being the patron of such an important work, he was able to win over the Han Chinese scholars who now agreed that he indeed was “First Scholar of the Realm” as Confucianism believed the Emperor should be: a ruler and a scholar. Thus in their eyes, he was indeed fit to be ruler of China, and the Qing (and not Ming) was who they owed their allegiance to.The Kangxi Dictionary on display at a museum:In this way, the Kangxi Emperor not only managed to stabilize China after such a devastating event as the Qing Conquest of Ming (which included destroying her entire economy, and killing 25 million people), Kangxi also managed to create a society in which being Chinese was now not determined by your blood anymore (hence the chapter title “not by my blood”) but by whether you adopted Chinese culture and language or not.Under Kangxi, China was the Middle Kingdom (centre of the world) and was announced to have belonged to Han, Manchu and Mongol equally. “Chinese language” was just an overall term to refer to Han, Manchu and Mongol languages and “Chinese people” was just an umbrella term which included Han, Manchu and Mongol people.Accomplishing this was not an easy task as you may have guessed, it was an immensely huge and difficult undertaking which many other rulers (across the world) would likely have failed at accomplishing, but not the intelligent and young Kangxi hence my admiration for him.Chapter II: “Glory before the Sun sets, China’s last era of prosperity”As powerful as Kangxi was, he still suffered like all humans did from the burden of death. He got old just like any other man or woman did, and as the final year of his life in 1722 drew ever so closer, he begun to wonder who he should choose as his successor to be the next Emperor of the Celestial Empire.Despite having 35 sons, 20 daughters and hundreds of grandchildren, as time passed, Kangxi became particularly interested with one of the many hundreds of grandsons he had. The young boy was called “Hongli” and he reminded Kangxi exactly of himself at a very young age.The Kangxi Emperor thought his grandson was very intelligent, he possessed a wisdom that surpassed even the adults he grew up under. Eventually, Kangxi had become so convinced in the abilities of his wise grandson, that he made Hongli’s father the next Emperor of China on purpose, hoping in order to one day pass the throne of China onto him.And it was so.The young boy’s father only ruled 13 years in total from 1722–35, when he died Hongli ascended the throne under the ruling name of “Qianlong” and ended up ruling China for 61 years (same amount of time as his grandfather Kangxi).Qianlong’s Ceremonial Armour (presumably worn at his coronation):As with Kangxi, the Qing Empire thrived under the rule of the new ambitious and young Qianlong Emperor.From a population of 135 million after the Qing Conquest of Ming, in 1790 (146 years afterwards) it was estimated that the Qing Empire now had 300 million people all directly due to the long period of peace and stability under the Qianlong Emperor.Following on from the Kangxi Emperor’s example, Qianlong opened up China’s borders to International Trade (limited to four Southeastern coastal cities) once more. The high demand for Chinese goods all over the world gave China an enormous positive trade balance. The excess amount of silver that resulted from this allowed the Qing Empire to facilitate the growth of competitive and stable markets allowing China to start advancing her Economy exponentially.“…foreign trade was quickly re-established, and was expanding at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century.”Source: Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien (2002), "Economic developments, 1644–1800"“Prosperous Suzhou” a painting by the artist Xu Yang (in 1759) depicting the great period of peace and stability under the Qianlong Emperor as he viewed it:Under the Qianlong Emperor, it wasn’t just in material ways that the Qing Empire benefitted. The Qing was a time of Chinese cultural richness, a time specifically when “Made in China” actually suggested quality worthy of adoption rather than mockery. This was the case here, under Qianlong (having started with Kangxi decades prior), the visiting Europeans saw fit to adopt Chinese cultural values and apply (at least try to apply) them to European understanding of Political Science because they thought by doing so they could emulate China’s prosperity back in Europe, and in doing so legitimize the rule of the King whilst creating a “Godly” and moral country.Despite being a closed border and isolationist empire, the generosity of the Qianlong Emperor (and also Kangxi