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Well this is Quora, and you cannot pick and choose who answers your questions. If that’s what you wish, then perhaps you should PM some neurologists?In any case, neurologists will provide you with the same answer that dentists will. There is no respectable (or even semi-respectable) studies that in any way discover that fluoride is bad for you health at the concentrations used in drinking water and for topical application such as toothpastes. There are many studies that prove the safety of fluoride in these concentrations and applications, which is how fluoride was passed as a treatment. They didn’t just chuck a few thousand buckets of fluoride in the resevoir and hope for the best.The medical world isn’t out to kill you. I wish people would realise that.If you want to learn a little more about the safety of fluoride, read these studies:Dentifrice usage among Danish children.(PMID:3165405)Bruun C, Thylstrup A.J. Dent. Res. [1988]Urinary fluoride levels in pre-school children in relation to the use of fluoride toothpaste.(PMID:3165623)Dooland MB, Wylie A.Aust Dent J [1988]The need for toothpastes with lower than conventional fluoride concentrations for preschool-aged children.(PMID:1512746)Horowitz HS.J Public Health Dent [1992]The future of water fluoridation and other systemic fluorides.(PMID:2179338)Horowitz HS.J. Dent. Res. [1990]Water fluoridation and fluoride supplementation: considerations for the future.(PMID:2179339)Hargreaves JA.J. Dent. Res. [1990]An evaluation of the use of professional (operator-applied) topical fluorides.(PMID:2179342)Ripa LW.J. Dent. Res. [1990]Feasibility of the combined use of fluorides.(PMID:2107233)Konig KG.J. Dent. Res. [1990]Use of fluoride by young children and prevalence of mottled enamel.(PMID:2640428)Woltgens JH, Etty EJ, Nieuwland WM, Lyaruu DM.Adv. Dent. Res. [1989]Factors associated with the use of fluoride supplements and fluoride dentifrice by infants and toddlers.(PMID:8164191)Nourjah P, Horowitz AM, Wagener DK.J Public Health Dent [1994]Prevalence of dental caries and dental fluorosis in areas with negligible, optimal, and above-optimal fluoride concentrations in drinking water.(PMID:3461057)Driscoll WS, Horowitz HS, Meyers RJ, Heifetz SB, Kingman A, Zimmerman ER.J Am Dent Assoc [1986]Review of systemic fluoride supplementation and consideration of the pharmacist's role.(PMID:3545734)Baker KA, Levy SM.Drug Intell Clin Pharm [1986]Reaction paper: some perspectives on the appropriate uses of fluoride for the 1990s and beyond.(PMID:2027104)Pendrys DG.J Public Health Dent [1991]Topical fluoride therapy: discussion of some aspects of toxicology, safety, and efficacy.(PMID:3475327)Newbrun E.J. Dent. Res. [1987]Controlled-release therapeutic systems: technology applicable to the treatment of oral disease.(PMID:3326612)Mirth DB.Adv. Dent. Res. [1987]Acute fluoride toxicity from ingesting home-use dental products in children, birth to 6 years of age.(PMID:9383753)Shulman JD, Wells LM.J Public Health Dent [1997]Practitioner's guide to fluoride.(PMID:12436834)Scheifele E, Studen-Pavlovich D, Markovic N.Dent. Clin. North Am. [2002]Current and future role of fluoride in nutrition.(PMID:12699229)Warren JJ, Levy SM.Dent. Clin. North Am. [2003]And some more reading for you. You’ll have to go to the nearest health science library to pick out the journals.1 Rees JS, Addy M. A cross-sectional study of dentine hypersensitivity. J Clin Periodontol. 2002 Nov;29(11):997-1003. 2. Irwin CR, McCusker P. Prevalence of dentine hypersensitivity in a general dental population. J Ir Dent Assoc. 1997;43(1):7-9. 3. Jacobsen PL, Bruce G. Clinical dentin hypersensitivity: understanding the causes and prescribing a treatment. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2001;2:1-8. 4. Rosenthal MW. Historic review of the management of tooth sensitivity. Dent Clin North Am. 1990;34:403-427. 5. Brannstrom M, Astrom A. The Hydrodynamics of the Dentine; Its Possible Relationship to Dentinal Pain. Int Dent J. 1972;22:219-227. 