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To understand the Godhra incident, we will have to begin our journey in another city - Ayodhya.The tale of AyodhyaAyodhya is a small town located on the banks of river Sarayu in the state of Uttar Pradesh. It has been traditionally considered the birth place of Rama and is held sacred by the hindus. This identification of Ayodhya with Rama played an important role in the Godhra incident, but is the town really the place of birth of Rama ?The earliest reference to the word Ayodhya comes from the Atharva veda believed to have been composed between 1000 BCE and 800 BCE, but penned down in the Gupta period. The verse 2.31[1][1][1][1][2][2][2][2] in Atharva veda goes like this. In this verse, Ayodhya is referred to as the city of God, but the context in which it is used seem to refer to the human body. Even if it refers to city, the verse does not mention Rama and does not discuss any specifics.The next reference to Ayodhya in literature comes from Valmiki Ramayana (believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE and penned down about 800 years later). Valmiki discusses Ayodhya in two different chapters[3][3][3][3][4][4][4][4] and establishes its glory. He places Ayodhya on the banks of river Sarayu. He also suggests that the city was 12 yojanas long and 3 yojanas wide. There is no consensus among scholars on the length of a yojana. The lowest value suggested is 5 miles, while the highest is 12. Using both the values, the Ayodhya of Ramayana should cover either ((12 *5)*(3*5)) = 900 sq. miles or ((12*12)*(3*12) ) = 5184 sq. miles of area. The modern city of Ayodhya covers a modest 30 sq. miles of area.Alexander Cunningham (founder or Archaeological Survey of India) who authored the book the Ancient geography of India[5][5][5][5] theorises that Valmiki could have mentioned the entire province of historic Awadh[6][6][6][6] as the birth place of Rama.Between the 5th century BCE and the Gupta period, Ayodhya gets mentioned in the Buddhist Pali canon as Ayojjha[7][7][7][7][8][8][8][8][9][9][9][9]. The Buddhist authors of these cannons claim that Gautama Buddha preached in the city at least on two occasions, but they place the town on the banks of river Ganges and not Sarayu. Chinese traveler Xuanzang who travelled to various Buddhist sites in the 7th century CE records in his traveler’s account of his visit to Ayodhya on the banks of river Ganga and not Sarayu[10][10][10][10].In the Gupta period, something interesting happens. Kalidasa who is believed to have lived during the Gupta reign authored Raghuvamsa[11][11][11][11][12][12][12][12] that narrates stories related to the Solar dynasty to which Rama is thought to belong. In this text, Kalidasa suggests that Dasaratha and Rama belonged to Saketa on the banks of river Sarayu[13][13][13][13][14][14][14][14].The tale of SaketaThe city of Saketa is mentioned in a lot of Buddhist texts including the Pali Cannon and Mahavamsa[15][15][15][15]. According to the Ceylonese annals and Burmese annals, Gautama Buddha resided in Savatthi[16][16][16][16] and Saketa for a considerable numbers of years after becoming a Buddha[17][17][17][17].It was under control of the Shungas and later the Kushans. The Rabatak inscription[18][18][18][18] of Kushan emperor Kaniskha states that Saketa was a territory of Kaniskha. Accounts of Buddhaghosha places Saketa around 7 yojanas south west of Savatthi. Some other Buddhist authors have also mentioned the relative location of Saketa in their texts.Chinese traveler Faxian is believed to have visited the city in the 5th century[19][19][19][19][20][20][20][20] and recorded that it was a Buddhist town teeming with monasteries. He calls the place Shache, not Saketa.Saketa is important in Jainism. Jains consider it the birth place of five Thirthankaras. The Jain Ramayana mentions that Dasaratha and Rama belonged to Saketa[21][21][21][21].Is the modern town of Ayodhya the city of Rama ?Alexander Cunningham, the founder of ASI, undertook an excavation[22][22][22][22] in Ayodhya in the 1860’s to rediscover lost Buddhist sites and concluded that the site had a long Buddhist tradition. Based on study of Buddhist and Jainist literature, Cunningham came to the conclusion that modern day Ayodhya was indeed the Buddhist town Vishaka and the Jainist town Saketa mentioned in respective literature[23][23][23][23]. He also identified modern day Ayodhya with the city of Rama’s times based on a fabricated verse from Ramayana. Since then the verse has be proven to be fake.The next couple of excavations conducted at the site during 1889–91 and 1969–70 also failed to find anything of significance to connect the modern town with the ancient city. Both the excavations concluded Buddhist presence in the area. In 1976–77, B.B. Lal undertook another excavation at the site and identified several construction layers near Babri Masjid. He also found rows of pillar bases to south of the mosque and excavated a fortification wall. Surprisingly, no Gupta layers were found.In 1982, Professor Hans T. Bakker, an indologist, collated all literary and archeological findings in a paper titled The rise of Ayodhya as a place of Pilgrimage[24][24][24][24]. In 1986, he published a book titled Ayodhya[25][25][25][25] detailing the history of Ayodhya from 7th century BCE to modern times. In it he makes a few important points.Both Ayodhya and Saketa are unknown to Vedas.No pre-Gupta era texts identify Saketa with Rama’s Ayodhya.During the late Gupta period, the historic Thirthankaras were linked with the Ikshvaku dynasty[26] and as a result, Saketa became linked to Rama’s Ayodhya.Brahmandapurana and Raghuvamsa penned during this period accept this Saketa-Ayodhya identification and use them. In course of time, the term Saketa became obsolete.During Samudragupta’s reign, vedic religion started its first phase of evolution towards becoming hinduism.While Buddhism was a predominant religion in Saketa/Ayodhya between 500 BCE and 500 CE, certain kings during these periods patronized the Vedic religion too. However, only in the second millennium era did the town acquire its prominent position in hinduism. It became associated with Vaishnavism and Rama in the early 12th century.Since the book, two more (controversial) excavations have been undertaken at the site. The 1992 excavation unearthed terracotta figurines from the Kushan period and later. The team also unearthed some objects that they believed were used in a temple like structure belonging to the 10/12th century. Another 2003 excavation discovered more pillars around the mosque and concluded that a 10th century structure similar to a temple existed before the construction of the mosque.So far, neither archeological or epigraphical evidence have been discovered to connect modern day Ayodhya with Ayodhya of Rama’s times. The oldest artifact discovered on site cannot be dated any earlier than 800 BCE, nothing to connect Rama with the town has ever been discovered and the modest town itself is no match to the glorious city Valmiki describes. So far, there is not much evidence to suggest modern day Ayodhya is the Ayodhya of Rama’s time.It is under this context all further events that followed should be understood.The story of Babri Masjid[27][27][27][27]Babri Masjid was a modest mosque believed to have been commissioned by Babur (the founder of the Mughal empire) and built by his general Mir Baqi in the 16th century CE.Babur’s life story[28][28][28][28] is an interesting one. He ascended the throne to Fergana when he was 12, won his first battle over Samarkand when he was 15, lost both the cities in less than 100 days after his first victory. He spent the next few years trying to recapture lost territory, but failed. Then he led his life in exile before setting himself up as the ruler of Kabul. During his time in Kabul, he was in constant conflict with the Uzbeks. To escape from them and find a territory of his own, Babur looked towards the south. He was hoping to set himself in Punjab when he received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi and Alauddin( co-conspirators against Ibrahim Lodi of the Delhi Sultanate). Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat and then the Rajput ruler in the Battle of Khanwa and founded the Mughal empire in 1526[29][29][29][29].Based on inscriptions found in the mosque, historians came to believe that the Babri Masjid was commissioned by him. However lack of contemporary records, Babur’s motivation for land over religion has led some to believe the masjid was by Babur, but by Aurangzeb in the 17th century[30][30][30][30].The dispute and the destructionIt is not clearly known when or how hindus began worshiping at the site or even if the hindu worship began before or after the construction of the mosque. We also don’t have enough evidence to suggest that the mosque was built on top of a temple. There is bit of evidence to suggest that the mosque might have been built of top of some structure. Even if it were a temple, it was not constructed before the 12th century and it certainly did not belong to the purported times of Rama.All we know is that by the time British gained control over Ayodhya both hindus and muslims were offering prayers on site, the former in the outer courtyard and the latter in the inner courtyard. The earliest record of a dispute that is available to us comes from these times[31][31][31][31][32][32][32][32][33][33][33][33].1853 - A hindu sect called Nirmohi Akhara claims ownership of Ram Chabutra. Claims that the mosque was built over a temple. Sporadic incidents of violence are reported.1859 - The British administration steps in and constructs a compound wall separating the mosque and the chabutra.1885 - Nirmohi files a civil lawsuit demanding permission to construct a temple. Permission is denied and the lawsuit is dismissed.1934 - Reports of cow slaughter triggers a communal riot. The mosque is damaged during the riot.1936 - Shias claim ownership of the mosque. The court rules in favour of the Sunni Waqf board years later.1946 - Akhil Bharatiya Ramayana Mahasabha (ABRM) threatens to break-in and occupy the site.1949 - Three years later, ABRM conducts a nine-day recitation of Ramcharitrmanas [34][34][34][34]. On December 22, under the cover of darkness, idols of Rama and Sita are placed inside the mosque. The site was deemed to be a disputed site and was locked down.1959 - Nirmohi Akhara files another lawsuit claiming ownership of the site.1961 - Sunni Waqf board claims ownership of the entire land.1964 - Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) is founded.1980’s - VHP begins to use the term Ram Janmaboomi (birth place of Rama) to adress the site and launches a massive movement demanding permission to offer prayers at the site.1986 - A district judge grants permission to Hindus to offer prayers at the site. The muslims protest calling the judgment unfair to them.1989 - VHP lays foundation for a Rama temple adjacent to the site.1990 - The BJP and L.K. Advani launch the Ram Rath yatra[35][35][35][35] in support of the VHP agitations. Lalu Prasad Yadav arrests Advani.1990 - VHP agitators barge into the disputed area. They are fired at the police. About 20 people die.1992 - Under the supervision of BJP politicians like L.K. Advani, Murali Manohar Joshi, and Uma Bharathi, under the watch of VHP and RSS cadres[36][36][36][36][37][37][37][37],The Babri masjid was reduced to rubble in a few hours. The UP chief minister Kalyan Singh resigned and the president rule was imposed.Since then, Advani and Kalyan have been charged and absolved of all charges. The Liberhan commission has submitted its report on the incident[38][38][38][38]. The Allahabad high court has equally divided the land between Hindu Mahasabha, Sunni Waqf board and Nirmohi Akhara[39][39][39][39]. The supreme court has upheld this decision.In 2017, the SC also reinstated criminal conspiracy charges on L.K. Advani, Joshi and Uma Bharthi among others.Events leading up to 2002Between 1992 and 2002, the VHP lobbied vigourously to construct a temple at the disputed site. BJP, for its part, kept assuring the VHP that it in fact intended to build the Ram temple at the disputed site. However, after forming a government at the centre in 1998, BJP backtracked on its promises. VHP was angered by this and locked horns with the party and the government. Over the next couple of years, folks like L.K. Advani turned their backs on VHP, calling their actions detrimental to Ayodhya. As the relationship between BJP-VHP deteriorated, Vajpayee (then PM of India) promised VHP in August 2001 to have a resolution for the impasse by March 2002. VHP were not impressed by this and began escalating their actions.In October 2001, they stormed the makeshift temple at the Babri Masjid site. In January 2002, with the March deadline approaching, they organised a series of rallies at Ayodhya. In February, they began a 100 day yagya near the disputed site. VHP cadres from all over the country were brought to Ayodhya for this yagya. ( Rediff has documented all these events in detail over tens of article and they have chronologically cataloged them. Please do read these articles for better understanding[40][40][40][40][41][41][41][41][42][42][42][42]).One such party that the VHP brought to Ayodhya was from Gujarat. On February 27, 2002, they were returning home on the Sabarmati express.The Godhra incidentOn February 27, 2002, the Sabarmati express was expected to arrive at Ahmadabad in the early hours of dawn. It was running five hours late and arrived at Godhra around 7.40 am. On this particular journey, the train was packed with hindu activists. It is reported that there were over 2000 passengers in the train against its capacity of 1100 passagers.According to the source one reads, many of these passengers were either innocent pilgrims or unruly hooligans[43][43][43][43][44][44][44][44]. Possibly, both the types were on that train.When the train arrived at Godhra, some hindu activists had a scuffle with a couple of muslim tea vendors at the station. They also have reported to have shouted slogans like ‘Jai Shri Ram’, ‘Kill the muslims’ at every halt and at Godhra[45][45][45][45]. A girl named Sophia Bano Sheikh (who was about 18 then) gave a statement to the police and testified before a judge about her failed abduction attempt by the hindu activists at Godhra[46][46][46][46][47][47][47][47]. This, certain eyewitness believe, aggravated the situation. Some eyewitnesses suggest that the mob at the station believed that the girl was indeed abducted and began demanding her release[48][48][48][48]. When the train began to pull out, they followed after it, pelting stones at it (The stone pelting, some claim, began even before the train pulled out of the station).A couple of minutes later, someone yanked at the emergency brakes and the train came to a halt a few hundred meters from the station. There was heavy stone pelting. While the train guard claimed that the hindu activists halted the train so that their co-activists could board it, the official verdict was that two muslim