before him) ensured a small number of foreigners (mainly religious organizations like the Jesuits) were let into Qing China. It was here that a great deal of cross-cultural transactions begun to occur.At this time, though the European Empires were scientifically “enlightened” due to their great renewal and interest in their Greco-Roman cultural heritage (which had many scientific manuscripts far ahead of its time), Monastic orders such as the Jesuits were disappointed when they compared their respective European countries with Qianlong’s “Celestial Empire”.The Jesuits in China socialising with Kangxi (Qianlong’s grandfather) decades earlier:In the eyes of the European visitors, the countries of Europe were not a force to be reckoned with and could destroy whosoever dared to meddle in their affairs. But they felt that something was missing despite this excess military superiority. As the Jesuits (to use one of many examples) studied Chinese culture and the philosophy of Confucianism further and further, they were amazed at what they had read.For in China the Jesuits saw the image of how a proper God fearing Christian country could be run like: where the Emperor ruled with benevolence to legitimize his power rather than resorting to the outdated idea of the “Divine Right of Kings” (meaning “God has put me here so I am King, end of story”).Thus, to the Jesuits, the solution was simple: copy and translate as many Chinese texts as possible and send them back to Europe for further study, synthesise them with Roman and Judeo-Christian philosophies and of course prepare them for further extensive applications whenever possible.Such a belief had a huge impact on the European Enlightenment Era (1715–89 AD) eventually leading to momentous events like the French Revolution which begun on the 14th July 1789 in Paris (see comment section to understand how):Confucius as seen by the Europeans:This image, showing Confucius standing in the Chinese National Academy of Learning, is taken from Confucius Sinarum Philosophus or “Confucius, the Philosopher of the Chinese” (Paris, 1687). Some of the earlier translations of the Confucian writings were published in this book. Notice the Roman-style arch in the background of the picture and the non-Chinese use of perspective.The two large characters at the top read: "National Academy of Learning." Those on either side of the arch read: "Confucius, the First Teacher under Heaven." The books in the cases along the sides of the room bear titles of the various Confucian classics. Underneath them are tablets inscribed with the names of Confucius' disciples.The Jesuit Monastic Order especially were obsessed with the Celestial Empire. They wrote home detailed accounts of all their observations. Their letters provided material for a long series of books on China, written usually in French or Latin and published in Paris, the European center of Jesuit activities. Among them were such works as “Confucius, the Philosopher of the Chinese” (1687), “The Description of China” (1735), the long series of “Edifying and Curious Letters”, in 34 volumes (1702-76 AD), “The General History of China”, in 13 volumes (1777-85 AD); and the “Memoirs on the History, Sciences, Arts, etc., of the Chinese”, in 16 volumes (1776-1814 AD).In this way Qianlong’s reign managed to secure a Chinese influence in Europe long before the reverse was overwhelmingly true. One European Philosopher above all became absolutely obsessed with the Qing Empire, he was the renowned individual we know today as “Voltaire” (1694-1778 AD)A portrait of the French Enlightenment era Philosopher Voltaire:What absolutely confused Voltaire was that China was a country based off morals, yet she was not a Christian country. “How was that possible?” he thought. “You cannot be moral without being religious” so the Catholic Church had been saying for hundreds of years throughout Europe.Yet, here was China- a moral but yet non-Christian country. China was the “impossible country” he thought. Upon further examination he understood China at last: the Celestial Empire was founded on morals yes, but it had developed them independently of Christianity and other “western” ideologies (anything west of China in this case like Islam with the Middle-East).Voltaire’s greatest envy of China was that she was a secular country unlike his beloved France. There was no meddling from a Catholic Church being led by the Pope a foreign figurehead, to interfere in the domestic affairs of China. The Qianlong Emperor he discovered, only appeared to be an absolute ruler in theory, in practice his power was limited by the teachings of Confucianism, which declared