6. Kramer IRH. The relationship between dentine sensitivity and movements in the contents of the dentinal tubules. Br Dent J. 1955;98:391-392. 7. Harris R, Curtin JH. Dentine hypersensitivity. Aust Dent J. 1976;21:165-169. 8. Miller JT, Shannon IL, Kilgore WG, Bookman JE. Use of a water-free stannous fluoride-containing gel in the control of dental hypersensitivity. J Periodontol. 1969;40:490-491. 9. Miller S, Truong T, Heu R, Stranick M, Bouchard D, Gaffar A. Recent advances in stannous fluoride technology: antibacterial efficacy and mechanism of action towards hypersensitivity. Int Dent J. 1994 Feb;44(1 Suppl 1):83–98. 10. Thrash WJ, Dodds MW, Jones DL. The effect of stannous fluoride on dentinal hypersensitivity. Int Dent J. 1994 Feb;44(1 Suppl 1):107–18. 11. Blong MA, Volding B, Thrash WJ, Jones DL. Effects of a gel containing 0.4 percent stannous fluoride on dentinal hypersensitivity. Dent Hyg (Chic) 1985;59:489-92. 12. Snyder RA, Beck FM, Horton JE. The efficacy of a 0.4% stannous fluoride gel on root surface hypersensitivity. J Dent Res. 1985;62:237. 13. Thrash WJ, Jones DL, Dodds WJ. Effect of a fluoride solution on dentinal hypersensitivity. Am J Dent. 1992; 5:299-302. 14. ADA Council on Scientific Affairs. Acceptance Program Guidelines: Procedures for the Treatment of Dentinal Hypersensitivity. Chicago, Ill: American Dental Association; 1998. 15. Schiff T, Zhang YP, DeVizio W, Stewart B, Chaknis P, Petrone ME, Volpe AR, Proskin HM. A randomized clinical trial of the desensitizing efficacy of three dentifrices. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 2000;21(suppl 27):4-10. 16. Schiff T, Bonta Y, Proskin HM, DeVizio W, Petrone M, Volpe AR. Desensitizing efficacy of a new dentifrice containing 5.0% potassium nitrate and 0.454% stannous fluoride. Am J Dent. 2000;13: 111-115. 17. Schiff T, Saletta L, Baker RA, Winston JL, He T. Desensitizing effect of a stabilized stannous fluoride/sodium hexametaphosphate dentifrice. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 2005;26(supp 1):35-40. 18. Tinanoff N. Review of the Antimicrobial Action of Stannous Fluoride. J Clin Dent. 1990; 2(1):22-27. 19. Tinanoff N. Progress regarding the use of stannous fluoride in clinical dentistry. J Clin Dent. 1995; 6 Spec No:37-40. 20. Beiswanger BB, Doyle PM, Jackson RD, Mallatt ME, Mau MS.The clinical effect of dentifrices containing stabilized stannous fluoride on plaque formation and gingivitis--a six-month study with ad libitum brushing. J Clin Dent. 1995; 6 Spec No:46-53. 21. Perlich MA, Bacca LA, Bollmer BW, Lanzalaco AC, McClanahan SF, Sewak LK. The clinical effect of a stabilized stannous fluoride dentifrice on plaque formation, gingivitis and gingival bleeding: a sixmonth study. J Clin Dent. 1995; 6 Spec No:54-58. 22. Mankodi S, Petrone DM, Battista G, Petrone ME, Chaknis P, DeVizio W, Volpe AR, Proskin HM. Clinical efficacy of an optimized stannous fluoride dentifrice, part 2: A 6-month plaque/gingivitis clinical study, northeast USA. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 1997; 18:10-15. 23. Williams C, McBride S, Bolden TE, Mostler K, Petrone DM, Petrone ME, Chaknis P, DeVizio W, Volpe AR, Proskin HM. Clinical efficacy of an optimized stannous fluoride dentifrice, Part 3: A 6-month plaque/gingivitis clinical study, southeast USA. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 1997; 18 Spec No:16-20. 9 The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, Volume 7, No. 2, May 1, 2006 24. Gerlach RW, Hyde J, Poore CL, Stevens DP, Witt JJ. Breath Effects of Three Marketed Dentifrices: A Comparative Study Evaluating Single and Cumulative Use. J Clin Dent. 1998; 9(4):83-88. 25. Gerlach RW, Liu H, Prater ME, Ramsey LL, White DJ. Removal of extrinsic stain using a 7.0% sodium hexametaphosphate dentifrice: A randomized clinical trial. J Clin Dent. 2002;13:6-9. 26. Gerlach RW, Ramsey LL, White DJ. Extrinsic stain removal with a sodium hexametaphosphate containing dentifrice: comparisons to marketed controls. J Clin Dent. 2002;13:10-14. 