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You can use the following answer key which has been diligently prepared by a team of diverse faculties from leading institutes, where each solution for a particular question has also been backed with a credible source as well.Special thanks to Mr. Pranav Chauhan, Mr. Mansimar Singh and Shri User-13211618028665871653 (IAS) for their valuable inputs in this key.Analysis :The paper was moderately difficult like that in 2017 but there were also relatively easier knock-offs when compared to 2018.Breakdown of various subjects asked this year :1. Environment : 18 questions2. Science & Tech : 14 questions3. Economics : 17 questions4. History : 15 questions5. Geography : 10 questions6. Polity and Governance : 17 questions7. Miscellaneous : 9 questionsEstimated Cutoffs based on paper difficulty and students’ response :General : 105–108.OBC : 100–105SC : 91–95ST : 84–88KEY FOR SET-D UPSC Prelims 2019 :1. With reference to Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), consider the following statements1. AIIB has more than 80 member nations.2. India is the largest shareholder in AIIB.3. AIIB does not have any members from outside Asia.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c). 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource: About AIIB Overview - AIIB2. What was the purpose of Inter-Creditor Agreement signed by Indian banks and financial institutions recently?(a) To lessen the Government of India's perennial burden of fiscal deficit nd current account deficit(b) To support the infrastructure projects of Central and State Governments(c) To act as independent regulator in case of applications for loans of Rs. 50 crore or more(d) To aim at faster resolution of stressed assets of Rs. 50 crore or more which are-under consortium lendingAnswer: DSource: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/announcements/others/indian-bank-inter-creditor-agreement-for-resolution-of-stressed-assets/article24809734.ece3. The Chairmen of public sector banks are selected by the(a) Banks Board Bureau(b) Reserve Bank of India(c) Union Ministry of Finance(d) Management of concerned bankAnswer: ASource: How public sector bank CEOs are selected4. Consider the following statements:1. Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) is the first regulatory body set up by the Government of India.2. One of the tasks of PNGRB is to, ensure competitive markets for gas.3. Appeals against the decisions of PNGRB go before the Appellate Tribunals for Electricity.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: BSource: Welcome to Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board, India5. With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?1. LTE 'is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.Select the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: DSource: Difference Between LTE and VoLTE6. Which of the following statements is / are correct regarding the Maternity Benefit ' (Amendment) Act, 2017?1. Pregnant women are entitled for three months pre-delivery and three months post-delivery paid leave.2. Enterprises with creches must allow the mother minimum six creche visits daily.3. Women with two children get reduced entitlements.Select the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: CStatement 2 is wrong:Refer: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017: Significant Provisions and Issuessignificant-provisions-and-issues/Correct Statement: The women employees should be permitted to visit the facility 4 timesduring the day.https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/Maternity%20Benefit%20Amendment%20Act%2C2017%20.pdf7. Which one of the following is not a sub-index of the World Bank's 'Ease of Doing Business Index'?(a) Maintenance of law and order(b) Paying taxes(c) Registering property(d) Dealing with construction permitsAnswer: ASource: Methodology for Doing Business8. In India,'extended producer responsibility' was introduced as an important feature in which of the following?(a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998(b) The Recycled plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999(c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011(d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011Answer: CSource: Environment Ministry Notifies E-Waste Management Rules, 20169. The economic cost of food grains to the Food Corporation of India is Minimum Support Price and bonus (if any) paid to the farmers plus(a) transportation cost only(b) interest cost only(c) procurement incidentals and distribution cost(d) procurement incidentals and charges for godownsAnswer: CSource: Procurement- Food Corporation of India10. In the context of any country, which one of the following would be considered as part of its social capital?(a) The proportion of literates in the population(b) The stock of its buildings, other infrastructure and machines(c) The size of population in the working age group(d) The level of mutual trust and harmony in the societyAnswer: DSource: Social capital - Wikipedia11. The Service Area Approach was implemented under the purview of(a) Integrated Rural Programme(b) Lead Bank Scheme(c) Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme(d) National Skill Development MissionAnswer: BSource : What is Service Area Approach?12. With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements:1. Sand is a 'minor mineral' according to the prevailing law in the country.2. State Governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource: Minor Minerals - Arthapedia13. Consider the following statements:1. Most of India's external debt is owed by governmental entities.2. All of India's external debt is denominated in US dollars.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: DSource : Why is external debt a cause for worry?14. Which of the following is not included in the assets of a commercial bank in India?(a) Advances(b) Deposits(e) Investments(d). Money at call and short noticeAnswer: BSource : Liabilities and Assets of Scheduled Commercial Banks (Main Items)15. In the context of India, which of the following factors is/are contributor/ contributors to reducing the risk of a currency crisis?1. The foreign currency earnings of India's IT sector2. Increasing the government expenditure3. Remittances from Indians abroadSelect the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 3 only(c) 2 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: : BSource : Basic Economic Concepts [NCERT Class 11 and 12]16. Which one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past?(a) First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966)(b) Rajamannar Committee (1969)(c) Sarkaria Commission (1983)(d) National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000)Answer: CSource : Governor’s Role in the Context of Centre State Relations17. Which of the following is issued by registered foreign portfolio investors to overseas investors who want to be part of the Indian stock market without registering themselves directly?(a) Certificate of Deposit(b) Commercial Paper(c) Promissory Note(d) Participatory NoteAnswer: DSource : Participatory Notes Allow Foreign Investors to Buy Indian Securities18. Consider the following statements1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.2. People's participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: ASource : CAMPA bill - Wikipedia19. In India, which of the following review the independent regulators in sectors like telecommunications, insurance, electricity, etc.?1. Ad Hoc Committees set up by the Parliament2. Parliamentary Department Related Standing Committees3. Finance Commission4. Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission5. NITI AayogSelect the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 and 2(b) 1, 3 and 4(c) 3, 4 and 5(d) 2 and 5Answer: ASource : Laxmikanth20. With reference to India's Five-Year Plans, which of the following statements is/are correct?1. From the Second Five-Year Plan, there was a determined thrust towards substitution of basic and capital good industries.2. The Fourth Five-Year Plan adopted the objective of correcting the earlier trend of increased concentration of wealth and economic power.3. In the Fifth Five-Year Plan, for the first time, the financial sector was included as an integral part of the Plan.Select the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource : NCERT Class 11 Economicshttps://www.nipfp.org.in/media/pdf/books/BK_33/Chapters/1.%20Import%20Substitution%20Strategy%20Of%20Economic%20Development.pdfFive-Year Plans of India - Wikipedia21. With reference to the Constitution of India, consider the following statements:1. No High Court shall have the jurisdiction to declare any central law to be constitutionally invalid.2. An amendment to the Constitution of India cannot be called into question by the Supreme Court of India.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: DSource : Laxmikanth22. Consider the following statements1. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) exchange rates are calculated by comparing the prices of the same basket of goods and services in different countries.2. In terms of PPP dollars, India is the sixth largest economy in the world.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: ASource : Measuring India’s economy using PPPs shows it surpassed France 25 years ago23. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements:1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest.2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 2, 3 and 4 only(c) 2 and 4 only(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4Answer: AStatement 2 is incorrect.Source- https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/rabi-sowing-down-by-5/article26029944.ece24. Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?(a) Spices(b) Fresh fruits(c) Pulses(d) Vegetable oilsAnswer: DSource – Let’s cut edible oil importsWhy doubling agri exports may remain elusive25. In the context of polity, which one of the following would you accept as the most appropriate definition of liberty?(a) Protection against the tyranny of political rulers(b) Absence of restraint(c) Opportunity to do whatever one likes(d) Opportunity to develop oneself fully.Answer: DSource - Indian Preamble26. Which one of the following is not the most likely measure the Government/RBI takes to stop the slide of Indian rupee?(a) Curbing imports of non-essential goods-and promoting exports(b) Encouraging Indian borrowers to issue rupee denominated Masala Bonds(c) Easing conditions relating to external commercial borrowing(d) Following an expansionary monetary policyAnswer: DSource – NCERT class 11 and 12 Economics27. Consider the following statements:The Reserve Bank of India's recent directives relating to 'Storage of Payment System Data', popularly known as data diktat, command the payment system providers that1. they shall ensure that entire data relating to payment systems operated by them are stored in a system only in India2. they shall ensure that the systems are owned and operated by public sector enterprises3. they shall submit the consolidated system audit report to the Comptroller and Auditor General of India by the end of the calendar yearWhich of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource - Reserve Bank of IndiaIn Defence of Data Localisation — Will The Move Bolster Data Sovereignty In India28. Which of the following adopted a law on data protection and privacy for its citizens known as 'General Data Protection Regulation' in April 2016 and started implementation of it from 25th May, 2018?(a) Australia(b) Canada(c) The European Union(d) The United States of AmericaAnswer: CSource - General Data Protection Regulation - Wikipedia29. Recently, India signed a deal known as 'Action Plan for Prioritization and Implementation of Cooperation Areas in the Nuclear Field' with which of the following countries?(a) Japan(b) Russia(c) The United Kingdom(d) The United States of AmericaAnswer: b30. The money multiplier in an economy increases with which one of the following?(a) Increase in the cash reserve ratio(b) Increase in the banking habit of the population(c) Increase in the statutory liquidity ratio(d) Increase in the population of the countryAnswer: bSource- Multiplier Effect Definition31. Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1, 2 and 3(b) 2, 3 and 4(c) 1, 2 and 4(d) 1, 3 and 4Answer: CStatement 3 is incorrect.Source - Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups32. With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?(a) The decisions taken by the Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.(b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by laws made by the Parliament.(c) In the event of grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.(d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of Union Legislature.Answer: BSource - Article 142 in The Constitution Of India 194933. With reference to the Legislative Assembly of a State in India, consider the following statements:1. The Governor makes a customary address to Members of the House at the commencement of the first session of the year.2. When a State Legislature does' not have a rule on a particular matter, it follows the Lok Sabha rule on that matter.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: C34. Consider the following statements:1. The United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) has a 'Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air'.2. The UNCAC is the ever-first legally binding global anti-corruption instrument.3. A highlight of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) is the inclusion of a specific chapter aimed at returning assets to their rightful owners from whom they had been taken illicitly.4. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is mandated by its member States to assist in the implementation of both UNCAC and UNTOC.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 2, 3 and 4 only(c) 2 and 4 only(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4Answer: CStatement 3 is incorrect.Source - https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/35. Consider the following statements:1. As per recent amendment to the Indian Forest Act, 1927, forest dwellers have the right to fell the bamboos grown on forest areas.2. As per the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, bamboo is a minor forest produce.3. The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 allows ownership of minor forest produce to forest dwellers.