that "the people are the most important element in the state; the sovereign is the least."In reality, Qianlong had to “share” his powers with the “Mandarins”, Chinese officials who helped him run the country. So despite glorious portraits (like below), the Emperor was not actually that powerful:Instead, the country (as had been the case since the Han Dynasty 2,000 years ago) was run on Meritocracy, and the belief that the best person for the job was simply the best with no exceptions. Thus the Qing Government became one that was not in fact just run by the Emperor, but complemented by a vast army of Civil and Military officials guided by Confucianism.As influenced by Han, the Mandarins were chosen by “Meritocratic Examinations”. The exams were a test of commitment. They were purposefully made boring, long and difficult. You had to memorise a couple of thousand of extra Chinese written characters just in order to prepare.In addition, if you passed the test, there would be a sort of “job interview” whereby senior officials (who had already passed the application process) would test your character and sincerity, alongside your knowledge of the most important military, philosophical and political texts- which were pre-requisites for effective ruling. Not to mention also that they took years and years to study for.The Examinations being administered under the previous Ming Empire:Thus, only the best, brightest, most patient and most sound of mind were chosen to rule. In this way, the Emperor was not alone and received effective help which he could count on.In contrast, France under the Bourbon Dynasty (1589–1830 AD) was an Absolute Monarchy. The King was actually in control (especially under the Absolute Monarchist Louis XIV), his power was unlimited (virtually) because of the “Divine Right of Kings”. According to the Catholic Church, God had chosen the King to rule so no one could ever question his authority, the King was always right.The worst part was that the Church itself did not practice what it preached, on one hand it said “God says don’t challenge the King”, on the other hand it stated “God is above the King so we who represent God need not listen to the King before first adhering to the Lord and his holiness the Pope who represents our Father.” Such a belief led to the Catholic Church interfering in France’s domestic affairs even after the French Revolution (1789)."One need not be obsessed with the merits of the Chinese… to recognize . . . that their empire is in truth the best that the world has ever seen."-Voltaire, leading French Philosopher of the European Enlightenment Era (1715–89 AD)In fact Voltaire even attempted to disprove common French philosophical beliefs at the time using Confucianism. A French philosophical “rival” by the name of Jean Jacques-Rousseau (1712–78 AD) had argued that the arts, sciences, and human institutions were generally harmful because they corrupted the simple goodness of human nature.Voltaire who could not disagree more produced a play called “The Orphan of Zhao” (1735) in order to craft a specific critique directed at Rousseau. He deliberately specified that the plays were promoting "the morals of Confucius in five acts," which he used to claim that Rousseau was in fact wrong about Humanity being corrupted by civilization.A modern re-enactment of “The Orphan of Zhao”- Voltaire’s Play:To specifically disprove Rousseau’s “incorrect” ideas, he changed the setting of the play from 7th Century Tang Dynasty, and set it under 13th Century Song Dynasty in the years when the Mongols conquered China. In doing this he hoped to show the superiority of human art and culture by showing how Chinese civilization finally triumphed over the warlike barbarism of the Mongols.It wasn’t just Voltaire who thought like this however, in fact the German Philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716 AD) also once stated:"I almost think it necessary that Chinese missionaries should be sent to us to teach the aims and practice of natural theology (Confucianism), as we send missionaries to them to instruct them in revealed religion."