27. Gerlach RW, Ramsey LL, Baker RA, White DJ. Extrinsic stain prevention with a combination dentifrice containing calcium phosphate surface active builders compared to two marketed controls. J Clin Dent. 2002;13:15-18. 28. Bartizek RD, Walters P, Biesbrock AR. The prevention of induced stain using two levels of sodium hexametaphosphate in chewing gum. J Clin Dent. 2003;14:77-81. 29. Biesbrock AR, Walters P, Bartizek RD. A chewing gum containing 7.5% sodium hexametaphosphate inhibits stain deposition relative to a placebo chewing gum. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 2004;25:253- 264. 30. Archila L, Bartizek RD, Winston JL, Biesbrock AR, McClanahan SF, He T. The comparative efficacy of stabilized stannous fluoride/sodium hexametaphosphate dentifrice and sodium fluoride/triclosan/ copolymer dentifrice for the control of gingivitis: a 6-month randomized clinical study. J Periodontol. 2004 Dec;75(12):1592-9. 31. Mankodi S, Bartizek RD, Winston JL, Biesbrock AR, McClanahan SF, He T. Anti-gingivitis efficacy of a stabilized 0.454% stannous fluoride/sodium hexametaphosphate dentifrice. J Clin Periodontol. 2005 Jan;32(1):75-80. 32. Wefel JS, Stanford CM, Ament DK, Hogan MM, Harless JD, Pfarrer AM, Ramsey LL, Leusch MS, Biesbrock AR. In situ evaluation of sodium hexametaphosphate-containing dentifrices. Caries Res. 2002; 36:122-128. 33. Stookey GK, Mau MS, Isaacs RL, Gonzalez-Gierbolini C, Bartizek RD, Biesbrock AR. The relative anticaries effectiveness of three fluoride-containing dentifrices in Puerto Rico. Caries Res. 2004;38:542-550. 34. Schiff T, Saletta L, Baker RA, He T, Winston JL. Anti-calculus efficacy and safety of a stabilized stannous fluoride/sodium hexametaphosphate dentifrice. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 2005;26 (supp 1):29-34. 35. Baig AA, He T, Buisson J, Sagel L, Suszcynsky-Meister E, White DJ. Extrinsic whitening effects of sodium hexametaphosphate – a review including a dentifrice with stabilized stannous fluoride. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 2005;26 (supp 1):19-28. 36. Ramji N, Baig AA, He T, Lawless MA, Saletta L, Suszcynsky-Meister E, Coggan J. Sustained antibacterial action of a new stabilized stannous fluoride dentifrice containing sodium hexametaphosphate. Compend Cont Educ Dent. 2005;26 (supp 1):19-28. 37. Taani S, Awartani F. Clinical evaluation of cervical dentin sensitivity (CDS) in patients attending general dental clinics (GDC) and periodontal specialty clinics (PSC). J Clin Periodontol. 2002;29:118-122. 38. Chabanksi MB, Gillam DG, Bulman JS, Newman HN. Clinical evaluation of cervical dentine sensitivity in a population of patients referred to a specialist periodontology department: A pilot study. J Oral Rehabil. 1997;24:666-672. 39. Drisko CH. Dentine hypersensitivity – dental hygiene and periodontal considerations. Int Dent J. 2002;52:385-393. 40. Curro FA. Tooth hypersensitivity in the spectrum of pain. Dent Clin North Am. 1990;34:429-37. 41. Addy M. Dentine hypersensitivity: new perspectives on an old problem. Int Dent J. 2002;52: 367-375.

Your physician is the best judge.What is Anemia and Iron deficiency anemiaAnemia is a blood condition characterized by a lack of healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin.Hemoglobin is the part of the red blood cells that binds to oxygen.When the body does not have enough hemoglobin circulating, not enough oxygen gets to all parts of the body either.As a result, organs and tissues may not function properly, and a person may feel fatigued.Iron deficiency anemia is a condition where there are too few red blood cells in the body due to a shortage of iron.The body uses iron to produce red blood cells, which transport oxygen around the body.Without enough iron, there may be too few healthy red blood cells to carry sufficient oxygen to satisfy the body's needs.The result of this situation is called iron deficiency anemia, which can leave a person feeling extremely