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: BSource - Bamboo not a tree: Parliament passes Bill amending Forest Acthttps://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/bamboo-now-a-minor-forest-produce-3323936. Which Article of the Constitution of India safeguards one's right to marry the person of one's choice?(a) Article 19(b) Article 21(c) Article 25(d) Article 29Answer: BWider Interpretation of Article 21Source - http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/art222.htm37. Consider the following statements:1. According to the Indian Patents Act, a biological process to create a seed can be patented in India.2. In India, there is no Intellectual Property Appellate Board.3. Plant varieties are not eligible to be patented in India.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: CSource –https://www.ifoam.bio/en/news/2018/05/08/indian-supreme-court-says-seeds-plants-and-animals-are-not-patentable http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/611548/Trademark/The+Intellectual+Property+Appellate+Board+Power+Constitution38. Consider the following statements:The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sourcesWhich of the statements given above is/ are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: BSource – http://bch.cbd.int/database/attachment/?id=1905239. As per the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 in India, which one of the following statements is correct?(a) Waste generator has to segregate waste into five categories.(b) The Rules are applicable to riotified urban local bodies, notified towns and all industrial townships only.(c) The Rules provide for exact and elaborate criteria for the identification of sites for landfills and waste processing facilities.(d) It is mandatory on the part of waste generator that the waste generated in one district cannot be moved to another district.Answer: CSource - http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=138591http://cpcb.nic.in/municipal-solid-waste-rules/40. Consider the following statements:As per the Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Central (Amendment) Rules, 20181. if rules for fixed-term employment are implemented, it becomes easier for the firms/companies to layoff workers.2. no notice of termination of employment shall be necessary in the case of temporary workman.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: CSource – http://www.iasparliament.com/current-affairs/daily-news/industrial-employment-standing-orders-central-amendment-rules-2018-fixed-term-employment41. In the context of digital technologies for entertainment, consider the following statements:1. In Augmented Reality (AR) , a simulated environment is created and the physical world is completely shut out.2. In Virtual Reality (VR), images generated from a computer are projected onto real-life objects or surroundings.3. AR allows individuals to be present in the world and improves the experience using the camera of smart-phone or PC.4. VR closes the world, and transposes an individual, providing complete immersion experience.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 3 and 4(c) 1, 2 and 3(d) 4 onlyAnswer: BStatement 1 is wrong because AR doesn’t shut off Physical realitySource : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_reality42. The word 'Denisovan' is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to(a) fossils of a kind of dinosaurs(b) an early human species(c) a cave system found in North-East India.(d) a geological period in the history of Indian subcontinentAnswer: BSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisovan43. With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct?(a) Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species.(b) Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in Iaboratories.(c) A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory.(d) Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes.Answer: ASource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petri_dishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_culture and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication44. Consider the following statements:A digital signature is1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying authority issuing it2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to access information or server on Internet.3. an electronic method of signing an electronic document and ensuring that the original content is unchangedWhich of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource: https://www.docusign.com/how-it-works/electronic-signature/digital-signature/digital-signature-faqhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signatureSource : http://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/digitalsignaturecertificate.html45. In the context of wearable technology, which of the following tasks is/are accomplished by wearable devices?1. Location identification of a person2. Sleep monitoring of a person3. Assisting the hearing impaired personSelect the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6111409/46. 'RNA interference (RNAi)' technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.2. It can be used in developing therapies for-the treatment of cancer.3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.Select the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1, 2 and 4(b) 2 and 3(c) 1 and 3(d) 1 and 4 onlyAnswer: ASource : https://www.livemint.com/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_interferencehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1697196747. Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant 'blackholes' billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?(a) 'Higgs boson particles' were detected.(b) 'Gravitational waves' were detected.(e) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through 'wormhole' was confirmed.(d) It enabled the scientists to understand 'singularity'.Answer: BSource:https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/watch-binary-black-holes-merger/article18700610.ece48. Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?1. Genetic predisposition of some people2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming4. Multiple chronic diseases in some peopleSelect the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 and 2(b) 2 and 3 only(e) 1, 3 and 4(d) 2, 3 and 4Answer: BSource: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/the-cost-of-resistance/article27005283.ece49. What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news?(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified cropsAnswer: : Ahttps://phys.org/news/2019-02-scientists-sharpen-molecular-scissors-gene.htmlhttps://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/what-is-genome-editing/article19481402.ece50. Which one of the following statements is not correct?(a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.(b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.(c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those infected with HIV.(d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis Band C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.Answer: BSource : https://www.hepb.org/prevention-and-diagnosis/vaccination/51. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar?1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.Select the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(e) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: D52. With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?(a) The ceiling "laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings.(b) The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless.(c) It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation.(d) Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits.Answer: BSource : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reform_in_India53. The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the(a) International Monetary Fund(b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(c) World Economic Forum(d) World BankAnswer: CSource: http://reports.weforum.org/54. Consider the following statements about 'the Charter Act of 1813':1. It ended the trade monopoly of the East India Company in India except for trade in tea and trade with China.2. It asserted the sovereignty of the British Crown over the Indian territories held by the Company.3. The revenues of India were now controlled by the British Parliament.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource : Spectrum Book page-566-56755. With reference to Swadeshi Movement, consider the following statements:1. It contributed to the revival of the indigenous artisan crafts and industries.2. The National Council of Education was established as a part of Swadeshi Movement.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: CSource: Spectrum, Bipin Chandra’s India’s Struggle for independence Page-13056. Consider the following pairs:Movement/Organization Leader1. All India Anti-Untouchability League Mahatma Gandhi2. All India Kisan Sabha Swami Sahajanand Saraswati3. Self-Respect Movement E. V. Ramaswami NaickerWhich of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource: Spectrum , Wikipedia57. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?(a) Chanhudaro(b) Kot Diji(c) Sohgaura(d) DesalpurAnswer: cSource : Sohgaura is near Gorakhpur, which falls outside the Harappan Area Map.58. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is 'Ranyo Ashoka' (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?(a) Kanganahalli(b) Sanchi I(c) Shahbazgarhi(d) SohgauraAnswer: ASource: Wikipedia and http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/07/asoka-on-ancient-indian-sculptures.html59. Consider the following:1. Deification of the Buddha2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas3. Image worship and ritualsWhich of the above is/are the feature/ features of Mahayana Buddhism?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource: RS Sharma, https://www.gktoday.in/gk/hinayana-mahayana/60. With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the following statements is correct?(a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.(b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.(c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.(d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer.Answer: ASource: Upendra Singh (Page:508)Source: https://books.google.co.in/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA508&lpg=PA508&dq=vishti+forced+labour+in+kathiawar&source=bl&ots=xf9E4T6ZkD&sig=ACfU3U2yg3DCAuGhsU3x22JsPuSxzK6wzw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKgP-zzcriAhUFsY8KHRQ1DoAQ6AEwCXoECAgQAQ#v=onepage&q=vishti%20forced%20labour%20in%20kathiawar&f=false61. Which one of the following groups of plants was domesticated in the 'New World' and introduced into the 'Old World'?(a) Tobacco, cocoa and rubber(b)Tobacco, cotton and rubber.(c) Cotton, coffee and sugarcane(d) Rubber, coffee and wheatAnswer: ASource:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbian_exchange#Organism_examples62. Consider the following statements:1. Asiatic lion is naturally found III India only.2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASources:https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/a/asiatic-lion/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_lionhttps://www.thehindubusinessline.com/specials/india-interior/two-humps-one-job-in-nubra-valley/article7900544.ecehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_rhinoceros#Distribution_and_habitat63. Consider the following pairsFamous place RiverPandharpur ChandrabhagaTiruchirappalli CauveryHampi MalaprabhaWhich of the pairs given above are correctly matched?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource:- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampi#Location64. In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because(a) poverty rates vary from State to State(b) price levels vary from State to State(c) Gross State Product varies from State to State(d) quality of public distribution varies from State to StateAnswer: Either A or BSource:- https://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/how-poverty-line-measured65. In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere?(a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones(c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth(d) Reducing the global warmingAnswer: Dhttps://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/full/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0620.166. In the context of which one of the following are the terms 'pyrolysis and plasma gasification' mentioned?(a) Extraction of rare earth elements(b) Natural gas extraction technologies(c) Hydrogen fuel-based automobiles(d) Waste-to-energy technologiesAnswer: DSource:- https://friendsoftheearth.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/gasification_pyrolysis.pdf67. Which of the following are in Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve?(a) Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve(b) Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Silent Valley National Park(c) Kaundinya, Gundla Brahme-swaram and Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Mukurthi National Park(d) Kawal and Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger ReserveAnswer: ASOURCE:- https://currentaffairs.gktoday.in/tags/agasthyamala-biosphere-reserve68. Consider the following statements:1. Some species of turtles are herbivores.2. Some species of fish are herbivores.3. Some species of marine mammals are herbivores.4. Some species of snakes are viviparous.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 2, 3 and 4 only(e) 2 and 4 only(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4Answer: DSource : https://www.seeturtles.org/sea-turtle-diethttp://www.healthyreefs.org/cms/healthy-reef-indicators/herbivorous-fish-abundance/https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/marine-mammalshttp://www.reptileknowledge.com/articles/article28.php69. Consider the following pairs:Wildlife Naturally found in1. Blue-finned Mahseer Cauvery River2. Irrawaddy Dolphin Chambal River3. Rusty-spotted Cat Eastern GhatsWhich of the pairs given above are correctly matched?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: CSource :https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/iconic-indian-fish-on-the-verge-of-extinction-says-study-49802https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrawaddy_dolphinhttp://www.conservationindia.org/articles/the-forgotten-wild-cats-of-the-eastern-ghats70. Why is there a great concern about the 'microbeads' that are released into environment?(a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems.(b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children.(c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields.(d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants.Answer: : ASource : https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/waste-resource-recovery/plastics-and-packaging/plastic-microbeads71. Building 'Kalyaana Mandapas' was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of(a) Chalukya(b) Chandela(c) Rashtrakuta(d) VijayanagaraAnswer: DSOURCE : https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/cultural-history-vijaynagar-empire-architecture-literature-and-art-1492780525-172. Consider the following statements:1. In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was known as 'Amil'.2. The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution.3. The office of 'Mir Bakshi' came into existence during the reign of Khalji Sultans of Delhi.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource : Statement 2- IQTA System introduced in medieval (not ancient) period.Statement 3-Office of Mir Bakshi introduced during Mughal period.73. Consider the following statements:1. Saint Nimbarka was a contem-porary of Akbar.2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: DSource :https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nimbarkahttp://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper924https://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php/Jahangir_and_the_Muslim_fundamentalist_movement74. With reference to the British colonial rule in India, consider the following statements:1. Mahatma Gandhi was instrumental in the abolition of the system of 'indentured labour'.2. In Lord Chelmsford's 'War Conference', Mahatma Gandhi did not support the resolution on recruiting Indians for World War.3. Consequent upon the breaking of Salt Law by Indian people, the Indian National Congress was declared illegal by the colonial rulers.Which of the statements given above are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 1 and 3 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: BSource :https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi,_his_life,_writings_and_speeches/Indentured_Labourhttps://scroll.in/article/680616/even-gandhi-apostle-of-peace-wanted-indians-to-fight-in-world-war-iStatement 3- Page 421, Spectrum(A brief history of modern India)75. With reference to Indian National Movement, consider the following pairs:Person Position held1. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru President, All India Liberal Federation2. K. C. Neogy Member, The Constituent Assembly3. P. C. Joshi General Secretary, Communist Party of IndiaWhich of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?(a) 1 only(b) 1 and 2 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kshitish_Chandra_Neogyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puran_Chand_Joshi76. With reference to Mian Tansen, which one of the following statements is not correct?(a) Tansen was the title given to him by Emperor Akbar.(b) Tansen composed Dhrupads on Hindu gods and goddesses.(c) Tansen composed songs on his patrons.(d) Tansen invented many Ragas.Answer: ASource:- https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/the-legend-of-mian-tansen/article22893454.ece77. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?(a) Humayun(b) Akbar(c) Jahangir(d) Shah JahanAnswer: CSource : https://www.academia.edu/33006704/Mughal_Paintings78. Which one of the following National Parks lies completely in the temperate alpine zone?(a) Manas National Park(b) Namdapha National Park(c) Neora Valley National Park(d) Valley of Flowers National ParkAnswer: DSource : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_Flowers_National_Park#Vegetation79. Atal Innovation Mission is set up under the(a) Department of Science and Technology(b) Ministry of Employment(c) NITI Aayog(d) Ministry of Skill Development and EntrepreneurshipAnswer: CSource : http://vikaspedia.in/education/policies-and-schemes/atal-innovation-mission80. On 21st June, the Sun(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of CapricornAnswer: ASource : GC LEONG, PAGE NO-681. Consider the following statements:1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 3 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 2 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource - http://www.ghgonline.org/nitrousagri.htmhttps://www.government.nl/topics/livestock-farming/ammonia-emissions-from-farmshttps://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/nitrogen-emissions-going-up-study/article24090131.ece82. What is common to the places known as Aliyar, Isapur and Kangsabati?(a) Recently discovered uranium deposits(b) Tropical rain forests(c) Underground cave systems(d) Water reservoirsAnswer: DSource - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyar_Reservoirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isapur_Damhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangsabati_Project83. In the context of proposals to the use of hydrogen-enriched CNG (H-CNG) as fuel for buses in public transport, consider the following statements:1. The main adyantage of the use of H-CNG is the elimination of carbon monoxide emissions.2. H-CNG as fuel reduces carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon emissions.3. Hydrogen up to one-fifth by volume can be blended with CNG as fuel for buses.4. H-CNG makes the fuel less expensive than CNG.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 4 only(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4Answer: BSource - https://www.insightsonindia.com/2018/09/11/rajya-sabha-tv-in-depth-hcng-fuel-of-the-future/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/cng-to-hydrogen-cng-why-switch-and-how-5278356/84. Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night?(a) Clouds absorb the radiation released from the Earth's surface.(b) Clouds reflect back the Earth's radiation.(c) The Earth's surface would have low temperature on cloudy nights.(d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to ground level.Answer: BSource - https://www.pitara.com/science-for-kids/5ws-and-h/how-does-dew-form/85. Consider the following statements:1. The 44th Amendment to the Constitution of India introduced an Article placing the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial review.2. The Supreme Court of India struck down the 99th Amendment to the Constitution of India as being violative of the independence of judiciary.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 only(c) Both 1 and 2(d) Neither 1 nor 2Answer: BSource – http://www.ias4sure.com/wikiias/gs2/44th-amendment/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Judicial_Appointments_Commission86. Consider the following statements:1. The- motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what Constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehaviour' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India.3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2(b) 3 only(c) 3 and 4 only(d) 1, 3 and 4Answer: CSource – Laxmikanth Page 25.2 and 25.387. The Ninth Schedule was introduced in the Constitution of India during the prime ministership of(a) Jawaharlal Nehru(b) Lal Bahadur Shastri(c) Indira Gandhi(d) Morarji DesaiAnswer: ASource - http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/judicial-review-and-the-ninth-schedule-of-the-indian-constitution/2498288. Consider the following statements:1. Coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi.2. Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis.3. Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: ASource - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_mining_in_Indiahttp://pib.nic.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=160021https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/metals-mining/indias-coal-import-rises-13-to-21-mt-in-april/articleshow/69503158.cms89. Consider the following statements:1. The Parliament (Prevention of Disqualification) Act, 1959 exempts several posts from disqualification on the grounds of 'Office of Profit'.2. The above-mentioned Act was amended five times.3. The term 'Office of Profit' is well-defined in the Constitution of India.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 3 only(c) 2 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: AArticle 102 only mentions the term “Office of Profit” without defining it.Source - https://indiankanoon.org/doc/390434/90. Under which Schedule of the Constitution of India can the transfer of tribal land to private parties for mining be declared null and void?(a) Third Schedule(b) Fifth Schedule(c) Ninth Schedule(d) Twelfth ScheduleAnswer: BSource – https://tribal.nic.in/FRA/data/LandandGovernanceunderFifthSchedule.pdfhttps://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/forests/-progressive-maharashtra-governor-must-step-in-to-save-tribal-land-rights-6421791. Recently, there was a growing awareness in our country about the importance of Himalayan nettle (Girardinia diversifolia) because it is found to be a sustainable source of(a) anti-malarial drug(b) blodiesel(c) pulp for paper industry(d) textile fibreAnswer: DSource : https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/environment/khar-s-experimentation-with-himalayan-nettle-brings-recognition-5788092. For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location3. Land surface temperatures of a specific locationSelect the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: D93. Consider the following States:1. Chhattisgarh2. Madhya Pradesh3. Maharashtra4. OdishaWith reference to the States mentioned above, in terms of percentage of forest cover to the total area of State, which one of the following is the correct ascending order?(a) 2-3-1-4(b) 2-3-4-1(c) 3-2-4-1(d) 3-2-1-4Answer: CSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_cover_by_state_in_India94. Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of 'methane hydrate?1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits.2. Large deposits of 'methane hydrate' are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.Select the correct answer using the code given below.(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 1 and 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer: DSource : https://ghginstitute.org/2010/07/13/what-is-different-about-methane-ch4-emissions-the-forgotten-co2-in-ghg-emissions-accounting/95. Consider the following:1. Carbon monoxide2. Methane3. Ozone4. Sulphur dioxideWhich of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2, 3 and 4 only(c) 1 and 4 'only(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4Answer: DSource : https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/environment/pollution/biomass-burning-a-major-source-of-pollution-in-india/articleshow/45093405.cms?from=mdr96. Consider the following pairs:Sea Bordering country1. Adriatic Sea Albania2. Black Sea Croatia3. Caspian Sea Kazakhstan4. Mediterranean Sea Morocco5. Red Sea SyriaWhich of the pair given above are correctly matched?(a) 1, 2 and 4 only(b) 1, 3 and 4 only(c) 2 and 5 only(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5Answer: BSource : Atlas97. Among the following, which one is the largest exporter of rice in the world in the last five years?(a) China(b) India(c) Myanmar(d) VietnamAnswer: bSource : http://www.worldstopexports.com/rice-exports-country/98. Consider the following pairs:Glacier River1. Bandarpunch Yamuna2. Bara Shigri Chenab3. Milam Mandakini4. Siachen Nubra5. Zemu ManasWhich of the pairs given above are correctly matched?(a) 1, 2 and 4(b) 1, 3 and 4(c) 2 and 5(d) 3 and 5Answer: aSource : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glaciers_of_India99. In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as(a) pesticides in agriculture(b) preservatives in processed foods(c) fruit-ripening agents(d) moisturising agents in cosmeticsAnswer: ASource : https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/agriculture/pesticide-ban-lands-kerala-in-court-33657100. Consider the following statements:1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.3. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.Which of the statements given above is / are correct?(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 2 and 3 only(c) 3 only(d) 1, 2 and 3Answer : CSource : https://www.ramsar.org/about/the-ramsar-convention-and-its-mission

Louisiana State Penitentiary - WikipediaLouisiana State Penitentiary is currently the biggest prison in the United States. Some 6,000 people currently reside there — roughly 1 in a 1,000 people living in the state — and very few of them today are ever expected to leave alive.However, it was not always like that, as the reader will find out at they read along and see for themselves how the laws in the state have changed over the centuries; altering the nature of Angola with it.Since 1979, all life sentences in Louisiana have been without parole, and Louisiana’s sentencing laws have become by far the harshest in the country. To find out more about why this is the case, I invite all interested readers to read the history of the biggest, most infamous and terrifying prisons in American history.INTRODUCTIONOn June 23, 1834, a man by the name of Samuel Lawrence James was born in the state of Louisiana. When the American Civil War broke out, he served in the 6th Louisiana Infantry Regiment before being discharged at the end of the war.https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/6199000/samuel-lawrence-jamesWhile his early life may seem insignificant, his later life would become notable as being more or less the official founder of the Louisiana State Penitentiary — a penitentiary that has been attributed various names over the years ranging from Angola, Alcatraz of the South, and even ‘the Farm.’Hundreds of thousands of people have come in and out of its prison throughout the years — either by being given freedom in the form of parole, or in the form of death.The personal experiences of what inmates and even guards have reportedly witnessed firsthand over the last century-and-a-half has varied depending on crime, race, social status, religion and even what era we are talking about.Despite the fact that Louisiana State Penitentiary is today more well-known for its rodeo shows, added by the fact that it is by far the largest penitentiary in the United States as opposed to its historic roots of being a fairly degrading prison plantation — the advantages and disadvantages of being incarcerated in one of the world’s most infamous prisons depends on what you value more: your comfort — or your freedom.LOUISIANA IN THE AMERICAN CIVIL WARBy the 1860’s, the world was becoming more industrialised, and with tractors becoming cheaper and more common, the use of slave labour was regarded as outdated by modest