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Technically it has not. It is still found (abbreviated as SPQR) on the modern coat of arms for the municipality of Rome. More amusingly, manhole covers on the streets of Rome still bear the abbreviation SPQR.The phrase “Senate and people of Rome” (Senatus Populusque Romanus) signified the Roman state, in other words was another way of saying the “Roman Republic” (Res Publica Romana). This has given us our word “republic” for a non-monarchical form of government, but technically means “commonwealth,” which partly explains the apparent paradox or contradiction in continuing to refer to Rome as a res publica even after it became subject to the emperors. On the other hand, early emperors generally did try to tone down or disguise their de-facto nature as monarchs. Technically, the res publica and SPQR continued to apply as long as the Roman state and its institutions existed. Eastern Roman (“Byzantine”) sources still refer to the commonwealth in the 6th century and later, although Roman Empire (Imperium Romanum, Basileia Rōmaiōn, and simply Rōmania — to be distinguished from modern România) gradually became the more common ways of referring to the state. Monarchic and dynastic descriptions and symbolism became more common. Nevertheless, there was still a Roman senate (synklētos) at Constantinople as late as the conquest of the city by the Ottomans in 1453.The increasingly independent popes of the 8th century, finding themselves effective masters of Rome, referred to their effective dominion in ambiguous terms as a holy res publica. Although eclipsed by the popes and their allies, the Frankish monarchs, Rome’s senate continued to exist in some notional form — its last traditional public act is dated to 603, the traditional senate house became a church in 630, but the title of senator is still found used later, albeit in the apparent context of a title of nobility. The senate was revamped and acquired additional importance when the Commune of Rome was established in opposition to papal autocracy in 1144, and they struck coins with the legend “Senatus P Q R” from 1184. In the late 1180s the friction between pope and commune was allayed, and in 1191 the senate was eclipsed by the creation of a single official as “supreme senator” (summus senator), who wielded primarily judicial authority. The senate’s powers and function were increasingly reduced in importance and to the scope of essentially municipal management — with occasional exceptions, like the coronation of Emperor Ludwig IV the Bavarian in 1328 in express opposition to the pope. The Roman senate issued coins with SPQR on a shield in 1414–1517. After 1580, the popes appointed the (supreme) senator themselves, and the institution was further reduced in power. The institution ended just before the annexation of Rome by the Kingdom of Italy in 1870.It is therefore quite difficult to determine when SPQR was last used in reference to its original meaning. If the modern use on the municipal crest of Rome and on manhole covers is a type of antiquarian affectation, perhaps the senatorial coins of the late Middle Ages are at least hopeful, if realistically symbolic assertions of its old meaning.

The kinetics of roasting process is more complex than simply adding an oxygen to each species. Because different kinetics and phase changes can occur at different temperature and various oxygen concentration. For example, at 775-828 K, the pyrites form sulphates instead of evolving sulfur dioxide.One of the ways to understand what happens at high temperature is by using differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) (read ref [1])At 603-630 K.At 677-713 K[1] M. SOKIC, et. al., 2008, INVESTIGATION OF MECHANISM AND KINETICS OF CHALCOPYRITE CONCENTRATE OXIDATION PROCESS, METALURGIJA 47 (2008) 2, 109-113 <retrieved from first link of Google >[2] Oxidation and magnetic states of chalcopyrite CuFeS2: A first principles calculation

Lipid Rafts are a dynamic assembly of proteins and specialised membrane microdomains that are free-floating in the fluid-mosaic lipid bilayer (Korade and Kenworthy 2008; Simons and Ehehalt 2002).Image adapted from Alberts et al. (2015) Pg. 537.The lipid rafts are composed of the lipid bilayer, cholesterols and sphingolipids. These three components self-assemble and forms microdomains that are highly ordered. The lipid components of these structures are rich in long hydrocarbon chain with hydroxylated ceramide backbones (Simons & Sampaio 2011).The phospholipids in the lipid rafts are more saturated in the raft which makes them more packed with the saturated sphingolipids (Pike 2003). Pike (2003) also mentions that the presence of saturated lipids in the raft may be one of the possible explanation for the phase separation. There are two phases that can be observed in atomic force microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. These phases are a liquid-ordered phase which defines the lipid raft, and liquid-disordered phase which comprises the surrounding lipids (Crane and Tamm 2004).Cholesterol molecules are the most important part of the lipid raft which not only reduces the fluidity and imparts phase separation, but also regulates the protein-protein, protein-lipid interactions and the rate of membrane-bound proteins (Crane and Tamm 2004).Lipid rafts also have GPI linked proteins and gangliosides which are commonly used as markers (Pike 2003; Karp 2009; Alberts et al. 2015)Image adapted from Karp (2009) Pg. 135. The image was obtained using Atomic Force Microscopy. The Phosphatidylcholine appears black, while orange is the sphingomyelin. The yellow peaks in the image are GPI anchored proteins which are mostly associated with the raft.These lipid rafts may have an important role in signalling. The signal transduction generally activates when the hormone binds to the receptor (Pike 2003; Simons and Toomre 2000).Due to spacially proximity of signalling components, the signal transduction is rapid.The specificity of the signalling transduction is also enhanced as the receptor is localised to a specific part of the membrane due to the raft.Regulation by compartmentalization.They also play a role in the termination of the signalling pathways. They possess endocytic activity that could internalize the receptors on the cell membrane to prevent its binding to the hormone or signalling molecules.They favour interactions of proteins that are part of the cascade reactions in the signal transduction.Tyrosine kinase receptor and GPCR receptors and its association with lipid rafts are well explained in the paper- Pike (2003). Link→ Lipid rafts.ReferencesAlberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Morgan, D., Raff, M., Roberts, K., Walter, P., Wilson, J. and Hunt, T., 2015. Molecular Biology of The Cell 6th edition. Garland Science. [BOOK]Crane, J.M. and Tamm, L.K., 2004. Role of cholesterol in the formation and nature of lipid rafts in planar and spherical model membranes. Biophysical journal, 86(5), pp.2965-2979.Karp, G., 2009. Cell and molecular biology: concepts and experiments. John Wiley & Sons. [BOOK]Korade, Z. and Kenworthy, A.K., 2008. Lipid rafts, cholesterol, and the brain. Neuropharmacology, 55(8), pp.1265-1273.Pike, L.J., 2003. Lipid rafts bringing order to chaos. Journal of lipid research, 44(4), pp.655-667.Sezgin, E., Levental, I., Mayor, S. and Eggeling, C., 2017. The mystery of membrane organization: composition, regulation and roles of lipid rafts. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology, 18(6), p.361.Simons, K. and Ehehalt, R., 2002. Cholesterol, lipid rafts, and disease. The Journal of clinical investigation, 110(5), pp.597-603.Simons, K. and Toomre, D., 2000. Lipid rafts and signal transduction. Nature reviews Molecular cell biology, 1(1), p.31.Simons, K. and Sampaio, J.L., 2011. Membrane organization and lipid rafts. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology, 3(10), p.a004697.