tired and out of breath.Iron deficiency anemia occurs when the body does not have enough iron to produce the hemoglobin it needs.Causes of AnemiaIron deficiency anemia relates directly to a lack of iron in the body. The cause of the iron deficiency varies, however.Some common causes include:poor diet or not enough iron in the dietblood lossa decreased ability to absorb ironpregnancyAnemia caused by Functional DefectDiagnosisOnly a doctor can diagnose iron deficiency anemia. It is important for a person to seek advice from a medical professional if they have noticeable symptoms.It is likely that a doctor will begin the exam by asking questions about a person's general health. They may examine the skin tone, the fingernails, and under the eyelids to look for physical signs of iron deficiency anemia.However, since iron deficiency anemia does not always have visible symptoms, a blood test will probably be needed.A doctor will check the blood for the following:the hematocrit or the percentage red blood cells in the total volume of bloodsize and color of the red blood cells, looking especially for smaller pale cellslow ferritin levels where a shortage of this protein indicates poor iron storage in the bloodlower hemoglobin levels that are associated with iron deficiencyA doctor may ask further questions or run additional tests to help determine if the iron deficiency anemia is the result of an undiagnosed underlying condition.These tests may vary, depending on other symptoms a person describes. For example, someone experiencing pain during digestion may require a colonoscopy to see if a gastrointestinal disease is the cause of the iron deficiency.TreatmentAnemia treatment depends on the cause.Iron deficiency anemia. Treatment for this form of anemia usually involves taking iron supplements and making changes to your diet.If the underlying cause of iron deficiency is loss of blood — other than from menstruation — the source of the bleeding must be located and stopped. This may involve surgery.Vitamin deficiency anemias. Treatment for folic acid and B-12 deficiency involves dietary supplements and increasing these nutrients in your diet.If your digestive system has trouble absorbing vitamin B-12 from the food you eat, you may need vitamin B-12 shots. At first, you may receive the shots every other day. Eventually, you'll need shots just once a month, which may continue for life, depending on your situation.Anemia of chronic disease. There's no specific treatment for this type of anemia. Doctors focus on treating the underlying disease. If symptoms become severe, a blood transfusion or injections of synthetic erythropoietin, a hormone normally produced by your kidneys, may help stimulate red blood cell production and ease fatigue.Aplastic anemia. Treatment for this anemia may include blood transfusions to boost levels of red blood cells. You may need a bone marrow transplant if your bone marrow is diseased and can't make healthy blood cells.Anemias associated with bone marrow disease. Treatment of these various diseases can include medication, chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation.Hemolytic anemias. Managing hemolytic anemias includes avoiding suspect medications, treating related infections and taking drugs that suppress your immune system, which may be attacking your red blood cells.Depending on the severity of your anemia, a blood transfusion or plasmapheresis may be necessary. Plasmapheresis is a type of blood-filtering procedure. In certain cases, removal of the spleen can be helpful.Sickle cell anemia. Treatment for this anemia may include the administration of oxygen, pain-relieving drugs, and oral and intravenous fluids to reduce pain and prevent complications. Doctors also may recommend blood transfusions, folic acid supplements and antibiotics.A bone marrow transplant may be an effective treatment in some circumstances. A cancer drug called hydroxyurea (Droxia, Hydrea) also is used to treat sickle cell anemia.Thalassemia. This anemia may be treated with blood transfusions, folic acid supplements, medication, removal of the spleen (splenectomy), or a blood and bone marrow stem cell transplant.REFERENCES1. World Health Organization. Iron Deficiency Anaemia: Assessment, Prevention, and Control: A Guide for Programme Managers. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2001.2. Johnson-Wimbley TD, Graham DY. Diagnosis and management of iron deficiency anemia in the 21st century. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2011;4(3):177–184.3. WHO Global Database on Anaemia. Worldwide Prevalence of Anaemia 1993–2005. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2008.4. U. S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for iron deficiency anemia, including iron supplementations for children and pregnant women: recommendation statement Am Fam Physician. 2006;74(3):461–464.5. Van Vranken M. Evaluation of microcytosis. Am Fam Physician. 2010;82(9):1117–1122.6. Ioannou GN, Spector J, Scott K, Rockey DC. Prospective evaluation of a clinical guideline for the diagnosis and management of iron deficiency anemia. Am J Med. 2002;113(4):281–287.7. Goddard AF, James MW, McIntyre AS, Scott BB; British Society of Gastroenterology. Guidelines for the management of iron deficiency anaemia. Gut. 2011;60(10):1309–1316.8. Mast AE, Blinder MA, Gronowski AM, Chumley C, Scott MG. Clinical utility of the soluble transferrin receptor and comparison with serum ferritin in several populations. Clin Chem. 1998;44(1):45–51.9. Knovich MA, Storey JA, Coffman LG, Torti SV, Torti FM. Ferritin for the clinician. Blood Rev. 2009;23(3):95–104.10. Galloway MJ, Smellie WS. Investigating iron status in microcytic anaemia. BMJ. 2006;333(7572):791–793.11. Assessing the iron status of populations: report of a joint World Health Organization/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention technical consultation on the assessment of iron status at the population level, Geneva, Switzerland, 6–8 April 2004. Geneva: World Health Organization, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2005.12. Skikne BS, Punnonen K, Caldron PH, et al. Improved differential diagnosis of anemia of chronic disease and iron deficiency anemia: a prospective multicenter evaluation of soluble transferrin receptor and the sTfR/log ferritin index. Am J Hematol. 2011;86(11):923–927.13. Bermejo F, García-López S. A guide to diagnosis of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in digestive diseases. World J Gastroenterol. 2009;15(37):4638–4643.14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations to prevent and control iron deficiency in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1998;47(RR-3):1–29.15. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice bulletin no. 95: anemia in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;112(1):201–207.16. Baker RD, Greer FR; Committee on Nutrition, American Academy of Pediatrics. Diagnosis and prevention of iron deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia in infants and young children (0–3 years of age). Pediatrics. 2010;126(5):1040–1050.17. Hutton EK, Hassan ES. Late vs early clamping of the umbilical cord in full-term neonates: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. JAMA. 2007;297(11):1241–1252.18. Liu K, Kaffes AJ. Iron deficiency anaemia: a review of diagnosis, investigation and management. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;24(2):109–116.19. British Columbia Ministry of Health. Iron deficiency—investigation and management. http://www.bcguidelines.ca/guide.... Accessed November 13, 2012.20. Carter D, Maor Y, Bar-Meir S, Avidan B. Prevalence and predictive signs for gastrointestinal lesions in premenopausal women with iron deficiency anemia. Dig Dis Sci. 2008;53(12):3138–3144.21. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Adolescent Health Care; American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee on Gynecologic Practice. ACOG committee opinion no. 451: Von Willebrand disease in women. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;114(6):1439–1443.22. Green BT, Rockey DC. Gastrointestinal endoscopic evaluation of pre-menopausal women with iron deficiency anemia. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004;38(2):104–109.23. Park DI, Ryu SH, Oh SJ, et al. Significance of endoscopy in asymptomatic premenopausal women with iron deficiency anemia. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51(12):2372–2376.24. Fraser IS, Langham S, Uhl-Hochgraeber K. Health-related quality of life and economic burden of abnormal uterine bleeding. Expert Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2009;4(2):179–189.25. ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins—Gynecology, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice bulletin: management of anovulatory bleeding. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2001;72(3):263–271.26. Hopper AD, Leeds JS, Hurlstone DP, Hadjivassiliou M, Drew K, Sanders DS. Are lower gastrointestinal investigations necessary in patients with coeliac disease? Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;17(6):617–621.27. Yates JM, Logan EC, Stewart RM. Iron deficiency anaemia in general practice: clinical outcomes over three years and factors influencing diagnostic investigations. Postgrad Med J. 2004;80(945):405–410.28. Ioannou GN, Rockey DC, Bryson CL, Weiss NS. Iron deficiency and gastrointestinal malignancy: a population-based cohort study. Am J Med. 2002;113(4):276–280.29. Lewis NR, Scott BB. Systematic review: the use of serology to exclude or diagnose coeliac disease (a comparison of the endomysial and tissue transglutaminase antibody tests). Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;24(1):47–54.30. Sidhu R, Sanders DS, Morris AJ, McAlindon ME. Guidelines on small bowel enteroscopy and capsule endoscopy in adults. Gut. 2008;57(1):125–136.31. Ajmera AV, Shastri GS, Gajera MJ, Judge TA. Suboptimal response to ferrous sulfate in iron-deficient patients taking omeprazole. Am J Ther. 2012;19(3):185–189.32. Maslovsky I. Intravenous iron in a primary-care clinic. Am J Hematol. 2005;78(4):261–264.33. Silverstein SB, Rodgers GM. Parenteral iron therapy options. Am J Hematol. 2004;76(1):74–78.34. Eichbaum Q, Foran S, Dzik S. Is iron gluconate really safer than iron dextran? Blood. 2003;101(9):3756–3757.35. Murphy MF, Wallington TB, Kelsey P, British Committee for Standards in Haematology, Blood Transfusion Task Force, et al. Guidelines for the clinical use of red cell transfusions. Br J Haematol. 2001;113(1):24–31.

Unfortunately, just sitting far enough away from someone who might have Norovirus isn't sufficient to stave off getting infected with it. This is not only because it's highly contagious but also because ofHow Norovirus spreads: Not just directly through fecal-oral transmission but also from eating and drinking contaminated food and water, handling contaminated surfaces and objects (fomites) followed by hand-to-mouth contact, and via ingestion of aerosolized particles (1), a Norovirus property unique among GI tract pathogens (2).For example, samples from mantels and light fittings 1.5 meters above the ground during a hotel outbreak in England were positive for Norovirus (3), suggesting source to be aerosolized particles released from vomit.How long Norovirus can stay infectious in the environment (4).These two factors help explain why it can spread so fast in places where people spend time in close proximity to one another, such as on cruise ships, hospitals and nursing homes.So far, only genetic fortune in the form of a single nucleotide mutation (G428A) in the FUT 2 gene (FUT2 - Wikipedia) on chromosome 19 provides strong protection against Norovirus (5, 6). This mutation is present in ~20% of whites.According to the US CDC (7),Norovirus outbreaks 'can occur anywhere people gather or food is served'.Cruise ship outbreaks account for only ~1% of all reported Norovirus outbreaks with 70% caused by infected food