reformers — to outright barbaric by those on the more “progressive” side of the slavery issue.Tractor - WikipediaContrary to popular belief, slavery did not end after the war, as it remained permissible for some years afterwards for states that had either fought for the Union, or Confederate territories that were captured by the Union prior to the Emancipation Proclamation coming into effect on January 1, 1863.Myths & Misunderstandings: The Emancipation ProclamationTop 5 myths about Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation150 years later, myths persist about the Emancipation ProclamationThe state of Tennessee was also given an exemption when Andrew Johnson — Abraham Lincoln’s vice-president — was able to petition the president to make a temporary exception for Tennessee on the grounds that forcing the state to give up its slave labour would bring the state into economic ruin.Andrew Johnson and Emancipation in Tennessee - Andrew Johnson National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)Emancipation Proclamation Didn’t Free Tennessee SlavesAlso exempted from the Emancipation Proclamation were certain territories within Louisiana — where the majority of this article will be focused on — including cities such as New Orleans, which had been captured on May 1, 1862 after a six day battle, and thus was not impacted by the Emancipation Proclamation.Despite the widespread belief that without the American Civil War, slavery would never have been abolished: slavery in the American south was not at its zenith in 1860 but was actually in decline.Even with the overall population growing in the south between 1840–1860 — the number of slaves actually declined in respect to the general population.1840 United States Census - Wikipedia1850 United States Census - Wikipedia1860 United States Census - WikipediaFurthermore, there were actually fewer slaves working in agriculture by 1860 than there had been in 1840, despite the population growth, as most slaves were by this time being sent to work in industrial labour where slave owners could expect to make a better profit, thanks in large to the invention of the tractor, which was becoming more common by the eve of the American Civil War.THE BIRTH OF ‘THE FARM’Samuel James Lawrence would himself fight for the state of Louisiana during the war and was an officer in the 6th Louisiana Infantry Regiment. He survived, and upon acquiring land on the site of the modern Angola Penitentiary, the state agreed to lease criminal offenders under his wing to continue the agriculture work that the emancipated slaves had once carried out.With most areas being forced to surrender their slaves at the end of the war: Samuel, alongside many other individuals living in the state at the time, found themselves in a plight where they felt there weren’t enough “volunteers” to continue doing agricultural labour — something that the south has historically relied on.Despite the fact that traditional slavery was by this time dying even in countries such as South America, where slavery was still stronger than it had been in the Confederate states — with Brazil being the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery in 1888 — acquiring tractors was still expensive, and the state needed to give prisoners a justifiable reason to incarcerate them.Above: Angola Barracks In 1901In 1901 — after Samuel Lawrence had been deceased for seven years — the state claimed the prison from his son: reintroducing the Louisiana State Penitentiary under the direct authority of the state.As a result, the state continued to allow those convicted of criminal offences to be forcefully sent to work the fields around Angola until only or more of the following occurred:Their sentence was completedThey were granted paroleThey were given a commutationThey were pardonedTheir sentence — for one reason or the other — was overturnedIn 1870, when Angola’s prison population began to climb, more than two-thirds of its prisoners were white. Among the other one-third were black people, alongside a smaller number of Native Americans.As the century progressed, prisoners found themselves being permitted to have jobs other than farming. Some of them included the possibility of working in repairs, such as fixing the infrastructure on the prison grounds.Prisoners that were on good behaviour, had a decent education, or were considered to be unfit for hard labour were often times tasked with preparing meals, cleaning the barracks and cells that prisoners slept in, taking care of the farm animals, or even being given a rifle as a guard’s assistant if you were able to gain the trust of the prison authorities.In the latter example, most prisoners — especially if they knew they had a target on their back from other prisoners — tried to get a job working as a guard’s assistant so that they could have a weapon to protect themselves, in addition to being under the constant, watchful eye of the other prison guards. Assistant guards were usually seen walking behind the real guards, with a few of them even being given the opportunity to work in one of the prison’s towers, where the chances of being attacked or even killed in an ambush from another prisoner was heavily reduced.Above: Guard At Angola Prison In The Early Twentieth CenturyThe Trusty System, which was first introduced in Mississippi before being further implemented other states such as Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, New York, and — of course, Louisiana — allowed prisons to have fewer staff members by having prison wardens appoint prisoners who would often times do the types of jobs that traditional prison guards carried out. This also meant disciplining, scolding, beating, whipping or even shooting a prisoner trying to escape or is seen to be causing a great disturbance.Trusty system (prison) - WikipediaIt was not until 1974 that the Trusty System was abolished in Gates v. Collier when federal judge William C. Keady found that the system was not only ineffective in maintaining proper order among prisoners, but that it also allowed for prisoners given the job of working as guards to be able to abuse other prisoners more wilfully, even if the Trusty System was, in theory, only given to prisoners considered by the warden to be trustworthy.Gates v. Collier - WikipediaLIFE IN THE EARLY YEARSWhile it is true that the conditions of prisons could be quite awful, there is one significant difference that differs from prisons in those days versus prisons today: the amount of time spent in them.Today, Louisiana’s sentencing laws make it quite clear that a life sentence means just that: being incarcerated until the day you die with no chance of parole or commutation — save for the very unlikely chance a governor might rescind your sentence.However, this was a very different case a hundred or even fifty years ago. Unlike today, lifers in Louisiana — like in other states at the time — had a release date for which prisoners serving a “life” sentence could look forward to.Even before Angola was created, the state of Louisiana already allowed good time behaviour for prisoners who were cooperative and hardworking. The law was officially introduced in 1842, and it permitted a prisoner to receive a sentence reduction of their sentence by up to two-thirds from the sentence given during their sentencing trial.Parole board regulations were also far less stringent in those days, and prisoners who were able to win recommendation of release from the prison warden were typically released by the parole board even before serving one-third of their original sentence.During Francis Nicholls’s term as governor, a law enacted in 1890 specified that a person serving a life sentence could not be incarcerated beyond 15 years, unless it could be reasonably ascertained that a prisoner was still dangerous even by then. As a result, lifers had a very specific date for which they would be released, with the likelihood that they would be released even earlier if they remained on good behaviour.Above: Prisoners Picking Cotton At Angola Prison — Circa 1900Despite the fact that the law introduced in 1890 made it so that a lifer in Louisiana would not be incarcerated beyond 15 years — with dangerous offenders being the exception to this rule — in practice, such laws were already the norm, as prisoners in the state at the time rarely served more than a decade of their life sentence before being released, with many of them being released much sooner than that.Until 1916, Louisiana did not have a life sentence — save for those whose death sentences were later commuted, or those who accepted a life sentence in exchange for a death sentence — which meant that prisoners were typically released after serving a certain number of years in prison, which was usually one-third of the sentence given to them at trial.While life sentences in Louisiana at the time were technically served without parole, the parole board or governor usually commuted a sentence within a few years of being sentenced. Among those convicted of first degree murder, it was usually expected that if one remained on good behaviour for five years, that their life sentence would be commuted to fifteen years.And since parole came after completing one-third of their sentence, this meant that a first degree murderer who had already served five of their fifteen year sentence was able to apply to the parole board and were usually released soon afterwards.THE 10/6 ERAIn 1926, Governor Henry Fuqua — who died in office later that same year — was governor at a time when a new amendment to Louisiana’s criminal code was introduced. It permitted all lifers who were not given a commutation of their sentence by a parole board or governor to be able to apply for parole after serving at least 10 years and 6 months of their life sentence.Angola inmates are taught life skills, then spend their lives behind barshttps://books.google.ca/books?id=8RwVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA228&lpg=PA228&dq=10+years+6+months+life+sentence+louisiana+1926&source=bl&ots=84QyJ7kYH7&sig=7abBGzX5qdGNIw7IZI7EKybVR1w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjT6O2FgPHdAhWOwFkKHSyiCd8Q6AEwAHoECAcQAQ#v=onepage&q=10%20years%206%20months%20life%20sentence%20louisiana%201926&f=falseThe introduction of the law coincided with the 1916 reforms a decade earlier that saw the number of crimes punishable with life imprisonment in the state expanded. It therefore made it so that those lifers whose sentences had not been commuted by a governor or parole board would soon be able to apply for parole, anyway, with the expectation that they would serve the remainder of their life on parole — barring a later pardon by a governor.Above: Governor Henry FuquaHenry L. Fuqua - WikipediaBy 1942, even a fourth conviction of larceny was punishable with life imprisonment, as was a single count of grand theft. While this may seem harsh when placed in the context of modern life sentences that tend to last for several decades or even natural life: at the time the law was introduced, it was already clarified that a life sentence was unlikely to exceed a decade, even for the most hardened offenders. Furthermore, life sentences during this era were typically discretionary, and were rarely handed down for offences other than first degree murder.https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1342&context=lalrev&httpsredir=1&referer=Regardless of Louisiana’s sentencing laws which nearly always had a release date, added by the fact that a prisoner could get the majority of their prison sentence taken off through good behaviour — Angola’s prison conditions were nonetheless harsh enough that many offenders would break down at sentencing, with a few reported cases of prisoners committing suicide before they could be transferred there.However, it should be mentioned that while Angola was regarded as a dreadful place to be, it was not so much because of the conditions of the prisons itself, but the fact that Angola’s system made it very easy for prisoners to become vulnerable to violence carried out by other inmates.CARNAGE AT ANGOLAIt was not uncommon for prisoners sharing a cell to be forced to stay awake while the other slept. And if it was later found that the prisoner who was supposed to be on watch fell asleep, they were often times beaten by their cellmate in retaliation.During the nineteenth and most of the twentieth century, the average person lived a lifestyle that was comparably much lower than most people today. Running toilets were not commonly seen in homes until the World War Two era, which meant that most prisoners were not overly shocked to find that their prisons were likely to use latrines or even an empty hole or bucket as a toilet.Prisons where prisoners had only a bucket were forced to scrub their bucket with soap in the morning before falling in line to eat breakfast. While it may be seen as quite degrading by modern standards, it was fairly common for most living in low-income backgrounds and even middle-class backgrounds to be forced to routinely clean out their latrines even if they were not themselves incarcerated.Even Tom Hanks’s character in the Green Mile — who was himself a prison guard at Angola during the 1930’s — did not have a running toilet at home, and look where that got him:Above: If Only The Latrine Were A Few Feet Closer!Nonetheless, upon the conclusion of the Second World War, standards of living did begin to see a drastic improvement — for those who were not incarcerated. By the start of the 1950’s, the standard of living between prisoners and “freemen” was becoming so palpable that many prisoners even took to committing suicide in protest or trying to escape from the prison in hopes that they could tell their story to news reporters before being recaptured.NOTABLE INCIDENTSTwo major incidents occurred during this period — one in 1952 and the other in 1956 — which saw Angola’s reputation as the “Worst Prison in America” take a whole new spotlight as reporters from around the world began to obsesses over the seemingly “medieval” system found within the barriers of the prison ground.In the first example, no fewer than 31 prisoners were seen cutting their Achilles tendons in a mass protest against the conditions of their incarceration, which were by this time being exceedingly regarded as atrocious.Above: Prisoners Of Angola Labouring At A Shipbuilding Site — 1910Achilles tendon - WikipediaWhile the 1952 incident was not as widely reported at the time — owing largely to the fact that the incident happened within Angola where outsiders were unlikely to hear about it — the second incident is likely what really ignited the start of a long process that would gradually see Angola’s prison transform from what it