vendors climbed on board and halted the train. As the size of the mob began to increase, one of the assistant station masters (ASM) indicated to the driver to leave. The train chugged along for a few meters before it came to a halt again. This time due to a mechanical snag caused by the stone pelting.In a Tehelka sting, the ASM admitted speaking to at least one person in the mob who thought that a girl had been abducted.In a few minutes, the mob started throwing burning rags into the coaches. With all its windows and doors shut and with all passengers cramped inside, coach S6 began to burn, from the inside.59 people burned to their deaths. Few more were injured.Sabarmati continued its onward journey with out coach S6, but with the coach S7 that was partly damaged and had to have been evidence.The DSP and the district collector arrived at the scene a few minutes after the fire and began their investigation. According to them, the incident was not pre-planned. That is the report that goes out to the home ministry, suggesting that there was provocation by the hindu activists[49][49][49][49]. A month into the investigation, the police had not found any signs that the attack was pre-planned[50][50][50][50].A couple a months later in May 2002, a new investigative officer named Noel Parmar was brought in. In July 2002, the Forensic Science Lab (FSL) submitted its final report on the incident[51][51][51][51]. One key important finding of the FSL was that the inflammable liquid (petrol in this case) that burnt the coach was not thrown in from the outside, but was done from the inside.Only a week earlier, police tracked down a hindu street hawker named Ajay Baria who reportedly confessed to setting the coach on fire (after being forced to) from the inside along with a few other muslim hawkers after breaking and entering the coach while the mob was pelting stones. He also allegedly confessed to a plan forged the previous night by Muslims in placed known as Aman Guest house[52][52][52][52][53][53][53][53]. Between July 2002 and February 2003, police find 13 more witnesses who vouched that the attack was pre-planned (Ajay Baria, 9 BJP men who were at the station, two petrol pump attendants who allegedly sold petrol to Muslim conspirators on Feb 2002 and 2 petty muslim criminals).In 2005, the UPA appointed U C Banerjee commission concluded that there was no evidence to a pre-planned attack. The commission also found some evidence to the presence of cooking gas in the coach that might have ignited when the burning rags were thrown in[54][54][54][54].In 2007, Tehelka conducted a six month sting and discovered that of the 14 witness, the nine BJP men were not present at the scene of the crime. They also found that the petrol pump attendants had been bribed by Noel Parmar (Rs 50,000 each) to testify against the accused. One of the petty muslim criminals was caught lying when he claimed that had pulled the emergency brakes when the train halted the second time. The other muslin criminal retracted his statement. Leaving Ajay Baria, the only hindu perpetrator, to be the only witness on whose testimony the entire case was built. And what’s worse ? According to Tehelka, Ajay’s mother claims that her son was at home when the incident unfolded[55][55][55][55].The sting did not matter much to courts or the Modi appointed Nanavati-Mehta commision.In the 2008, the Nanavati-Mehta commision in their report[56][56][56][56] concluded the Godhra incident was premeditated. The plot was hatched by local Muslims to harm the hindu activists travelling in the train. The report named two men, Nanumiyan and Umarji, as the master minds of the plot. The commission also dismissed Sophia Bano’s story as fake[57][57][57][57] and concluded that there was evidence of a scuffle between hindu activists and muslim tea vendors. It also gave a clean chit to Modi. The SIT constituted by Modi gave him a clean chit too.In 2011, 31 muslims were convicted for the incident . 11 of them were handed death sentences while the rest were given life sentences. 69 others were acquitted including Umarji (the alleged mastermind who spent 8 years in prison) for lack of evidence[58][58][58][58]. In 2017, the death sentences of the 11 convicts were reduced to life sentences[59][59][59][59].To this day, there is uncertainty over who lit the fire.The Gujarat riots[60][60][60][60]As the news about the Godhra incident reached other parts of Gujarat,violence against muslims began to erupt on the afternoon of February 27 2002.A curfew was imposed in Godhra, but about 40 shops around the station belonging to muslims were thrashed. A muslim man was stabbed at the Vadodara railway station by a mob who were waiting for the Sabarmati express.That afternoon, VHP called for a statewide bandh on February 28, 2002. The State BJP unit endorsed the bandh[61][61][61][61]. Advani blamed ISI for the incident. Modi and his minister likened it to a terrorist attack and asserted that Pakistanis were residing in Gujarat illegally. The charred bodies of the deceased in the Godhra incident arrived in Ahmedabad the same night. A mob gathered at the railway station to meet the bodies. Another waited at the morgue. Communal tensions were as high as they could be and the state sponsored bandh gave the angered mob the perfect outlet.The attacks on muslims began around 10.30 am on February 28, 2002. Violence in different parts of the state including Ahmedabad began around the same time indicating that the attacks were pre-meditated and coordinated. First hands accounts and investigation by Human Rights Watch (HRW) that the attackers targeted muslim business based on information about these businesses given to them beforehand.In Ahmedabad, two particular areas were targeted - The Naroda Patiya Suburb and the Gulmarg society[62][62][62][62].In 2002, in the Naroda Patiya Suburb over 2000 families of daily wage workers, mostly muslims resided. On February 28, 2002, at least 90 people were killed by a mob of 5000 that torched the place. Women and young girls were gang raped in public and were hacked to death. Homes and business of muslims were selectively looted. The residences of hindus were untouched. The community mosque was razed down by exploding gas cylinders among other establishments. People were burnt alive using LPG cylinders and their bodies dumped into wells. HRW’s investigation into the incident revealed that the police were either complacent or were working with the mobs against the muslims. Of the 96 reported dead, 70 were women and children. Curfew was imposed, after the massacre[63][63][63][63] was well over.On the same day, in the same city, about 70 people (including a former MP) were killed in the Gulmarg society massacre[64][64][64][64]. At around 9 am, a mob gathered outside the society that was home to upper class muslims. Fearing the worst, over 250 people took refuge in the house of former Congress MP Ehsan Jaffrey. Over the next seven hours, about 70 people including Ehsan Jaffrey were hacked to death. Reportedly, Ehsan Jaffrey reached out to the police multiple times seeking their help, but was not offered protections. His home breached, he and his family members were dragged out, paraded naked for refusing to say ‘Jai Sriram’ and then were hacked to death. One eyewitness reported the killing of a pregnant woman whose unborn child was cut out of her stomach and both burned to death.The police turned deaf ears to cries for help. It is also alleged that on the day of the massacre, two BJP ministers took charge of the police control