-“Novissima Sinica (Translation: Latest News from China)”, Leibniz, 1697Portrait of Leibniz, the German Philosopher:However, it is important to realise that both Leibniz and Voltaire were looking at China through very “coloured lenses”, in fact Qing China was actually considered to be one of the “worst” and most corrupt Chinese dynasties in comparison with the earlier Chinese Empires of Han (206 BC-220 AD), Tang (618–907 AD) and Song (960–1279 AD). Despite there being “limited” glory under the Qing, apparently it was still able to convince the visiting Europeans of their greatness in comparison with contemporary countries back in Europe.But Qianlong’s Celestial Empire had not just stopped there in influencing the European continent. Under Qianlong, steady progress in the realms of the Fine Arts and Architecture had made China stand out from the rest of the world (this could be argued for any country however).In Europe, a new style of Art called Chinoiserie had come to prominence.Chinoiserie was defined as:“the European imitation and interpretation of Chinese art traditions.”Below is a collection of Chinoiserie Art from various European countries to illustrate my point:Chinoiserie in the United Kingdom- The “Claydon House” in the UK:Chinoiserie in France- “The Chinese Garden”, painting by François Bouche:Chinoiserie in Russia- “Tsarskoye Selo” in Russia displaying the “Chinese Village” as commissioned by Catherine the Great:Chinoiserie in Germany- Potsdam, Germany’s “Chinese House” exterior and interior:Chinoiserie in Austria- An Austrian Porcelain jug from 1799:Chinoiserie in Sicily- Interior of “Palazzina Cinese”, Sicily:It is interesting to note that none of this great Chinese-European cultural exchange would ever have occurred if Qianlong (and Kangxi) had been more intolerant to foreigners (especially with the well educated Jesuits Monks), and prevented them from visiting China to copy, and translate Chinese books before sending this all back to Europe.If it had been another Emperor, we could not say for certain that China would have been so “glorious” as to serve as an inspiration for the Europeans who sought to reform Europe politically back home. No, it is because of the Qianlong Emperor that China entered a great period of peace, stability and growth, a period so great that it thus was able to influence the visiting Europeans.Therefore, Qianlong like Kangxi was also a man I admire and respect for this reason.Chapter III: “From the Mountain, to the Oceans white with foam”Even after bringing peace to China in the earliest days of the young Emperor’s reign, Xuanye (Kangxi’s real name) understood that as long as China’s enemies were still out there, he could not rest and China could never truly be safe.Earlier I had said that when compared to China’s “Golden Ages” of the Han, Tang and Song Dynasties, the Qing was a “bad” dynasty. This was not completely true however.As great as these powerful empires were, China had actually never fully subdued the powerful nomadic peoples of the north under them. China’s second most powerful empire for its time the Han Empire, even took 224 years from 133 BC until 91 AD to defeat the nomadic Xiongnu Empire. But even then, the nomads were not “truly” defeated, instead a settlement was reached and the Xiongnu voluntarily became a tribute nation (one which gives a certain amount of gifts each year to a foreign ruler).Instead, they had mainly relied on the Great Wall of China to deter any attackers:The Ming Dynasty, another “lesser” empire (compared to Han, Tang, Song) rebuilt the Great Wall to protect themselves from the Mongols. Under the Ming, the Great Wall of China had a full renovation and was rebuilt with both stone and brick. The Ming made the greatest addition to the Great Wall out of all the Chinese empires.After it had finished being renovated, the Great Wall stretched for 8,850 km, had 5,723 beacon towers, 1,176 defence fortresses, 3,357 watch towers and 7,062 defence towers. A total of 11 garrisons were stationed all across the Wall under the previous Ming Empire, a total of 100,000 soldiers at the Wall were kept on 24 hours alert, keeping Ming China safe for 100 years until the Manchu Qing arrived.As a Manchu person, Kangxi knew for a fact that the Great Wall was really just a very expensive military deterrent and was next to useless when it came to actually defending China from the northern invasions. Kangxi’s own people, the Manchus had literally demonstrated this merely a couple of years ago when they bribed the guards of the Great Wall into letting the Manchus into China.The truth to Kangxi was clear, the Great Wall was not a really effective way of protecting the Middle Kingdom from foreign invasions. It soon became painfully obvious to the Emperor that there was only one certain way to protect the Qing Empire from ever being invaded again: by taking the fight to the enemy themselves, on their own territories with the aim of incorporating them into the Qing Empire, so they would change their allegiance and serve him and China instead.Kangxi was able to do this (remember Chapter I) because China was now a multiethnic state, and being Chinese merely meant adopting Chinese