had been throughout most of its history, into what it has become today.On December 5, 1956, five men: Robert Wallace 25, Wallace McDonald 23, Vernon Roy Ingram 21, Glenn Holiday 20 and Frank Verbon Gann 30, escaped from Angola by swimming their way out of the state through the Mississippi River.A manhunt for them was instantly carried out upon their disappearances coming to the attention of prison authorities. Soon afterwards, the body of twenty-five year old Robert Wallace was found in the river — presumably by drowning.Above: Alcatraz Escapees: John Anglin; Clarence Anglin; Frank MorrisHowever, out of the five men who escaped from Angola, only Wallace McDonald was found — in Texas. According to McDonald, he had temporarily settled in Mexico until the manhunt had cooled down. Afterwards, he tried to relocate in neighbouring Texas in hopes of eluding the authorities.A Plantation Called Angola, by Rita MonetteDespite McDonald insisting that the other three escapees had themselves died alongside Robert Wallace in the Mississippi River, this was not taken seriously by the majority of those investigating the case — including then-Angola warden Maurice Sigler, who had become the prison’s warden the same year that the 31 inmates had crippled themselves.The evidence used to prove that the escapees were alive was a triple pair of tracks found shortly after the escape leading into a mountainous range. As a result, the other three escapees — while never found — have also never been declared dead; and under current American law, a missing prisoner is not legally declared dead until they reach their 99th birthday: meaning that the escapees in this case, like the June 11, 1962 escapees from Alcatraz — brothers John and Clarence Anglin, as well as Frank Morris — are still being searched to this day and could be re-imprisoned if captured.Above: Angola Prisoners Performing A Funeral Service For A Deceased InmateANGOLA PRISON’S FIRST MODERN REFORMSDuring the 1960’s and 1970’s, prison conditions started to gain precedent as a national crisis that needed to be dealt with quickly and efficiently. Lyndon Johnson was himself a radical supporter of prison reforms, and he even sought out to reduce recidivism by first improving the educational standards in prison, as well as encouraging the use of furloughs and day parole on a bigger scale nationwide — while simultaneously trying to improve the standards of living for low-income individuals and families who were themselves more likely to get caught up in crime.While the conditions in Angola did see some slight improvement during this period, it was still regarded as one of the worst prisons to be locked up in. By 1975, Angola’s prison conditions were regarded as so appalling in comparison to the majority of other prisons that were seeing improvement during this period, that District Judge Frank Polozola declared the prison itself to be a national emergency and at risk of being placed under federal authorities if the authorities at Angola could not satisfy his decision within a certain time frame.Prison authorities more or less complied, and by 1980, prison conditions had been a somewhat improved standard of living compared to a few years earlier. However, despite the fact that Angola — also known as the Louisiana State Penitentiary — was beginning to evolve from a former plantation prison to a more modern prison with better living arrangements for the prisoners: it was also during this time period that Louisiana, alongside the majority of other states, would embark on a set of new sentencing laws that would result in the “tough on crime” era that is still ongoing today.ANGOLA BECOMES A PERMANENT HOMEIn 1970, there were only 143 prisoners serving a life sentence throughout the entire state, and not all of them were located at Angola, as a handful of lifers were given the privilege of working in Governor John McKeithen’s mansion, where living conditions were much better, and where prisoners stood a better chance of being granted a pardon or commutation.Days Without End: Life Sentences and Penal ReformThe Meaning Of “Life”: Long Prison Sentences in ContextThe bulk of the 143 lifers incarcerated in Louisiana in 1970 would be freed by the end of the decade, as lifers who had not been given a commutation or pardon still found themselves being released on parole under a life sentence after completing ten years and six months of their life sentence.Above: Angola Prisoners Burying A Deceased InmateIt is believed that by 1980, fewer than 50 of the 143 lifers who had been incarcerated in 1970 were still imprisoned, and that by 1984, the number had further dropped down to 31. However, it was these 31 lifers who soon found out the hard way that they would not be going home after a decade — in fact, for most of them, they would NEVER be leaving the prison alive. EVER!Several of these lifers would later admit that when they were given a life sentence, they were expecting to be freed within a decade, even when it came to those convicted of multiple murders.One of them said he was told to plead guilty and accept the life sentence, because the sentencing judge explained to him that with good behaviour, he would be out of prison within a decade. Believing that he would soon be out of prison, he therefore accepted and decided to plead guilty, rather than going through a jury trial.While the birth of the 1970’s saw the sentencing laws in Louisiana being seemingly unchanged compared to previous decades: it was also during this time period that Angola would go from a temporary stay to a cemetery, with the number of lifers blossoming from 143 lifers in 1970 to over 6,000 today — and this does not include the growing number of lifers serving sentences so long that they are unlikely to live long enough to complete it; nor does it include the growing number of prisoners who might be serving multiple decades in prison — often times for crimes that would once have been punishable with fines, community service or a small stint in a local jail.Even though it was rare for even first degree murderers to serve more than ten years in Angola before being able to walk through the gates towards freedom: the last half century has seen a changing attitude among many criminologists as well as members of the public who have largely decided that henceforth, lifers in the state would only have one means to escape their life sentence, and it is not one that too many lifers would find… ideal.END OF THE 10/6 ERA — BIRTH OF THE LIFE ERAIt is not a coincidence that during the 1970’s and 1980’s, prison conditions began to gradually improve, as it was also during this time that legislatures began imposing new laws that would make sentencing laws much harsher nationwide than they had previously been.This also meant that the debate on prison conditions became a more pressing matter, as prisoners were no longer being kept there for short periods of time, but were in fact now lingering away for years over offences that previous generations of inmates would have been released after a comparably shorter period of time.Contrary to the misconception that prisoners spent their lives incarcerated in medieval-style dungeons: the majority of prisoners were not kept in prison for periods of time approximating even close to a natural life sentence — even when they themselves had been sentenced to life imprisonment by a court.The origins of life imprisonment dates back to ancient times and became more common during the medieval ages as an alternative to the death penalty. Therefore, life imprisonment was seen as somewhat of a reversal of the death penalty, as being given life imprisonment meant being spared from death.Above: History Of Angola DocumentaryAs a result, life imprisonment was seen as a form of mercy, as it prevented a condemned individual from possibly facing the gallows. There was no specified regulations as to how long a lifer would remain incarcerated in the medieval era, as it depended entirely on nationality, and sometimes jurisdiction.Some prisoners were granted early release as a form of clemency from the monarch, while others were permitted to leave prison on a part-time basis as a reward for good behaviour. This type of system can still be found in some modern European countries, and it was also commonly used in the modern United States — with Louisiana being no exception to that rule.Prisoners could often times be granted the right to live outside of prison at nighttime and on holidays. For instance, would-be famous country singer Russell Pete Williams had fatally shot a man four times early in his career in 1956 and was charged and convicted of second degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.Robert Pete Williams - WikipediaHowever, in December 1958, after serving two years of his life sentence, the parole board decided to commute his sentence down to twelve years after a combination of requests from the public for his release and his low-risk offender status were taken into consideration.For the remaining decade of his sentence, Williams was ordered to spend 80 hours a week at Angola working on the Angola farm. He was also forbidden from leaving the state without permission, and he would only be given room and board as compensation for his labour.Second degree murderers on good behaviour during this era rarely spent a long period of time in prison before being given at least some respite in the form of day parole and/or furlough, which made it easier for prisoners to adapt outside of prison upon being granted full parole, in addition to making it easier for a prisoner to find employment and remain in touch with their friends and family.Above: Angola Inmates Performing During A RodeoLIFE MEANS LIFE… FOR ALL!Until 1973, it was rare for even the worst offenders in Louisiana to spend more than a decade in prison, as Louisiana had what was known as the 10/6 rule, which had been adopted in 1926. It stipulated that a life sentence in Louisiana would make the maximum time a prisoner could spend in prison — with the exception that they were considered to be highly dangerous — 10 years and 6 months, with the rest of their “life” sentence being served on parole.However, starting in 1973, Louisiana — which had already been in the process of introducing harsher sentencing laws as early as 1971 — abolished parole for all future offenders convicted of treason and first degree murder. Furthermore, this law was only to apply if the offender’s death sentence had been commuted, as Louisiana had made the death penalty mandatory that year for first degree murder, after Furman v Georgia — which had been enacted by the Supreme Court a year prior — was overturned, pending certain conditions were met.Louisiana’s new sentencing laws in 1973 also demanded that all those convicted of second degree murder from the time the law was enacted would be forced to serve a minimum of 20 years of their life sentence, and that commutation by the parole board would no longer be possible unless the governor consented to it.All those convicted of certain violent felonies, such as rape, armed robbery or drug trafficking, would themselves be forced to serve no fewer than 20 years of a determinate sentence, or 20 years of a life sentence before parole or commutation became a possibility.Above: 1998 Documentary On Angola PrisonIn 1975, just two years after the first set of laws were introduced, a new law doubled the minimum sentence that second degree murderers had to serve from 20 years to 40 years. Offences other than murder were also given mandatory life sentences — such as aggravated rape, certain types of drug offences, as well as violent felons previously convicted of another offence.Lifers who had been sentenced for crimes dating before the laws came into effect still benefited from the old laws, due to the United States at the time having laws against retroactive sentencing if it did not play in the prisoner’s favour.This meant that first degree murderers sentenced for an offence dating before 1973 were still expected to be released within a decade — pending good behaviour — while second degree murderers sentenced before 1973 might get a suspended sentence or a life sentence with a 20 year minimum if they were convicted of second degree murder between 1973–1975.For the next four years, the laws introduced in Louisiana in 1975 remained more or less untouched, other than Louisiana being forced to allow jurors and judges the option of giving a death sentence or life sentence to those convicted of first degree murder after Woodson v. North Carolina ruled the mandatory death penalty as being unconstitutional.Above: “A Decade Behind Bars” — Part Two Of The 1997 Documentary Above. Note: A Decade Is What A Typical Life Sentence Once Meant In LouisianaIn 1977, Louisiana abolished the death penalty for rape when Coker v. Georgia ruled that it was unconstitutional to sentence someone to death for rape, if the victim did not die as a direct result of it. The sentences of those on death row for rape in the state at the time had their sentences commuted to 20 years; the irony, is that several of those convicted of rape during this period and not given the death penalty were instead given prison sentences as long as 100 years, as Louisiana was by this time also introducing laws that allowed for consecutive sentences to be given, or for an infinite number of years to be imposed for crimes where life imprisonment (or the death penalty) was still a possibility.On July 14, 1979, Louisiana’s final nail in the coffin came quite literally when the law mandated that all life sentences in the state, regardless of the offence committed, be served without parole or commutation. The law also abolished the right for future offenders serving life sentences or those not serving life sentences but had not yet served one-third of their given sentence to be released on day parole or furlough.Above: Angola Prison Documentary — 2017Even more consequential for those in prison at the time, was that the law was in fact applied retroactively. This meant that lifers who were given parole eligibility at the time of their sentencing trial suddenly found themselves being sentenced to serve a very literal life sentence that left little to no hope of escaping from.Many of them did not realise that the law had been applied retroactively until years later when some of them went to the parole board with the assumption that they could apply for release, now that their minimum sentence had been completed. Not surprisingly, they would have become quite mortified to realise that the term “life means life” would not only apply to lifers sentenced after 1979, but to lifers sentenced before that date as well.In order to get around the loophole of retroactive sentencing, the