room and directed the police on what and what not to do[65][65][65][65]. A high level police officer alleged that Modi himself demanded the police not to do anything that would harm Hindutva sentiments[66][66][66][66][67][67][67][67]. Cases of police firing at helpless victims have also been reported.Media fed fuel to fire. Local newspapers like Sandesh carried inflammatory news[68][68][68][68] making unfounded allegations and demanding to avenge blood with blood. VHP distributed leaflets with hate messages. The violence against muslims continued for a further two days in over 25 towns and cities. Children were force fed petrol and set on fire. Infants were speared and their bodies were paraded around. Over 250 women and girls were gang raped and killed.Violence against hindus (mostly dalits) by muslims were also reported during this time. There are also heroic stories of hindus saving muslims from the aggressors.A curfew was imposed on many towns and cities by evening on February 28, 2002. However, violence continued in smaller towns before moving towards rural areas.The state government called the army on the night of February 28 and deployed it the next afternoon. By then, the intensity of the violence had tapered down. The violence continued till March 3rd and after a brief gap, resumed on the 15th. Sporadic incidents of violence was reported until June, 2002.In all over 1000 people were killed (800 muslims and 250 hindus). About 500 mosques were destroyed. Over 2,00,000 people were displaced and about 200 people are still missing.Rediff has a very good collection of Gujarat riot articles beginning in 2002 here.Role of Modi in the affairModi has just become the chief minister of Gujarat when the Godhra incident and the riots that followed took place. He had never held any administrative office before, but he had held various posts within the BJP and had helped them secure many wins between 1990 and 2000.The fact that the train burning and the riots happened under his watch is in itself is a big blot. But Modi’s role is not just limited to that.Days before the Godhra incident, at least two intelligence officers submitted reports to the state government stating that the frequent movement of Ayodhya hindu activists were inflaming an already volatile situation in the state[69][70]. However, the Gujarat government sat on this intelligence.The decision to bring the the remains of the dead from Godhra to Ahmedabad the very same night of the incident worsened the already dire situation[71][72][73][74].In the aftermath of the Godhra incident, a responsible government would have downplayed the communal angle to assuage the situation. Yet, Modi and the BJP went about calling the attack premeditated and blaming the Pakistanis and Muslim terrorists without a tiny smudge of evidence.Extending support to the VHP bandh. The government should have sensed trouble.Giving the police mixed messages, leaving them without direction. NGOs and international organisations that have conducted independent investigations of the incident have concluded that the state police were mostly anti-muslin during the riots.Permitting ministers to dictate terms at police control rooms was a bad move.The Gujarat government reached out to the central government too late and delayed deploying the army.Modi constantly mislead his own people, claiming that the situation was in control always, even when it was not.Pinning the blame on former Congress MP Jaffrey for his own murder, claiming that the MP provoked the agitators by shooting at them.Turning the Godhra incident and the riots into an election agenda.Rewarding cops for their partisan behaviour during the riots and transferring/demoting cops and officials who acted without bias.Defending the riots by terming it a natural reaction to the Godhra incident and calling it a ‘secular violence’.In the aftermath of the riots, Modi was denied permission to enter the US and the European Union until he became the prime minister of India. However, the SC has dismissed all charges against Modi.Conclusion:Faith triumphed over humanity in Gujarat in 2002. Lives were lost and the gods failed. Reason gave way to blind hatred. All of us are culpable in a way, some more than the others. Let us hope another such incident does not happen. Let us not fall prey to religions. Let us not be misguided by the forked tongues of politicians. Let there be Peace.Footnotes[1] http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/129875/13/13_chapter%204.pdf[1] http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/129875/13/13_chapter%204.pdf[1] http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/129875/13/13_chapter%204.pdf[1] http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/129875/13/13_chapter%204.pdf[2] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=XFPmCRjGYX0C&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=astacakra+navadvara+devanam+purayodhya&source=bl&ots=IvyrafaKKF&sig=XjygH_1iLL9Qb0tE4G83-ejGKtQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVosOlq8zaAhULO48KHSSfAoQQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=astacakra%20navadvara%20devanam%20purayodhya&f=false[2] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=XFPmCRjGYX0C&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=astacakra+navadvara+devanam+purayodhya&source=bl&ots=IvyrafaKKF&sig=XjygH_1iLL9Qb0tE4G83-ejGKtQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVosOlq8zaAhULO48KHSSfAoQQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=astacakra%20navadvara%20devanam%20purayodhya&f=false[2] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=XFPmCRjGYX0C&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=astacakra+navadvara+devanam+purayodhya&source=bl&ots=IvyrafaKKF&sig=XjygH_1iLL9Qb0tE4G83-ejGKtQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVosOlq8zaAhULO48KHSSfAoQQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=astacakra%20navadvara%20devanam%20purayodhya&f=false[2] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=XFPmCRjGYX0C&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=astacakra+navadvara+devanam+purayodhya&source=bl&ots=IvyrafaKKF&sig=XjygH_1iLL9Qb0tE4G83-ejGKtQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjVosOlq8zaAhULO48KHSSfAoQQ6AEIMDAB#v=onepage&q=astacakra%20navadvara%20devanam%20purayodhya&f=false[3] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 5 [3] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 5 [3] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 5 [3] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 5 [4] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 6 [4] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 6 [4] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 6 [4] Valmiki Ramayana - Baala Kanda - Sarga 6 [5] The Ancient Geography of India[5] The Ancient Geography of India[5] The Ancient Geography of India[5] The Ancient Geography of India[6] Awadh - Wikipedia[6] Awadh - Wikipedia[6] Awadh - Wikipedia[6] Awadh - Wikipedia[7] Ayojjhā[7] Ayojjhā[7] Ayojjhā[7] Ayojjhā[8] Phena Sutta: Foam[8] Phena Sutta: Foam[8] Phena Sutta: Foam[8] Phena Sutta: Foam[9] Daruka-khandha Sutta: The Log[9] Daruka-khandha Sutta: The Log[9] Daruka-khandha Sutta: The Log[9] Daruka-khandha Sutta: The