culture, a task he felt compelled to fulfil in the aftermath of his upcoming campaigns.His solution? Conquer the enemy, and that is exactly what happened.Note to audience: It is important to realise that whilst Kangxi did expand his empire in an violently imperialistic manner, this was more of a compulsory solution to pacify the invaders of China. It was a “side-effect” of bringing about peace. China rarely, (if ever) believed in military expansion, as such this rare case of Chinese Imperialism came about only in “future self-defence”, to protect her from any possible foreign invasions.In fact, Confucianism had especially emphasised the use of non-violence.Source: Yuan-kang Wang, Harmony and war: Confucian culture and Chinese power politics. Columbia University Press, 2011:14. Quote from John K. Fairbank, “Varieties of the Chinese Military Experience,” in Chinese Ways in Warfare, ed. Frank A. Kierman Jr. and John K. Fairbank (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974), 7–9.“Warfare was disesteemed in Confucianism... The resort to warfare (wu or 武 ) was an admission of bankruptcy in the pursuit of wen (文 ) [civility or culture]. Consequently, it should be a last resort... Herein lies the pacifist bias of the Chinese tradition... Expansion through wen... was natural and proper; whereas expansion by wu, brute force and conquest, was never to be condoned.”Qing Conquests under Kangxi (1661–1722 AD) and Qianlong (1735–96 AD):Though the map doesn’t show it, the island of Taiwan which housed Ming loyalists was the first target of Kangxi.The Flag of the Kingdom of Tungning (1661–83 AD) in Taiwan, home of the Ming loyalist regime:At the decisive Battle of Penghu (1683), with 60,000 soldiers and 600 battleships outnumbering the Ming loyalists 3 to 1 in numbers and ships, it should be of no surprise to anyone then that the loyalists were ultimately defeated on the High Seas.In the aftermath of this defeat, Qing Marines landed on the Island of Taiwan and after hearing that the Qing Military was closing in on their capital, the Ming loyalists surrendered to the Kangxi Emperor. Thus in this way, Taiwan was incorporated into the Qing Empire.The Qing Navy returning home after the end of a similar Taiwanese rebellion 100 years later:But it didn’t stop there, Kangxi was not satisfied yet. He felt that China was still under threat from attack. He was very right.500 years before, the Chinese Song Dynasty had been the pre-eminent power of the world. It recorded 118,000,000 people in its 1120 AD census, produced 64.2 billion kg of grain per year (650 kg/person before taxes, 544 kg/person after taxes)- a number greater than all Europe in the late 1800s, accounted for at least 40% of the world’s wealth and invented gunpowder, the compass, printing and even established retirement homes, public clinics and graveyards for the homeless.Then the Mongols came, and after 44 years of heroic resistance, Song China finally fell to the Mongols.Mongol Invasion of China (1235–79 AD):By the end of the war, so many Chinese people had been murdered that the Imperial Census conducted by the Mongols in 1300 AD recorded a number of 60 million individuals, far below the record 118 million in 1120, 180 years before.The resulting Mongol regime was not at all like Kangxi’s era of benevolence, under the Mongols the Chinese were treated so incredibly poorly that even when they were kicked out in 1368, there was always a constant paranoia that the Mongols would one day return to finish China off forever.In this way, the Mongols managed to shatter China’s confidence for 500 years.A clever man as always, Kangxi knew that for China to become a powerful empire once more, he had to first give her back her confidence. For that reason, he launched a preemptive surprise strike on the remnants of the Mongols first. At this time, the “Mongols” (not really, but related) had built up a large empire in what is Western China today.The “Dzungar Khanate”, the strongest of the Mongol “remnant” empires along with the Khoshut Khanate in Tibet, and the Northern Yuan Dynasty (direct remains of the Mongols who invaded China 500 years earlier, but were now actually on China’s side since they were vassals of the Manchus before they conquered China). The Qing is also there (on the right) but it is unnamed, notice how equal the Mongol empires and Qing were:What was supposed to be a quick and clean victory for the Qing, did not go as planned however. This “easy” war became one that eventually lasted for 70 years from 1687–1757 AD- far beyond Kangxi’s own life, and what was supposed to be only one small war eventually became four giant ones. After the death