Louisiana Parole Board declared that parole eligible lifers would only be permitted to apply for parole once the parole laws as they are currently defined are met. And since all life sentences in Louisiana have been without the possibility of parole since 1979, this meant that by default, the hundreds of offenders who had been parole eligible at the time of sentencing suddenly found themselves ineligible for parole.Above: Louisiana State Penitentiary Death RowFor a few Louisiana lifers, a new chance at paroleDespite the fact that Louisiana began imposing harsher sentencing laws throughout the decade of the 1970’s, the number of prisoners granted parole and commutation was still significant higher than it would be in later years. For instance, out of the fifty or so lifers who had been incarcerated before 1970 and were still present at Angola in 1980: fifteen of them had been unconditionally released by 1985, while four others were said to have been released on “compassionate” grounds.It was also in 1984 that the first lifers who had been sentenced for crimes dating after 1973 started to win their freedom, with eight “new” lifers being granted parole between 1984–1995; though one of them later had his parole revoked after it was found that he had violated his parole condition.Seven of the eight lifers released for offences dating after 1973 were convicted of second degree murder. An eighth offender — a woman — had been convicted of conspiracy to first degree murder with her boyfriend and was later released after her life sentence had been commuted and she completed one-third of her commuted sentence.State governors can grant parole or commutation, but it has become very rare over the last few decades for a governor to do so, and the modern parole boards have very little power themselves to grant parole or commutation.After 1995, parole for lifers ceased altogether for over a decade, with only a few lifers being released during this time on “compassionate” grounds when it was found that they were terminally ill.And for many of them, that time came long after the ten years and six month minimum life sentence they had been sentenced to had elapsed.Above: Inmate Taking Care Of Another Terminally Ill InmateEDWIN EDWARDSIt was during Edwin Edward’s first out of three non-consecutive terms in office that the laws of Louisiana were reshaped from what it once was to what it is today.Having assumed office on May 9, 1972, Edwards was a staunch proponent of the harsher sentencing legislation that had already been in the process of enactment for at least a year prior.Nobody convicted of first degree murder has ever been granted parole or commutation of their sentence whilst serving a life sentence after Edwards came into office, and none have been released since then, either.Within a year, Edwards would approve a bill that would make the death penalty mandatory for first degree murder and treason, while giving discretionary death sentences for aggravated rape. All those convicted of second degree murder would also be subjected to a mandatory life sentence without parole for twenty years.Above: Governor Edwin Edwards In Later YearsBy 1975, Louisiana’s lifer population had grown from 143 in 1970 to nearly 600 five years later. By 1979, when Louisiana officially abolished parole for all lifers, that number had risen to over 1,000 — making Louisiana the first state to have more than 1,000 prisoners serving life without parole, despite Louisiana’s population being significant smaller than other states such as New York, California, Florida, Pennsylvania and Texas — and Texas would not introduce life without parole as a sentencing option until September 1, 2005.In fact, Louisiana was not only quite likely the first state to introduce the type of sentencing laws that have since become the norm across every other state: Louisiana was regarded as being such a pioneer in the introduction of life without parole as a mandatory death for a wide range of offences, that even by 1990 — nearly two decades after parole had been abolished for first degree murder, and over a decade since it had been abolished for all other lifers — only six other states had over 1,000 prisoners serving life without parole: California, Florida, Alabama, Pennsylvania, Illinois and Michigan.https://www.sentencingproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Still-Life.pdfAt the time, these seven states made up the majority of those serving life without parole, as fewer than 10,000 individuals were serving such sentences nationwide in 1990, and many states had either only just begun introducing the sentence, or they had yet to introduce it.Above: Aerial View Of Louisiana State PenitentiaryFor instance, the federal government had introduced life without parole as a mandatory sentence for offences such as first degree murder on November 1, 1987, as well as a discretionary sentence for other offences. Prior to 1987, federal prisoners could only receive life without parole in commutation of a death sentence, and even then they were typically released within two decades. Other federal lifers were typically released within a decade, as federal parole — which was first introduced on June 25, 1910 — defined a life sentence as fifteen years, with the possibility of that fifteen year sentence being reduced for good behaviour.Somewhat ironically, Edwin Edwards would himself be more or less subjected to the same type of laws that he himself endorsed when he was tried by the Federal government on charges of racketeering and sentenced to ten years’ imprisonment. He was later released on parole — having served more than eight years of his sentence.With a criminal record, Edwards is himself ineligible for most jobs, and he also cannot run for office in his home state until at least fifteen years have elapsed from the time his sentence expired. And at the age of ninety-one, with many more years left to go before he can once again have his name on a ballot: this three time former governor is about as likely to win the vote of the public as a lifer is to win over a parole board.CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENT?Half a century ago, the types of prison that were once very common would not have been regarded as cruel and unusual punishment for several reasons — some of them including:The standard of living between a prisoner and a non-prisoner of the period was not so significant as to warrant a judgement declaring the conditions to be cruel and unusualPrison sentences were much shorter than they are today; meaning that prisons were rarely regarded as a place where even those convicted of murder were likely to spend decades of their lives incarceratedSince minimum sentences either did not exist or were very low — prisoners on good behaviour had a very good chance of being granted parole by a parole boardMany prisoners did not spend all day in prison, as those who were deemed to be low-risk enough to be partially released but not low-risk enough to be granted full parole may still have been permitted day parole and furloughs — reducing the time spent in prison to weeknights only, and therefore sparing them the possibility of being locked up 24/7In 1989, Judge Frank Polozola — the same judge who had declared Angola prison to be a state emergency fourteen years earlier — made a similar judgement when it was found that some of the conditions previously brought up had not been met.Above: Judge Frank PolozolaPolozola’s decision to once again declare Angola’s prison conditions to be unreasonable came at a time when it was becoming increasingly apparent that Angola would no longer be a place where prisoners served a set amount of time, were freed, and then went on with their lives; rather, it was now becoming a place where thousands of people would go in and few would ever come back out.As a result, what may have been seen as reasonable during the 1970’s when it was still expected that prisoners would be released within a certain period of time was no regarded as such by the close of the 1980’s when Angola was becoming a permanent destination for the vast majority of those that went in.Standards of living was also increasing for the average citizen by the turn of the 1990’s — meaning that the difference in lifestyle was becoming apparent enough that it ignited some judges both within and outside the state of Louisiana to declare the conditions found in older prisons to be cruel and unusual, based on the time that prisoners were now being expected to serve.LIFE WITHOUT PAROLE IN OTHER STATESWhile Louisiana may have been one of the first states to introduce life without parole as a literal life sentence, it was by no means the first state to introduce this type of punishment into its law book.For example, Pennsylvania abolished parole for all life sentences in 1941, and ever since then, lifers in Pennsylvania have been required to apply to the state governor for commutation or pardon.Where life without parole in 1941 differs to today is the length of time someone served of a life sentence, prior to being released either through commutation or pardon.Today, life without parole tends to take on a far more literal interpretation in the United States: that someone serving life without parole will serve the rest of their lives in prison without the possibility of release, save for the direct interference of a governor who may — despite the unlikelihood — grant a pardon many decades down the road when the lifer is advanced in age and/or is terminally ill.Above: Inmate Helping Another Inmate At AngolaHowever, this was not the case in 1941 when Pennsylvania became the first jurisdiction to abolish parole for all offences taking place after the new law came into effect which resulted in a life sentence being imposed.For roughly forty years after life without parole was introduced in Pennsylvania, lifers were being routinely having their sentences commuted or even receiving an unconditional pardon from a governor. Governors in those days were known to be far more open to the idea of commuting sentences than they would be today.In January 1913 — just before leaving office — George Washington Donaghey of Arkansas even went so far as to pardon 316 prisoners in one night at a time when there were only 850 prisoners in the state; and some of them were not incarcerated in penitentiaries, but were in fact serving suspended sentences on farms where they could go home at the end of their workday.Above: George Washington DonagheyGeorge Washington Donaghey - WikipediaTo put that in perspective: that is more than what Bill Clinton commuted as governor over two terms when the prison population had grown and had been incarcerated for longer periods of time. Quite ironically, up until the eve of his departure from the presidency in 2001 it was also the exact number of sentences Bill Clinton had commuted and pardoned over eight years as president when he commuted and pardoned the sentences of an additional 140 people as part of his final act, bringing the number of commutations and pardons granted by Bill Clinton to 456 — and one of those he pardoned was his brother, who had been convicted of cocaine possession.List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the President of the United States - WikipediaThe number of people pardoned by presidents today is actually much lower than it was in the past when presidents were known to commute or pardon thousands of people as president, even during a time when the prison population was smaller; when the average prison sentences being given were much shorter than today; and during a time when parole boards often times commuted the sentences without the need of a president’s interference.For instance, Franklin Roosevelt pardoned over 3,600 prisoners while he was president, and the parole boards also granted parole and commutation to thousands of additional prisoners during his presidency.Above: President Franklin RooseveltWhile not every request for clemency was granted, and some of those who were turned down for clemency were even later executed as a result: it still stands that contrary to popular belief, politicians are not becoming more open to granting commutations and pardons, but are actually becoming LESS likely to grant them — the abolition of parole boards in most jurisdictions as well as the growing length of prison sentences having no effect on contemporary politicians to grant any commutations.After Milton Shapp stepped down as governor of Pennsylvania in 1980, the number of commutations granted by succeeding governors dropped down to literally zero — minus one or two possible exceptions for those convicted of non-violent offences.Despite the fact that Milton Shapp pardoned hundreds of prisoners as governor — among them were some 251 prisoners serving a life sentence, and most of them had been convicted of first degree murder — to date, Pennsylvania has not released any person serving a life sentence for a violent offence since 1980.Out of the few lifers that have been released in Pennsylvania since 1980, one of them was a man by the name of Michael Lehman, who was freed after more than thirty years in prison earlier this year, after having been incarcerated since the age of fourteen.Above: Governor Milton Shapphttp://newtownfriendsmeeting.org/earl-rice-will-tell-his-story-forty-three-years-in-prison-in-adult-class-april-22/With commutation, the window to freedom opens a crack for lifers in Pa. : WHYYHe was freed on the grounds that he had been a juvenile at the time; that he was not the one who did the physical killing; and that he admitted responsibility for the crime.Despite the fact that thirty years might be better than sixty years, it is still more than two-and-a-half times the amount of time an adult lifer spent in a Pennsylvanian prison between 1941–1980 when an average life sentence was approximately twelve years.http://novembercoalition.org/resources/Lifers.pdfWhen Lehman and many other lifers first got to prison in Pennsylvania, they also assumed that within a decade or so they would be freed as had been the norm until only a few decades ago.The time served in Pennsylvania during the mid to late twentieth century — while lenient by current American standards — was still nearly twice that of the average nationwide life sentence of seven years.Due to the laws in the old days being comparably lenient: many of those sentenced to life imprisonment decided to just plead guilty in expectation that they would be out in a few years, rather than going through a jury trial and possibly even facing a death sentence in states where the death penalty existed.Serial killer Ed Kemper himself talks about the old sentencing laws and he talks at length about this in this interview below:Above: Serial Killer Ed