Log[10] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=SAQ4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT85&lpg=PT85&dq=xuanzang+in+ayodhya&source=bl&ots=ltpdZrbNOQ&sig=XqO9TAs0t4AKvfz355Pt40m5lXY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc5uL2n83aAhUZSo8KHX_DCsUQ6AEIazAK#v=onepage&q=xuanzang%20in%20ayodhya&f=false[10] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=SAQ4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT85&lpg=PT85&dq=xuanzang+in+ayodhya&source=bl&ots=ltpdZrbNOQ&sig=XqO9TAs0t4AKvfz355Pt40m5lXY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc5uL2n83aAhUZSo8KHX_DCsUQ6AEIazAK#v=onepage&q=xuanzang%20in%20ayodhya&f=false[10] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=SAQ4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT85&lpg=PT85&dq=xuanzang+in+ayodhya&source=bl&ots=ltpdZrbNOQ&sig=XqO9TAs0t4AKvfz355Pt40m5lXY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc5uL2n83aAhUZSo8KHX_DCsUQ6AEIazAK#v=onepage&q=xuanzang%20in%20ayodhya&f=false[10] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=SAQ4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT85&lpg=PT85&dq=xuanzang+in+ayodhya&source=bl&ots=ltpdZrbNOQ&sig=XqO9TAs0t4AKvfz355Pt40m5lXY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc5uL2n83aAhUZSo8KHX_DCsUQ6AEIazAK#v=onepage&q=xuanzang%20in%20ayodhya&f=false[11] Raghuvaṃśa - Wikipedia[11] Raghuvaṃśa - Wikipedia[11] Raghuvaṃśa - Wikipedia[11] Raghuvaṃśa - Wikipedia[12] Index of /sites/giirvaani/giirvaani/rv/sargas[12] Index of /sites/giirvaani/giirvaani/rv/sargas[12] Index of /sites/giirvaani/giirvaani/rv/sargas[12] Index of /sites/giirvaani/giirvaani/rv/sargas[13] 13_raghuvamsham[13] 13_raghuvamsham[13] 13_raghuvamsham[13] 13_raghuvamsham[14] 14_raghuvamsham[14] 14_raghuvamsham[14] 14_raghuvamsham[14] 14_raghuvamsham[15] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=8Au_lIP1ZnQC&pg=PA1084&lpg=PA1084&dq=Campa+Rajagaha+Savatthi&source=bl&ots=dTBxA2bVfW&sig=v4dqyS3FoBsFilBOQFMqhOrFmpM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS98bRt87aAhXLRo8KHWy_BG4Q6AEINjAB#v=onepage&q=Campa%20Rajagaha%20Savatthi&f=false[15] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=8Au_lIP1ZnQC&pg=PA1084&lpg=PA1084&dq=Campa+Rajagaha+Savatthi&source=bl&ots=dTBxA2bVfW&sig=v4dqyS3FoBsFilBOQFMqhOrFmpM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS98bRt87aAhXLRo8KHWy_BG4Q6AEINjAB#v=onepage&q=Campa%20Rajagaha%20Savatthi&f=false[15] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=8Au_lIP1ZnQC&pg=PA1084&lpg=PA1084&dq=Campa+Rajagaha+Savatthi&source=bl&ots=dTBxA2bVfW&sig=v4dqyS3FoBsFilBOQFMqhOrFmpM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS98bRt87aAhXLRo8KHWy_BG4Q6AEINjAB#v=onepage&q=Campa%20Rajagaha%20Savatthi&f=false[15] https://books.google.co.in/books?id=8Au_lIP1ZnQC&pg=PA1084&lpg=PA1084&dq=Campa+Rajagaha+Savatthi&source=bl&ots=dTBxA2bVfW&sig=v4dqyS3FoBsFilBOQFMqhOrFmpM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjS98bRt87aAhXLRo8KHWy_BG4Q6AEINjAB#v=onepage&q=Campa%20Rajagaha%20Savatthi&f=false[16] Shravasti - Wikipedia[16] Shravasti - Wikipedia[16] Shravasti - Wikipedia[16] Shravasti - Wikipedia[17] The Ancient Geography of India[17] The Ancient Geography of India[17] The Ancient Geography of India[17] The Ancient Geography of India[18] Rabatak inscription - Wikipedia[18] Rabatak inscription - Wikipedia[18] Rabatak inscription - Wikipedia[18] Rabatak inscription - Wikipedia[19] http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/travel_records.pdf[19] http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/travel_records.pdf[19] http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/travel_records.pdf[19] http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/travel_records.pdf[20] Faxian - Jatland Wiki[20] Faxian - Jatland Wiki[20] Faxian - Jatland Wiki[20] Faxian - Jatland Wiki[21] Part 6: Rāma’s parents[21] Part 6: Rāma’s parents[21] Part 6: Rāma’s parents[21] Part 6: Rāma’s parents[22] Archaeology of Ayodhya - Wikipedia[22] Archaeology of Ayodhya - Wikipedia[22] Archaeology of Ayodhya - Wikipedia[22] Archaeology of Ayodhya - Wikipedia[23] The Ancient Geography of India[23] The Ancient Geography of India[23] The Ancient Geography of India[23] The Ancient Geography of India[24] The rise of Ayodhyā as a place of pilgrimage[24] The rise of Ayodhyā as a place of pilgrimage[24] The rise of Ayodhyā as a place of pilgrimage[24] The rise of Ayodhyā as a place of pilgrimage[25] Ayodhya[25] Ayodhya[25] Ayodhya[25] Ayodhya[26] Ikshvaku dynasty - Wikipedia[27] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[27] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[27] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[27] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[28] Babur - Wikipedia[28] Babur - Wikipedia[28] Babur - Wikipedia[28] Babur - Wikipedia[29] Mughal Empire - Wikipedia[29] Mughal Empire - Wikipedia[29] Mughal Empire - Wikipedia[29] Mughal Empire - Wikipedia[30] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[30] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[30] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[30] Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[31] http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-revisiting-the-ayodhya-dispute-history-and-the-aftermath-2266242[31] http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-revisiting-the-ayodhya-dispute-history-and-the-aftermath-2266242[31] http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-revisiting-the-ayodhya-dispute-history-and-the-aftermath-2266242[31] http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-revisiting-the-ayodhya-dispute-history-and-the-aftermath-2266242[32] Tracing The History Of Babri Masjid[32] Tracing The History Of Babri Masjid[32] Tracing The History Of Babri Masjid[32] Tracing The History Of Babri Masjid[33] 25 years since the demolition of Babri Masjid: A timeline of the Ayodhya dispute[33] 25 years since the demolition of Babri Masjid: A timeline of the Ayodhya dispute[33] 25 years since the demolition of Babri Masjid: A timeline of the Ayodhya dispute[33] 25 years since the demolition of Babri Masjid: A timeline of the Ayodhya dispute[34] Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia[34] Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia[34] Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia[34] Ramcharitmanas - Wikipedia[35] Ram Rath Yatra - Wikipedia[35] Ram Rath Yatra - Wikipedia[35] Ram Rath Yatra - Wikipedia[35] Ram Rath Yatra - Wikipedia[36] Demolition of the Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[36] Demolition of the Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[36] Demolition of the Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[36] Demolition of the Babri Masjid - Wikipedia[37] When the last dome fell: a first-person account of the Babri Masjid demolition[37] When the last dome fell: a first-person account of the Babri Masjid demolition[37] When the last dome fell: a first-person account of the Babri Masjid demolition[37] When the last dome fell: a first-person account of the Babri Masjid demolition[38] Liberhan Commission - Wikipedia[38] Liberhan Commission - Wikipedia[38] Liberhan Commission - Wikipedia[38] Liberhan Commission - Wikipedia[39] Ayodhya verdict: Allahabad High Court says divide land in 3 ways[39] Ayodhya verdict: Allahabad High Court says divide land in 3 ways[39] Ayodhya verdict: Allahabad High Court says divide land in 3 ways[39] Ayodhya verdict: Allahabad High Court says divide land in 3 ways[40] The Ayodhya issue[40] The Ayodhya issue[40] The Ayodhya issue[40] The Ayodhya issue[41] The Ayodhya issue[41] The Ayodhya issue[41] The Ayodhya issue[41] The Ayodhya issue[42] The Ayodhya issue Homepage[42] The Ayodhya issue Homepage[42] The Ayodhya issue Homepage[42] The Ayodhya issue Homepage[43] Gujarat Carnage 