workers.Norovirus patients usually vomit and have diarrhea. Several reasons for why infected Norovirus patients are so contagious,While they shed billions of virions in their vomit and stool, 'it only takes as few as 18 viral particles to infect another person' (7, 8, 9, 10).People can spread Norovirus both even before feeling sick and as long as two weeks after starting to feel better (11).Norovirus on a variety of surfaces such as ceramic plates, drinking glasses, stainless steel forks is more resistant to traditional decontamination methods (12).Norovirus can remain infectious (13) on reusable grocery bags for as long as 2 weeks (14) and diaper changing stations (15).Norovirus on ceramic plates, drinking glasses, stainless steel forks is more resistant to strong disinfectants compared to other microbes: One study (12) assessed capacity of restaurant-style cleaning procedures to eliminate Norovirus. In the US, as per the FDA Food Code (13), restaurants and other food service establishments are required to use disinfectant procedures that can reduce microbial load on tableware and food preparation utensils by a minimum of 5 logs.The authors smeared ceramic plates, drinking glasses and stainless steel forks with mouse Norovirus (MNV-1)-containing cream cheese and reduced-fat milk. Solutions containing powerful disinfectants such as sodium hypochlorite (chlorine) or quaternary ammonium (QAC) (12) reduced Norovirus by a maximum of only 3 logs.Norovirus on a reusable grocery bag can be infectious without person-to-person contact and is detectable on it even 2 weeks later: Environmental sleuthing (see below from 14) traced the source of a Norovirus outbreak in Oregon to a reusable grocery bag. In this case, 13 to 14 year old soccer players had all fallen ill less than 48 hours after they'd traveled together out of town for a week-end tournament. First to fall ill on Saturday night was a girl (the index case) who moved into the room of one of the parent chaperones but these two then went home early Sunday with no further contact with the other players. Yet, seven other players fell ill over the next 48 hours. How?Interviews revealed most of the ones who got ill ate cookies at a Sunday lunch, cookies that in turn had been left behind in a reusable grocery bag in the empty hotel room of the first girl who fell ill. Turns out this girl had been very ill in the hotel bathroom and likely spread Norovirus aerosol that landed everywhere including the reusable grocery bag hanging in the room. Scientists found the bag positive for Norovirus even two weeks later. Thus, this was a case of Norovirus transmission without person-to-person contact.Norovirus from improperly disinfected diaper-changing station can cause infections not only to those who came in direct contact with it but to others in the same workplace as well: In another Oregon outbreak (see below from 15), 12 of 16 auto-dealership employees fell ill after a staff meeting. In this case, the culprit wasn't among the take out sandwiches but rather an unwelcome 'gift' left behind by a customer whose toddler 'sprayed' the dealership's sole women's restroom with diarrhea a mere 15 minutes before the staff meeting lunch began.'When staff at the auto dealership were interviewed, we learned of an incident that occurred approximately 15 minutes before the luncheon began. A female staff member (employee A) had entered the sole women's restroom at the dealership to discover a customer managing a toddler with diarrhea by holding the incontinent child over the trash receptacle while the toddler was (in the staff member’s words) “spraying.” The wall-mounted diaper changing station (brand X) was deployed and was visibly soiled with fecal material, as were the floor, walls, and trash can. The child’s mother left the mess for employee A, who attempted to clean up with dry paper towels. No gloves or disinfectants were used, but employee A reported subsequently washing her hands with soap and water.Meanwhile, employee B had gone