Kemper InterviewedUntil 1978, the harshest sentence allowed in California — other than the death penalty — was a sentence of life without parole for seven years. And since California did not allow consecutive life sentences at the time, this meant that serial killers convicted of multiple murders and not given the death penalty were also eligible for parole after seven years, and they could even become parole eligible earlier if they remained on good behaviour.Second degree murderers were given a discretionary life sentences, while all first degree murderers convicted of murders not deemed to be capital offences, based on California’s penal code at the time faced a maximum term of 5 years to life imprisonment.This law still applies even to cold case lifers later apprehended decades after the fact.California Cousins Get Maximum Sentence for 1973 Cold-Case Murders of Teenage GirlsGerald Mason - WikipediaLOUISIANA PENITENTIARY’S “OLD” LIFERSAt the time of his release, “Bishop” Eugene Tannehill was the longest serving prisoner in the state’s history. He had been sentenced to life imprisonment after being convicted of murdering a man in an armed robbery by beating him to death with a pipe in 1956.Due to his self-admittance of having been somewhat rebellious in his first years of incarceration: Tannehill’s sentencing was delayed and it was not until 1960 that he first entered the gates of Angola prison.The Farm: Angola, USA, An Intimate Look Inside America’s Largest Maximum Security PrisonHowever, he soon realised that his chances of survival would be much higher if he could get a job working in the Trusty System, as many other black prisoners also rejected him; in some cases even assaulting him.Due to his reformed behaviour, Tannehill was given a job in the Trusty System where he was issued a rifle and spent most of his early years at Angola overseeing the other prisoners from a watchtower.Tannehill was no different than other lifers at the time in the regard that he was expecting to be freed within a decade and be able to go on with his life afterwards. By 1970, Tannehill had already spent a decade at Angola, and with a fairly clean record after his arrival in 1960: Tannehill was expecting to be granted parole at any time.Above: Tannehill’s First Internet TweetUnfortunately for him and many other prisoners of this time period: the turn of the 1970’s was also when legislatures in the state were discussing the possibility of increasing the penalties for a wide variety of offences, including murder.While those sentenced to life imprisonment during the 1950’s and 1960’s still continued to be paroled until well into the 1970’s and early 1980’s: Tannehill’s first years of incarceration meant that his release date got pushed back by a few years. And then by the time he was eligible for release, he would have found that parole for second degree murderers — the crime he had been convicted of — had been abolished and that he would no longer be eligible for release.Despite the fact that in his later years, Tannehill reportedly turned his life over to God and even became a clergyman: it was not until 2007 that he was finally released from prison — 47 years after entering Angola prison, and the longest time a prisoner had served at the penitentiary at the time of his release.Upon being released, Tannehill — who had claimed that God told him he would one day be freed — said that God dictated to him that his new destiny should be New York City; he has lived there ever since.Above: Gruesome Gertie — Louisiana’s Former Electric ChairANGOLA TODAYWhile the time spent in prison at the Louisiana State Penitentiary has meant that the prison has become a graveyard of sorts for people who spend their whole lives there and never come out again: most prisoners who were at Angola in the old days and are still there have said that the conditions in the prison have gradually improved from a violent and degrading atmosphere to one that is comparably calmer and more relaxed.During the 1980’s and 1990’s, more prisoners began to introduce a greater variety of hot meals for the first time in order to meet the standards by judges declaring that keeping prisoners for long periods of time in prisons that were originally intended to be much shorter in duration was a violation of the eighth amendments prohibition on “cruel and unusual” punishment.Louisiana State Penitentiary was also reportedly one of the first prisons in the United States to introduce its own radio station that is staffed by actual prisoners whose broadcasts can reportedly even be heard by those not confined to the walls of Angola, yet close enough in proximity to get their airwaves.The rodeo has also become a common theme at the prison. However, its use has been criticised by some pundits of the prison’s regulations — district judges being among those people — who insist that many of those prisoners taking part in these events are forced to do so under pain of being reprimanded if they don’t.Above: Angola Prisoners Tackle A Bull During A RodeoDuring the first years of Louisiana’s new sentencing laws, Governor Edwin Edwards appointed Ross Maggio to be the new warden of Angola. Even though Maggio had a reputation for being very strict: most prisoners who were imprisoned during Maggio’s time said that the overall conditions at the prison had greatly improved between the time he arrived and left.Louisiana Penitentiary’s first significant leaps towards its more modern structure came during the early 1990’s when then forty-six year old John Whitley was appointed the warden of Louisiana State Penitentiary. Despite the fact that the use of segregation and other physical punishments continued throughout most of his stay: Whitley also made several changes that included improving the working conditions for prisoners forced to do farming, as well as improving the conditions within the cells and barracks.Above: John WhitleyOn July 23, 1991, a strike occurred at Louisiana State Penitentiary only one year after Whitley had become the warden. The previous night, the execution of Andrew Lee Jones — a 36 year old who was also the last person to be executed by electrocution in the state — had been carried out.John Whitley - WikipediaDuring this time, Louisiana was in the process of changing its method of execution from electrocution to lethal injection. Prisoners were initially ordered to build the execution gurney by claiming that they were building a medical clinic. Once inmates found out what the real purpose was, the majority of prisoners at the prison went on strike and a near riot occurred with the SWAT team being called in.Above: Louisiana Death Row DocumentaryNonetheless, Whitley managed to prevent a possible deadly outcome when he acknowledged that prison authorities were in the wrong to have forced prisoners to build the execution chamber, and that he would have outsiders do the work, instead.After Whitley retired from Angola in 1995, Burl Cain came became the new warden — a position he held until his resignation in 2016 when he was accused of wrongdoing; a claim that he was later legally acquitted of.Above: Angola Inmates InterviewedBurl Cain - WikipediaEven though Louisiana State Penitentiary still remains one of the harshest prisons in the United States — the fact that it is also the largest prison in the country, added by the fact that more than 90% of those in there are serving sentences of life without parole helping in that reputation — the daily violence once witnessed at the prison is now regarded as a thing of the past by many of the older lifers who said they are still haunted from the past when they couldn’t even sleep without their cellmate being awake, out of fear they could be bludgeoned to death at any moment.Above: Burl CainSome of the old remains of the former Angola prison have since become a museum and a tourist attraction. And while Angola’s old days where prisoners could be whipped at a post for talking back to a guard may be in the past: it still does not change the reality that Louisiana State Penitentiary is not only still one of the harshest prisons in the United States, it is has also become a permanent home for offenders that once stood a chance of eventual release.Above: Louisiana State Penitentiary Prisoners Attending MassCONCLUSIONIn conclusion, it really comes down to two choices when looked at from an American legal perspective: is it better to have a harsh and grim prison sentence where prisoners can still expect to be released within a few years — or a prison that is somewhat more humane but where prisoners will spend years or possibly even the rest of their lives incarcerated with no chance of release?While I know that both have their advantages and disadvantages — I think it is best left for the readers to judge.FURTHER READING:For those interested to read more about prison sentences and criminal punishments in other states and countries, I recommend you read some of my previous answers below. If you are interested in seeing further articles of this nature posted in the future, please feel free to follow me for instant notifications:David Frigault's answer to Would you rather have gone to prison for seven years in 1900 or be in prison for the remainder of your life today?David Frigault's answer to Does anyone who is sentenced to LWOP ever have a chance of being freed based on their circumstances?David Frigault's answer to Why do criminals go back to crime?David Frigault's answer to Why do judges sometimes add "plus 1000 years" on a life sentence?

You should be more specific : which slavery should be repaired ?Here is an interesting link on slavery in History.Slavery in HistorySlavery’s Roots: War and Economic Domination6800 B.C. The world’s first city-state emerges in Mesopotamia. Land ownership and the early stages of technology bring war—in which enemies are captured and forced to work: slavery.2575 B.C. Temple art celebrates the capture of slaves in battle. Egyptians capture slaves by sending special expeditions up the Nile River.550 B.C. The city-state of Athens uses as many as 30,000 slaves in its silver mines.120 A.D. Roman military campaigns capture slaves by the thousands. Some estimate the population of Rome is more than half slave.500 Anglo-Saxons enslave the native Britons after invading England.1000 Slavery is a normal practice in England’s rural, agricultural economy, as destitute workers place themselves and their families in a form of debt bondage to landowners.1380 In the aftermath of the Black Plague, Europe’s slave trade thrives in response to a labor shortage. Slaves pour in from all over the continent, the Middle East, and North Africa.1444 Portuguese traders bring the first large cargo of slaves from West Africa to Europe by sea—establishing the Atlantic slave trade.1526 Spanish explorers bring the first African slaves to settlements in what would become the United States. These first African-Americans stage the first known slave revolt in the Americas.1550 Slaves are depicted as objects of conspicuous consumption in much Renaissance art.1641 Massachusetts becomes the first British colony to legalize slavery.The Age of Abolition1781 Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II abolishes serfdom in the Austrian Habsburg dominions.1787 The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade is founded in Britain.1789 During the French Revolution, the National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man, one of the fundamental charters of human liberties. The first of 17 articles states: “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.”1803 Denmark-Norway becomes the first country in Europe to ban the African slave trade, forbidding trading in slaves and ending the importation of slaves into Danish dominions.1807 The British Parliament makes it illegal for British ships to transport slaves and for British colonies to import them. U.S. President Thomas Jefferson signs into law the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves, forbidding the importation of African slaves into the United States.1811-1867 Operating off the Atlantic coast of Africa, the British Navy’s Anti-Slavery Squadron liberates 160,000 slaves.1813 Sweden, a nation that never authorized slave traffic, consents to ban the African slave trade.1814 The king of the Netherlands officially terminates Dutch participation in the African slave trade. At the Congress of Vienna, the assembled powers proclaim that the slave trade should be abolished as soon as possible but do not stipulate an actual effective date for abolition.1820 The government of Spain abolishes the slave trade south of the Equator—but it continues in Cuba until 1888.1833 The Factory Act in Britain establishes a working day in textile manufacture, provides for government inspection of working conditions, bans the employment of children under age 9, and limits the workday of children between 13 and 18 years of age to 12 hours.1834 The Abolition Act abolishes slavery throughout the British Empire, including British colonies in North America. The bill emancipates slaves in all British colonies and appropriates nearly $100 million in today’s money to compensate slave owners for their losses.1840 The new British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society calls the first World Anti-Slavery Convention in London to mobilize reformers and assist post-emancipation efforts throughout the world. A group of U.S. abolitionists attends, but Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, as well as several male supporters, leave the meeting in protest when women are excluded from seating on the convention floor.1845 The British Navy assigns 36 ships to its Anti-Slavery Squadron, making it one of the largest fleets in the world.1848 The government of France abolishes slavery in all French colonies.1850 The government of Brazil ends the country’s participation in the slave trade and declares slave traffic to be a form of piracy.1861 Alexander II emancipates all Russian serfs, numbering about 50 million. His decree begins the Great Reform in Russia and earns him the title “Czar Liberator.”1863 President Abraham Lincoln issues The Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all U.S. slaves in states that had seceded from the Union, except for those in Confederate areas already controlled by the Union army.1863 The government of the Netherlands takes official action to abolish slavery in all Dutch colonies.1865 Congress gives final passage to, and a sufficient number of states ratify, the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to outlaw slavery. The amendment reads: “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.”1888 The Lei Aurea, or Golden Law, ends slavery in South America when the legislature of Brazil