2002[43] Gujarat Carnage 2002[43] Gujarat Carnage 2002[43] Gujarat Carnage 2002[44] https://www.sabrang.com/tribunal/tribunal2.pdf[44] https://www.sabrang.com/tribunal/tribunal2.pdf[44] https://www.sabrang.com/tribunal/tribunal2.pdf[44] https://www.sabrang.com/tribunal/tribunal2.pdf[45] Provocation Preceded Indian Train Fire[45] Provocation Preceded Indian Train Fire[45] Provocation Preceded Indian Train Fire[45] Provocation Preceded Indian Train Fire[46] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[46] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[46] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[46] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[47] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[47] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[47] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[47] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[48] India's Independent Weekly News Magazine[48] India's Independent Weekly News Magazine[48] India's Independent Weekly News Magazine[48] India's Independent Weekly News Magazine[49] Is SIT hiding proof in Gujarat riots case? - Times of India[49] Is SIT hiding proof in Gujarat riots case? - Times of India[49] Is SIT hiding proof in Gujarat riots case? - Times of India[49] Is SIT hiding proof in Gujarat riots case? - Times of India[50] Godhra attack not planned - Times of India[50] Godhra attack not planned - Times of India[50] Godhra attack not planned - Times of India[50] Godhra attack not planned - Times of India[51] Report of Forensic Science Laboratory, State of Gujarat[51] Report of Forensic Science Laboratory, State of Gujarat[51] Report of Forensic Science Laboratory, State of Gujarat[51] Report of Forensic Science Laboratory, State of Gujarat[52] Exclusive! Godhra case investigator speaks[52] Exclusive! Godhra case investigator speaks[52] Exclusive! Godhra case investigator speaks[52] Exclusive! Godhra case investigator speaks[53] Conspiracy hatched at Godhra guest house: court[53] Conspiracy hatched at Godhra guest house: court[53] Conspiracy hatched at Godhra guest house: court[53] Conspiracy hatched at Godhra guest house: court[54] Excerpts from the Justice U C Banerjee Committee report | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis[54] Excerpts from the Justice U C Banerjee Committee report | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis[54] Excerpts from the Justice U C Banerjee Committee report | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis[54] Excerpts from the Justice U C Banerjee Committee report | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis[55] https://iamc.com/reports/2007/te-godhra.pdf[55] https://iamc.com/reports/2007/te-godhra.pdf[55] https://iamc.com/reports/2007/te-godhra.pdf[55] https://iamc.com/reports/2007/te-godhra.pdf[56] http://www.home.gujarat.gov.in/homedepartment/downloads/godharaincident.pdf[56] http://www.home.gujarat.gov.in/homedepartment/downloads/godharaincident.pdf[56] http://www.home.gujarat.gov.in/homedepartment/downloads/godharaincident.pdf[56] http://www.home.gujarat.gov.in/homedepartment/downloads/godharaincident.pdf[57] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[57] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[57] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[57] Godhra Muslims thought a girl had been abducted by Karsevaks. But was this a pre-planned story?[58] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[58] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[58] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[58] The Godhra Fire - SaafBaat[59] Godhra train burning: Gujarat HC commutes death sentence of 11 to life term[59] Godhra train burning: Gujarat HC commutes death sentence of 11 to life term[59] Godhra train burning: Gujarat HC commutes death sentence of 11 to life term[59] Godhra train burning: Gujarat HC commutes death sentence of 11 to life term[60] 2002 Gujarat riots - Wikipedia[60] 2002 Gujarat riots - Wikipedia[60] 2002 Gujarat riots - Wikipedia[60] 2002 Gujarat riots - Wikipedia[61] Gujarat Carnage 2002[61] Gujarat Carnage 2002[61] Gujarat Carnage 2002[61] Gujarat Carnage 2002[62] "WE HAVE NO ORDERS TO SAVE YOU"[62] "WE HAVE NO ORDERS TO SAVE YOU"[62] "WE HAVE NO ORDERS TO SAVE YOU"[62] "WE HAVE NO ORDERS TO SAVE YOU"[63] Naroda Patiya massacre - Wikipedia[63] Naroda Patiya massacre - Wikipedia[63] Naroda Patiya massacre - Wikipedia[63] Naroda Patiya massacre - Wikipedia[64] Gulbarg Society massacre - Wikipedia[64] Gulbarg Society massacre - Wikipedia[64] Gulbarg Society massacre - Wikipedia[64] Gulbarg Society massacre - Wikipedia[65] Gujarat Carnage 2002[65] Gujarat Carnage 2002[65] Gujarat Carnage 2002[65] Gujarat Carnage 2002[66] Gujarat's leader 'allowed' riots[66] Gujarat's leader 'allowed' riots[66] Gujarat's leader 'allowed' riots[66] Gujarat's leader 'allowed' riots[67] How India's 2002 Gujarat riots unfolded[67] How India's 2002 Gujarat riots unfolded[67] How India's 2002 Gujarat riots unfolded[67] How India's 2002 Gujarat riots unfolded[68] Gujarat Carnage 2002[68] Gujarat Carnage 2002[68] Gujarat Carnage 2002[68] Gujarat Carnage 2002[69] Modi government ignored all intelligence warnings[70] Godhra infamy earns IB more lucre - Times of India[71] “Decision to bring Godhra victims' bodies taken at top level”[72] All that remained of Godhra victims - Times of India[73] Has SIT justified bringing bodies from Godhra to Ahmedabad? | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis[74] We know who brought the bodies back from Godhra & why. But he'll get away scot free again

Here are some most known cyber attacks:1. A young Tennager hack NASA and US Defence Department:It was in 1999 that a young hacker with the nickname of c0mrade, better known as Jonathan James, accomplished this exploit at the age of 16.On June 29 and 30, 1999, this young hacker made a mess of NASA using a simple Pentium computer. He gained access by breaking the password of a server belonging to the government agency located in Alabama. He was able to freely roam the network, and stole several files, including the source code of the International Space Station.According to NASA, the value of the documents stolen by James was estimated at around $1.7 million. To stop the attack, NASA was forced to turn off its systems and reboot them, incurring a loss of $41,000. The capture of the young hacker was fast, with NASA doing everything it could to find him.However, his young age allowed James to avoid prison. A few lawyers estimated that, had he been an adult at the time, he would have spent at least ten years in prison for stealing documents classified as "defense secrets". Jonathan James, on the other hand, was satisfied with a bit of irony by saying "The code itself sucked... it was not worth the $1.7 million they said"2. The Morris Worm:The Morris worm was released in November of 1988. It was launched surreptitiously from an MIT computer by graduate student Robert Tappan Morris at Cornell University, and spread to internet-connected computers running the BSD variant of UNIX. The worm was designed to be undetectable, but a design flaw led it to create far more copies of itself than Morris estimated, and resulted in the drastic over-taxing of all the computers on which it was installed. This in turn allowed for its immediate detection and the repair of the flaws that it exploitedThe first and most direct response was that Morris became the first individual to be tried under the new Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986, 18 U.S.C. Section 