of Kangxi , the Qianlong Emperor continued his grandfather’s work and eventually defeated the Dzungar Khanate after years of fighting.The image below depicts the Khan’s surrender to the Qing in 1755:Despite the two empires being of equal size, it was the Qing who managed to defeat the Dzungar peoples, and not the other way around despite also the famous ferocity of the Turkic nomadic peoples- a reputation that had been well known in China for almost 2,000 years.So how did the Qing do it? The answer was a lot simpler than you might think.The great advantage of the Qing Administration under Kangxi (who was a Manchurian) was due to its dual existence on one hand as leaders of a powerful civilized empire, yet on the other hand as the descendants of nomadic peoples.Despite Kangxi’s efforts to sinicise the Manchus, many still retained the habits of their ancestors (the most notable of which was the Manchu tradition of Archery Hunting). This proved extremely useful on the battlefield as the Qing commanders understood how the Mongols fought like and as such could accurately predict their next moves whilst simultaneously making it easier to control the people they conquered. This combined with superior Qing firearm technology allowed China to prevail eventually.Although Kangxi had started the 70 year long war against the Mongol Dzungars, it was his grandson Hongli, the Qianlong Emperor who finished them off.The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1756, one of the last battles between Qing and the Dzungars:By the end of the 70 year war, the Qing had managed to incorporate Tibet, Inner and Outer Mongolia, and Xinjiang (Northwest China) into the Great Qing Empire. The people of these areas being also assimilated with Chinese culture, meant that China was now a true multi-ethnic state.This was an especially momentous occasion for with the conquering of what is today Xinjiang Province, the Northwest returned to Chinese control for the first time in 850 years since the end of the Tang Dynasty in 907 AD.The final result of these campaigns is shown below, here is the Qing at her heights:And that, is the true story of how China got so huge, becoming the 4th largest empire ever by area in world history.How China lost 5.1 million km^2 of land however, is a separate story for later which I may tell one day in the future on Quora.Real life Flag of the Qing Dynasty representing China from 1889–1912:Final Summary:There wasn’t just one Chinese Emperor that I admired, but two: Kangxi (reigned 1661–1722 AD) and Qianlong (1735–96 AD). Together, this period of history is known today as the “Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong”.Under Kangxi and Qianlong, China reached its last age of prosperity. Never again until today would China achieve so much using so little.Because of the Kangxi Emperor, China was redefined as a multiethnic empire where classification as a “Chinese” person was based off culture and language rather than blood. Under Kangxi, Manchus and Mongols as long as they spoke Chinese and adopted Han culture, were just as Chinese as the Han people themselves. This has continued to remain true for China today even.Because of the Qianlong Emperor, China accelerated into an era of wealth, stability and growth. Due to the great tolerance of the Qianlong Emperor, the European visitors who were allowed into China soon became infatuated with the Celestial Empire, and they ended up translating Chinese philosophical books with the goal of bringing them back to Europe hoping to enact change, which did come in the form of the French Revolution.Because of both Kangxi and Qianlong, China reached unimaginable heights which she had never before been able to in her history before. At 14.7 million km^2, Qing China was even 1.5 times larger by area than Modern China today. The Qing Campaigns allowed Tibetans, Uyghurs and Mongols to be considered as Chinese people also, upon assimilation by the Qing Empire. In addition, it showed how far the Emperors were willing to go to protect China from otherwise imminent dangers.Thus how can Kangxi and Qianlong not be admired more is the real question.Additional comments:Special thanks to Josh Bergeman for requesting my answer without which I would never have been able to write this extremely long response. The only regret I have is not being able to answer his request sooner (he requested 2 months ago) because I literally forgot to do so until Sunday. Oh well, “better late than never” as they say aren’t I right Josh?Go check out his cool profile by clicking on his name.And thanks for reading, I know it was long.