to pick up the food for the meeting. Immediately after cleaning the restroom, employee A opened the door for employee B when the latter returned with the food. Employee A was the first to take one of the un-wrapped sandwiches off the platter. Four of 5 female cases reported eating a sandwich, as did 6 of 7 male cases.All 5 female employees working that day became ill; all reported use of the restroom after the diarrheal incident. Seven of 11 male employees (64%) became ill — not a statistically significantly different rate. None of the men entered the ladies’ rest-room.'Thus in this case, after getting directly exposed to fecal material left behind on an improperly disinfected diaper-changing station by a sick toddler, female employees sufficiently contaminated their wider work environment, including uncovered sandwiches, to cause their male colleagues to fall sick as well.Meanwhile, government policies increase, not decrease, chances of sick workers transmitting Norovirus.For example, '10 [US] states have passed laws prohibiting local governments from establishing sick-leave laws' (16).A US CDC survey of 491 restaurant workers in 2011 found a fifth (20%) worked while sick with vomiting or diarrhea (17).The US CDC has also found that sick line-cooks can spread Norovirus by coming to work sick (18).Bibliography1. Hall, Aron J., et al. "Updated norovirus outbreak management and disease prevention guidelines." MMWR Recomm Rep 60.3 (2011). https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr6003.pdf2. Hall, Aron J. "Noroviruses: the perfect human pathogens?." Journal of Infectious Diseases 205.11 (2012): 1622-1624. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aron_Hall/publication/224933809_Noroviruses_The_Perfect_Human_Pathogens/links/0046352616f050368a000000.pdf3. Cheesbrough, J. S., et al. "Widespread environmental contamination with Norwalk-like viruses (NLV) detected in a prolonged hotel outbreak of gastroenteritis." Epidemiology and infection 125.01 (2000): 93-98. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2869574/pdf/11057964.pdf4. Lopman, Ben, et al. "Environmental transmission of norovirus gastroenteritis." Current opinion in virology 2.1 (2012): 96-102.5. Lindesmith, Lisa, et al. "Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection." Nature medicine 9.5 (2003): 548-553. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jacques_Pendu/publication/10806491_Human_susceptibility_and_resistance_to_Norwalk_virus_infection/links/5630ea5808ae506cea675e02.pdf6. Rydell, Gustaf E., et al. "Susceptibility to winter vomiting disease: a sweet matter." Reviews in medical virology 21.6 (2011): 370-382.7. Clinical Overview8. Teunis, Peter FM, et al. "Norwalk virus: how infectious is it?." Journal of medical virology 80.8 (2008): 1468-1476. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jacques_Pendu/publication/5304550_Norwalk_virus_How_infectious_is_it/links/0fcfd50add6c581952000000.pdf9. Atmar, Robert L., et al. "Norwalk virus shedding after experimental human infection." Emerging infectious diseases 14.10 (2008): 1553. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2180/3cd1d05f72cfc93d2126af061354aef06f01.pdf10. Aoki, Y., et al. "Duration of norovirus excretion and the longitudinal course of viral load in norovirus-infected elderly patients." Journal of Hospital Infection 75.1 (2010): 42-46.11. NBC News, Maggie Fox, January 28, 2013. Norovirus: Why washing your hands isn't enough12. Feliciano, Lizanel, et al. "Efficacies of sodium hypochlorite and quaternary ammonium sanitizers for reduction of norovirus and selected bacteria during ware-washing operations." PLoS One 7.12 (2012): e50273. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0050273&type=printable13. https://www.fda.gov/downloads/food/guidanceregulation/retailfoodprotection/foodcode/ucm374510.pdf14. Repp, Kimberly K., and William E. Keene. "A point-source norovirus outbreak caused by exposure to fomites." 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