1030(a)(5)(A). Morris was tried, convicted and sentenced to three years of probation, 400 hours of community service, a fine of $10,050, and the costs of his supervision3. Mafiaboy Harms Big Organizations:There was a high school boy whose real name is Michael Demon Calce. Calce was born in the West Island area of Montreal, Quebec. When he was five, his parents separated and he lived with his mother after she had won a lengthy battle for primary custody. Every second weekend he would stay at his father’s condo in Montreal proper. He felt isolated from his friends back home and troubled by the separation of his parents, so his father purchased him his own computer at the age of six.like every blach hat have a virtual name in hacking world Calce use Mafiaboy as his virtual name. On February 7, 2000, Calce targeted Yahoo! with a project he named Rivolta, meaning “riot” in Italian. Rivolta was a denial of service type of cyber attack in which servers become overloaded with different type of communications to the point where they shut down completely. At the time, Yahoo! was a multibillion dollar industry and the web’s top search engine. Mafiaboy’s Rivolta managed to shut downYahoo! for almost an hour. Calce’s goal was, according to him, to establish dominance for himself and TNT, his cybergroup, in the cyberworld. Buy.com was shut down in response. Calce responded to this in turn by bringing down Ebay, CNN, Amazon and Dell.com via DDoS over the next week. He also launched a series of failed simultaneous attacks against 9 of the 13 root name servers.4. Everything is fair for Porsche (1990):In Los angles a very famous radio station in the 90’s LA KIIS FM was offering a Porsche 944 S2 to the 102th caller. then a young hacker named kevin paulsen blcked all phone lines for few time to win porsche. Finally he won Porsche 944 S2 in that contest.He was arrested, sentenced to five years in a federal penitentiary, as well as banned from using computers or the internet for 3 years after his release. He was the first American to be released from prison with a court sentence that banned him from using computers and the internet after his prison sentence. Although chris lamprecht was sentenced first with an internet ban on May 5, 1995, Poulsen was released from prison before Lamprecht and began serving his ban sentence earlier.5. Icloud Hacked And Leaked Celebrity Private Pics(2014):Apple always providing some special services their users on June 6, 2011 Apple launches icloud to secure your data online or your private data online on icloud drive. there was some security flaws in icloud which was not fixed by apple . apple is always best option for security but this time apple was unlucky.on icloud apple users save their private data. on August 31, 2014 a collection of almost 500 private pictures of various celebrities, mostly women, and with many containing nudity, were posted on the imageboard 4chan, and later disseminated by other users on websites and social networks such as Imgur and Reddit. The images were believed to have been obtained via a breach of Apple's cloud services suite icloud but it later turne out that the hackers could have taken advantage of a security issue in the iCloud API which allowed them to make unlimited attempts at guessing victims' passwords.6. The Melissa virus (1999):It was a very simple virus which ended up costing $80 million in damages.The Melissa virus would infect Microsoft Word documents and automatically disseminates itself as an attachment via email. It would mail out to the first 50 names listed in an infected computer’s Outlook email address box.The creator of Melissa, David Smith, said he did not intend for the virus to harm computers but was still arrested and sentenced to 20 months in prison.Incidentally, anti-virus software sales went gangbusters that year.7. SOLO Hacked 97 US Military and NASA Servers(2002):SOLO is virtual name of GARY MICKINNON.McKinnon was accused of hacking into 97 United States military and NASA computers over a 13-month period between February 2001 and March 2002, at his girlfriend's aunt's house in London,using the name 'Solo'.The US authorities stated he deleted critical files from operating systems, which shut down the United States Army’s Military District of Washington network of 2,000 computers for 24 hours. McKinnon also posted a notice on the military's website: "Your security is crap". After the September 11 attacks in 2001, he deleted weapons logs at the Earel Navel Weapons Station, rendering its network of 300 computers inoperable and paralyzing munitions supply deliveries for the US Navy's Atlantic Fleet. McKinnon was also accused of copying data, account files and passwords onto his own computer. US authorities stated the cost of tracking and correcting the problems he caused was over $700,000.While not admitting that it constituted evidence of destruction, McKinnon did admit leaving a threat on one computer:"US foreign policy is akin to Government-sponsored terrorism these days … It was not a mistake that there was a huge security stand down on September 11 last year … I am SOLO. I will continue to disrupt at the highest levels … "US authorities stated that McKinnon was trying to downplay his own actions. A senior military officer at the Pentagon told The Sunday Telegraph: "US policy is to fight these attacks as strongly as possible. As a result of Mr McKinnon's actions, we suffered serious damage. This was not some harmless incident. He did very serious and deliberate damage to military and Nasa computers and left silly and anti-America messages. All the evidence was that someone was staging a very serious attack on US computer systems.

Caraga was originally Visayan, and may I quote:"...The history of Caraga can be traced back to the 15th century when explorers discovered the existence of “Kalagans”, believed to be of Visayan Origin in one of the three districts in Mindanao. The word Caraga originated from the Visayan word “Kalagan”: “Kalag” meaning soul or people and “An” meaning land. The “Kalagans have a long history of being brave and fearless. Thus, the region was called by early chroniclers as the “Land of the Brave and Fierce People”.The “Kalagans”, called “Caragans” by the Spaniards occupied the district composed of the two provinces of Surigao, northern part of Davao Oriental and Eastern Misamis Oriental. The two Agusan Provinces were later organized under the administrative jurisdiction of Surigao and became the independent Agusan province in 1914. In 1960, Surigao was divided as Norte and Sur, and in June 1967, Agusan followed suit. While Butuan then was just a town of Agusan, the logging boom in 1950’s drew business and businessmen to the area. On August 2, 1950, by virtue of Republic Act 523, the City Charter of Butuan was approved .GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONRegion XIII or the Caraga Administrative Region is the newest region created under Republic Act No. 7901 approved on February 23,1995. It consists of the provinces of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur. Its cities are Surigao and Butuan.It has a land area of 18,847 sq. kms. Butuan Bay and Surigao Strait surrounds it on the north, and the Philippine Sea on the east. On the South are the Davao provinces and Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon on the west.Its proximity to other growth areas such as the Cagayan - Iligan corridor and the Davao Gulf Economic Zone is an advantage.POPULATIONIn 2000, its population was 2,076,000 with an increase of 6.42% from