frees the country’s 725,000 slaves.1865-1920 Following the American Civil War, hundreds of thousands of African Americans are re-enslaved in an abusive manipulation of the legal system called “peonage.” Across the Deep South, African-American men and women are falsely arrested and convicted of crimes, then “leased” to coal and iron mines, brick factories, plantations, and other dangerous workplaces. The system slows down after World War I but doesn’t fully end until the 1940s.Abolition Spreads Worldwide1909 The Congo Reform Association, founded in Britain, ends forced labor in the Congo Free State, today the Democratic Republic of the Congo. After years of anti-slavery activism, the association’s Red Rubber Campaign stops the brutal system of Belgium’s King Leopold II, whose officials forced local people to produce rubber for sale in Europe and terrorized those who refused, cutting off their hands and burning down their houses.1910 The International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Trade, signed in Paris, is the first of its kind, obligating parties to punish anyone who recruits a woman or girl under age into prostitution, even if she consents.1913 After a public outcry galvanized by media reports and subsequent peoples’ petition, the British Parliament shuts down the Peruvian Amazon Company, a British entity that was torturing and exploiting indigenous Indians in Peru.1915 The colonial government of Malaya officially abolishes slavery.1918 The British governor of Hong Kong estimates that the majority of households that could afford it keep a young child as a household slave.1919 The International Labor Organization (ILO) is founded to establish a code of global labor standards. Headquartered in Geneva, the ILO unites government, labor, and management to make recommendations concerning pay, working conditions, trade union rights, safety, woman and child labor, and social security.1923 The British colonial government in Hong Kong bans the selling of little girls as domestic slaves.1926 The League of Nations approves the Slavery Convention, which defines slavery as “status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised.” More than 30 governments sign the document, which charges all member nations to work to suppress all forms of slavery.1926 Burma abolishes legal slavery.1927 Slavery is legally abolished in Sierra Leone, a country founded as a colony by the British in the 18th century to serve as a homeland for freed slaves.1930 The U.S. Tariff Act prohibits the importation of products made with “forced or indentured labor.” (In 1997, the Sanders Amendment clarified that this applies to products made with “forced or indentured child labor.”)1936 The King of Saudi Arabia issues a decree that ends the importation of new slaves, regulates the conditions of existing slaves, and provides for manumission—the act of slave owners freeing their slaves—under some conditions.1938 The Japanese military establishes “comfort stations”—actually brothels—for Japanese troops. Thousands of Korean and Chinese women are forced into sex slavery during World War II as military “comfort women.”1939-1945 The German Nazi government uses widespread slave labor in farming and industry. Up to nine million people are forced to work to absolute exhaustion—then they are sent to concentration camps.1941 The Adoption of Children Ordinance Law in Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, requires the registration of all children who are adopted and regular inspections to prevent adopted children from working as slaves.1948 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, created by the United Nations, provides: “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.”1949 The Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others prohibits any person from procuring, enticing, or leading away another person for the purposes of prostitution, even with the other person’s consent. This forms the legal basis for international protections against traffic in people still used today.Abolition in Recent Times1950-1989 International anti-slavery work slows during the Cold War, as the Soviet Block argues that slavery can only exist in capitalist societies, and the Western Block argues that all people living under communism are slaves. Both new and traditional forms of slavery in the developing world receive little attention.1954 China passes the State Regulation on Reform through Labor, allowing prisoners to be used for labor in the laogai prison camps.1956 The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery regulates practices involving serfdom, debt bondage, the sale of wives, and child servitude.1962 Slavery is abolished in Saudi Arabia and Yemen.1964 The sixth World Muslim Congress, the world’s oldest Muslim organization, pledges global support for all anti-slavery movements.1973 The U.N. General Assembly adopts the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, which outlaws a number of inhuman acts, including forced labor, committed for the purposes of establishing and maintaining domination by one racial group over another.1974 Mauritania’s emancipated slaves form the El Hor (“freedom”) movement to oppose slavery, which continues to this day. El Hor leaders insist that emancipation is impossible without realistic means of enforcing anti-slavery laws and giving former slaves the means of achieving economic independence. El Hor demands land reform and encourages the formation of agricultural cooperatives.1975 The U.N. Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery is founded to collect information and make recommendations on slavery and slavery-like practices around the world.1976 India passes a law banning bonded labor.1980 Slavery is abolished for the fourth time in the Islamic republic of Mauritania, but the situation is not fundamentally changed. Although the law decrees that “slavery” no longer exists, the ban does not address how masters are to be compensated or how slaves are to gain property.1989 The National Islamic Front takes over the government of Sudan and begins to arm Baggara tribesmen to fight the Dinka and Nuer tribes in the south. These new militias raid villages, capturing and enslaving inhabitants.1989 The U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child promotes basic health care, education, and protection for the young from abuse, exploitation, or neglect at home, at work, and in armed conflicts. All countries ratify it except Somalia and the United States.1990 After adoption by 54 countries in the 1980s, the 19th Conference of Foreign Ministers of the Organization of the Islamic Conference formally adopts the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, which states that “human beings are born free, and no one has the right to enslave, humiliate, oppress, or exploit them.”1992 The Pakistan National Assembly enacts the Bonded Labor Act, which abolishes indentured servitude and the peshgi, or bonded money, system. However, the government fails to provide for the implementation and enforcement of the law’s provisions.1995 The U.S. government issues the Model Business Principles, which urges all businesses to adopt and implement voluntary codes of conduct, including the avoidance of child and forced labor, as well as discrimination based on race, gender, national origin, or religious beliefs.1995 Christian Solidarity International, a Swiss-based charity, begins to liberate slaves in Southern Sudan by buying them back. The policy ignites widespread controversy—many international agencies argue that buying back slaves supports the market in human beings and feeds resources to slaveholders.1996 The RugMark campaign is established in Germany to ensure that handwoven rugs are not made with slave or child labor. In 2010, RugMark changes its name to GoodWeave.1996 The World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children is held.1997 The U.N. establishes a commission of inquiry to investigate reports of the widespread enslavement of people by the Burmese government.1997 The United States bans imported goods made by child-bonded labor.1998 The Global March against Child Labor is established to coordinate worldwide demonstrations against child labor and to call for a U.N. Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor.1999 Despite being barred from entering Burma, the U.N. collects sufficient evidence to publicly condemn government-sponsored slavery, including unpaid forced labor and a brutal political system built on the use of force and intimidation to deny democracy and the rule of law.1999 The ILO passes the Convention Against the Worst Forms of Child Labor, which establishes widely recognized international standards protecting children against forced or indentured labor, child prostitution and pornography, their use in drug trafficking, and other harmful work.1999 The first global analysis of modern slavery and its role in the global economy, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, estimates that there are 27 million people in slavery worldwide.Abolition in the 21st Century2000 Free the Slaves is formed, originally as the sister organization of Anti-Slavery International in the U.K. Today Free the Slaves is an independent organization.2000 The government of Nepal bans all forms of debt bondage after a lengthy campaign by human rights organizations and freed laborers.2000 The U.S. Congress passes the Trafficking Victims Protection Act to combat the trafficking of persons as a form of modern slavery. The legislation increases penalties for traffickers, provides social services for trafficking victims, and helps victims remain in the country.2000 The U.N. passes the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons as part of the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. The trafficking protocol is the first global legally binding instrument with an internationally agreed-upon definition on trafficking in persons.2001 Slavery: A Global Investigation—the first major documentary film about modern slavery—is released in the U.S. and Europe. The film tells the story of slavery and forced child labor in the cocoa and chocolate industry and wins a Peabody Award and two Emmy Awards.2002 The countries of the Economic Community of Western African States agree on an action plan to confront slavery and human trafficking in the region.2002 The International Cocoa Initiative is established as a joint effort of anti-slavery groups and major chocolate companies—marking the first time an entire industry has banded together to address slavery in its supply chain.2004 Brazil launches the National Pact for the Eradication of Slave Labor, which combines the efforts of civil organizations, businesses, and the government to get companies to commit to the prevention and eradication of forced labor within their supply chains, as well as to be monitored and placed on a “dirty list” if the products they sell are tainted by slavery.2004 The U.N. appoints a Special Rapporteur (Reporter) on Human Trafficking.2005 The U.N. International Labor Organization’s first Global Report on Forced Labor puts the number of slaves worldwide at 12.3 million. The organization’s 2012 update increases the number to 20.9 million people.2007 Ending Slavery: How We Free Today’s Slaves is published. Written by Free the Slaves co-founder Kevin Bales, it is the first plan for the global eradication of modern slavery, estimating the total cost of worldwide abolition at $10.8 billion over 25 years. President Bill Clinton highlights the plan at the Clinton Global Initiative. The book receives the 2011 University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order.2008 The Special Court for Sierra Leone judges forced marriage “a crime against humanity” and convicts three officers in the Revolutionary United Front of forced marriage—the first convictions of their kind within an international criminal tribunal.2008 The U.N. International Labor Organization estimates that annual profits generated from trafficking in human beings are as high as $32 billion. In 2014 the organization increases that estimate to $150 billion in the report Profits and Poverty: The Economics of Forced Labor.2010 Free the Slaves publishes Slavery, featuring images of slaves and survivors taken by humanitarian photographer Lisa Kristine and a foreword by South African Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu. Kristine receives a 2013 Humanitarian Photographer of the Year Award from the Lucie foundation based in large part on her work with Free the Slaves.2011 California enacts the California Transparency in Supply Chains Act, requiring major manufacturing and retail firms to publicly disclose what efforts, if any, they are taking to eliminate forced labor and human trafficking from their product supply chains.2012 The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission passes the Conflict Minerals Rule, requiring major publicly-held corporations to disclose if their products contain certain metals mined in the eastern Congo or an adjoining country and if payment for these minerals supports armed conflict in the region. The rule was required as part of the 2010 Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Free the Slaves has documented that slavery is widespread at mining sites covered by this corporate disclosure requirement.2013 The first Walk Free Global Slavery Index is released with country-by-country estimates for slavery worldwide. The research team estimates that 29.8 million people are enslaved today. The 2014 index increases that estimate to 35.8 million. The 2016 index increases that estimate to 45.8 million.2015 Free the Slaves marks its 15th birthday by announcing that the organization has reached a historic benchmark—liberating more than 10,000 people from slavery.2015 The U.N. adopts 17 Sustainable Development Goals, with 169 targets that include an end to slavery: “Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labor, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labor, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labor in all its forms.”2017 A research consortium including the U.N. International Labor Organization, the group Walk Free, and the U.N. International Organization for Migration release a combined global study indicating that 40 million people are trapped in modern forms of slavery worldwide: 50 percent in forced labor in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, mining, fishing and other physical-labor industries; 12.5 percent in sex slavery, and 37.5 percent in forced marriage slavery.Many historical timeline entries are adapted from New Slavery: A Reference Handbook by Kevin Bales, Second Edition, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004, pp. 55-68.