Dear Mates,🙂Talking about IPO Full Form.Many people believe in investing, so they invest their money on the stock/share market or even on the other side, they are also thinking about future investment or looking for a good return. An IPO is the only way to make such an investment. Yes, you invest through IPO, now many people must be thinking that what is IPO? So in this post I will tell you about the IPO full form along with complete details about the IPO. So read this post till the end.Initial Public Offering (IPO)==========================QnA==========================📌What is IPO and how does it work? Or IPO meaningAn initial public offering (IPO) alludes to the way toward offering portions of a private enterprise to general society in another stock issuance. Public offer issuance permits an organization to raise capital from public financial specialists. Then, it likewise permits public financial specialists to partake in the contribution.📌IPO SizeLot size can be alluded to as the base number of offers that a financial specialist needs to apply for in an IPO. A value range is chosen and the financial specialists need to offer inside the value range.📌IPO StocksAs indicated by numerous specialists, you're in an ideal situation purchasing and holding an ease reserve that records the market as opposed to attempting to beat the market by exchanging shares singular organizations. Also, regardless of whether you need to seek after dynamic as opposed to latent contributing, IPOs may not be your smartest option.📌IPO Grey MarketIPO Grey Market is an informal market where people purchase/sell IPO offers or applications before they are authoritatively dispatched for exchanging on the stock trade. As it is an informal over-the-counter market, there are no guidelines around it.📌Where can we see upcoming IPO?IPO investors can follow IPOs on the sites for trades like NASDAQ and NYSE, and these sites such as Google News, Yahoo Finance, IPO Monitor, IPO Scoop, Renaissance Capital IPO Center, and Hoovers IPO Calendar.📌Is buying IPO a good idea?For those looking to capitalize on market openings and getting an early passage into a growing organization, IPO ventures are ideal. It is likewise a wise speculation for financial specialists with a somewhat high danger hunger and a decent comprehension of the market patterns.📌IPO InvestmentInitial public offering(IPO) is the cycle by which a privately owned business can open up to the world by offer of its stocks to overall population. After IPO, the organization's offers are exchanged an open market. Those offers can be additionally sold by financial specialists through optional market exchanging.📌Reason for IPOAt the point when an organization needs extra capital, it gives an IPO. This IPO organization can issue in any event, when it is shy of assets, it is smarter to fund-raise from the IPO than to acquire from the market. This is the extension plan of any organization. Subsequent to being recorded on the securities exchange, the organization can put its offers in different plans.📌Benefit from IPOIn the IPO, the capital contributed by the speculator goes straightforwardly to the organization. Nonetheless, if there should be an occurrence of disinvestment, the capital got from the IPO goes straightforwardly to the public authority. Once permitted to exchange their offers, at that point they can be purchased and sold, yes one thing must be recollected, the speculator will be liable for the benefit and loss of purchasing and selling the offers.📌Who can invest in an IPO?Any grown-up and minor individual can put resources into initial public offering and an individual with a solid brain who needs to contribute up to 2 lakh rupees can put resources into IPO as a retail financial specialist.📌How to invest in an IPO?➤In India, in the event that you need to put resources into IPO of an organization as an Investor, at that point for your benefit, the Corporate Ministry of India and SEBI have set out certain principles and rules that should be remembered.➤In the event that you need to put resources into initial public offering, at that point for that you need to open a demat or exchanging account. To contribute under IPO, you should have a ledger, demat record and PAN number. 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Issue Size: This implies the complete offer volume you can offer on.6. Listing - The listing on which the IPO opens and is accessible for exchanging are called postings.7. QIB - The level of offers held for offering by speculator foundations is called QIB.8. NIB - The level of offers held for offering by non-speculator substances is called NIB.Read moreHope it’s helpful to you.Thank you!🙏