its population of 1,942,687. In 1990, there were 947,199 (51%) and 912,982 females.CULTURAL GROUPSMajority of the inhabitants of the region are of Visayan lineage. The ethnic residents include the Manobo, the Mamanwa and other tribes.It is reported that during the early years of the Caraga region, its inhabitants came from mainland Asia, followed by Malayans, Arabs, Chinese, Japanese, Spanish and Americans. Migrants from the Visayan and Luzon provinces later settled in the area. Most of its inhabitants speak the Cebuano dialect and reside in the rural areas.And ARMM which today consisted of 4 major provinces, was originally Muslim, and other provinces' residents during the plebiscite voted not to be included in this ARMM; there were other (controversial) agreements that either voided a new province's inclusion or included a new province but only for a limited time. I quote:"...GeographyThe ARMM spans two geographical areas: Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao (except Cotabato City) in south western Mindanao, and the island provinces of Basilan (except Isabela City), Sulu and Tawi-Tawi in the Sulu Archipelago. The region covers a total of 12,288 km².History[edit]For the most part of Philippines' history, the region and most of Mindanao have been a separate territory, which enabled it to develop its own culture and identity. The region has been the traditional homeland of Muslim Filipinos since the 15th century, even before the arrival of the Spanishwho began to colonize most of the Philippines in 1565. Muslim missionaries arrived in Tawi-Tawi in 1380 and started the conversion of the native population to Islam. In 1457, the Sultanate of Sulu was founded, and not long after that the sultanates of Maguindanao and Buayan were also established. At the time when most of the Philippines was under Spanish rule, these sultanates maintained their independence and regularly challenged Spanish domination of the Philippines by conducting raids on Spanish coastal towns in the north and repulsing repeated Spanish incursions in their territory. It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that the Sultanate of Sulu formally recognized Spanish sovereignty, but these areas remained loosely controlled by the Spanish as their sovereignty was limited to military stations and garrisons and pockets of civilian settlements in Zamboanga and Cotabato,until they had to abandon the region as a consequence of their defeat in the Spanish–American War.The Moros had a history of resistance against Spanish, American, and Japanese rule for over 400 years. The violent armed struggle against theJapanese, Filipinos, Spanish, and Americans is considered by current Moro Muslim leaders as part of the four centuries long "national liberation movement" of the Bangsamoro (Moro Nation).The 400-year-long resistance against the Japanese, Americans, and Spanish by the Moro Muslims persisted and morphed into their current war for independence against the Philippine state.In 1942, during the early stages of Pacific War of the Second World War, troops of the Japanese Imperial Forces invaded and overran Mindanao and the native Moro Muslims waged an insurgency against the Japanese. Three years later, in 1945, combined United States and Philippine Commonwealth Army troops liberated Mindanao, and with the help of local guerrilla units ultimately defeated the Japanese forces occupying the region.ARMM's precursors[edit]In the 1970s, escalating hostilities between government forces and the Moro National Liberation Front prompted Ferdinand Marcos to issue a proclamation forming an Autonomous Region in the Southern Philippines. This was however, turned down by a plebiscite. In 1979, Batas Pambansa No. 20 created a Regional Autonomous Government in the Western and Central Mindanao regions.Establishment of the ARMM[edit]The Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao region was first created on August 1, 1989 through Republic Act No. 6734 (otherwise known as the Organic Act) in pursuance with a constitutional mandate to provide for an autonomous area in Muslim Mindanao. A plebiscite was held in the provinces of Basilan, Cotabato, Davao del Sur, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Palawan, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu,Tawi-Tawi, Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur; and in the cities of Cotabato, Dapitan, Dipolog, General Santos, Koronadal, Iligan,Marawi, Pagadian, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga to determine if their residents wished to be part of the ARMM. Of these areas, only four provinces - Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi - voted in favor of inclusion in the new autonomous region. The ARMM was officially inaugurated on November 6, 1990in Cotabato City, which was designated as its provisional capital.Expansion of ARMM[edit]Prelude to Memorandum of Agreement on Ancestral Domain[edit]In 2001 a new law, Republic A 9054, was passed for the expansion of the ARMM. In a plebiscite, Marawi City (situated within Lanao del Sur) and the province of Basilan (excluding Isabela City) opted to be integrated into the region.RA 9054 lapsed into law, without the signature of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.In 2006, a new province was carved out of Maguindanao: Shariff Kabunsuan, the 6th province of ARMM, joining Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and Basilan. Massive protests, however, have greeted the moveof the GRP and MILF panels in signing a Memorandum of Agreement on Ancestral Domain as a majority of the Local Government Units where these Barangays are connected have already opted not to join the ARMM in two instances, 1989 and 2001.The deal[edit]On July 18, 2008, Hermogenes Esperon, "peace advisor" to former Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, in his talks with Moro Islamic Liberation Front rebels in Malaysia, revealed the planned extension of the region.The deal, negotiated in secret talks with the MILF and subject to approval, would give the ARMM control of an additional 712 villages on the south west portion of Mindanao, as well as broad political and economic powers.Challenge on MOA-AD[edit]Main article: Sema v. COMELECOn July 16, 2008 Sema v. COMELEC voided the creation of Shariff Kabunsuan, declaring unconstitutional a section in RA 9054 which granted the ARMM Regional Assembly the power to create provinces and cities. Then, on August 4, 2008, after local officials from North Cotabato asked the Court to block the signing of the agreement between GRP and MILF, the Court issued a Temporary Restraining Order against the signing of the Memorandum of Agreement on Ancestral Domain (MOA-AD) between the Philippine government and the MILF rebels in Malaysia.Several lawmakers had filed petitions with the Supreme Court to stop the Philippine government from concluding the MOA-AD due to lack of transparency and for MILF's failure to cut ties with the al-Qaeda-linked terrorist network Jemaah Islamiyah, which aims to establish a pan-Islamic state in Southeast Asia using MILF camps in south western Mindanao as training grounds and staging points for attacks.On October 14, 2008, the Supreme Court of the Philippines, by a vote of 8–7, declared “contrary to law and the Constitution” the Ancestral Domain Aspect (MOA-AD) of the Tripoli Agreement on Peace of 2001 between the Government of the Republic of the Philippines (GRP) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF)."(From an online source such as GOVph and an online encyclopedia)