Stages Of Development In Geography: Fill & Download for Free

I am going to start this answer by placing a bound around what we call development. In geography, this would typically refer to economic development in non-western nations, primarily those that were colonized. There are several views of development that have emerged in geography. We can start with Malthus. His basic idea that population will outstrip resources re-emerges in different forms with each generation of geographers. The current Malthusian school of thought is the ecological footprint.The truly geographical model is based on the Hagerstrand’s work on the adoption of innovation. Several geographers have invested part of their careers in examining barriers to innovation in different sectors. Another geographical approach to development was developing mid-level central places, i.e. medium-sized cities. These cities would provide more opportunities for employment and would slow down migration to the nation’s largest city. Many geographer’s would also use Rostow’s five stages of development. especially the take-off stage.Another popular school of thought is rooted in political economy. This school linked underdevelopment to colonialism. The most unique twist on this was ecopolitical economy (Lakshman Yapa). This school of thought combined the usual political economy discourse with ecology or environmental degradation. One other school of thought links poverty to corruption, especially with the way it siphon’s off resources meant for infrastructure development.I would argue that all of these schools of thoughts should be seen as models, in the sense that they frame our questions and hence our answers. Like any models, they are all wrong, and if always start from this perspective, you will be able to navigate between these different schools of thought without being locked in to one perspective.

'Well-rounded' as a concept, must be interpreted for the age, the stage of cultural development and the times. For:In times of great disruption and disturbance - basic physical survival skills are pivotal.In times of peace - basic financial sustainability skills reign.In times of prosperity - the arts become the ultimate yet insatiable attainment.In this regard I am simply mirroring what the American founding father and 2nd president, John Adams saw, when he described the important things to understand at each stage of a civilisation's advance.“I must study politics and war, that our sons may have liberty to study mathematics and philosophy. Our sons ought to study mathematics and philosophy, geography, natural history and naval architecture, navigation, commerce and agriculture in order to give their children the right to study painting, poetry, music, architecture, statuary, tapestry and porcelain.”

First of all, we Africans do not blame China for our lack of development. It is the opposite.Why Africa loves ChinaContrary to what the West believes, Africans do not see themselves as victims of Chinese economic exploitation.Chinese President Xi Jinping and African leaders clap during a group photo session during the FOCAC Summit in Beijing, China, September 3, 2018 [File: How Hwee Young/Reuters]At the September 2018 Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in Beijing, African Union Chairperson and Rwandan President Paul Kagame lauded the Chinese aid and investment strategy in Africa as a source of "deep transformation". Kagame argued that the cooperation between China and Africa is based on mutual respect and is for the benefit of both partners. This sentiment is perhaps shared by most African heads of states and governments if their attendance of the summit is anything to go by.Wanted independence ?!!! What does that really mean ?Colonial rule was no paradise in Africa. As someone put it, colonialism is the cruelest form of rape and abuse inflicted in this part of the world. It has raped and abused people; plundered and emptied traditional African states of the area and destroyed their institutions.You should read more about European colonialism and its related colonizer’s model of the world.The Colonizer's Model of the WorldJ. M. Blaut - 2012 - ‎Social ScienceCapitalism arose as a world-scale process: as a world system. Capitalism became centrated in Europe because colonialism gave Europeans the power both to develop their own society and to prevent development from occurring elsewhere. It is this dynamic of development and underdevelopment which mainly explains the modern world.Development began in Europe and underdevelopment began elsewhere. Many processes internal to Europe were important causes of change, of development, in that continent, but the one basic process, which ignited and then continuously fueled the transformation, was the wealth from colonialismThe Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History: J. M. Blaut: 9780898623482: Amazon.com: BooksThis influential book challenges one of the most pervasive and powerful beliefs of our time--that Europe rose to modernity and world dominance due to unique qualities of race, environment, culture, mind, or spirit, and that progress for the rest of the world resulted from the diffusion of European civilization. J. M. Blaut persuasively argues that this doctrine is not grounded in the facts of history and geography, but in the ideology of colonialism. Blaut traces the colonizer's model of the world from its 16th-century origins to its present form in theories of economic development, modernization, and new world order.Colonialism can’t be forgotten – it’s still destroying peoples and our planetThe consequences of colonialism and imperialism, in all their forms and across all their epochs, defy our imagination. Unspeakable cruelties were inflicted, their scars and agonies are unspeakable.Colonialism was, and remains, a wholesale destruction of memory. Lands, the sources of identity, stolen. Languages, ripped from mouths. The collective loss to humanity was incalculable, as cultures, ideas, species, habitats, traditions, cosmologies, possibilities, patterns of life, and ways of understanding the world were destroyed. Countless ecological traditions – involving diverse ways of being with nature – were swept away.As formal colonialism came to an end, the process of erasing its crimes from public memory and effacing history began. The forces of forgetting crafted and promulgated mythological narratives of innocent imperial greatness, unblemished by enslavement or genocide. When forced to give away the Congo, King Leopold took to burning all documents associated with his brutal rule. ‘I will give them my Congo, but they have no right to know what I did there,’ Leopold said. His palace’s furnaces burned for eight days (1).There are many such shredded chapters that we will never reconstruct. Every death count, every statistic, every fragment of history, is bitterly incomplete. But the preliminary arithmetic of cruelty is enough to illustrate the sheer magnitude of destruction.The bounties of colonialism underwrote the wealth of Europe. Seams of silver and gold swelled the coffers of banks and merchants. The fortunes made from metals, slave trading, and plantation commodities, served as direct stimuli to colonial economies, helping to bankroll the Industrial Revolution (7). Consumers in the colonies proved vital to purchasing products and supporting Western European industries (8). By the late 19th century, over half of the British state’s revenue stemmed from its colonies.Neocolonialism: the metabolism of miseryDuring the 19th and 20th centuries, formal colonialism came to an end. Countries were liberated, new flags unfurled, and rewritten constitutions adopted. But although imperial states were forced to relinquish their hold, their legacies prevailedThe full impact of colonialism would be revealed in its long-term impacts. It radically transformed landscapes, state relations, philosophies and cultures, leaving as one of its inheritance an intensive and plunderous economic model. In pursuit of resources, countries ran roughshod over limits, and destroyed many of the ecosystems necessary for preventing climate change.——-Aimé Cesaire wrote the following : colonialism had produced nothing that would earn it respect in the scales of history. He was quoted by Sabelo J Ndlovu-Gatsheni.Global Coloniality and the Challenges of Creating African FuturesGLOBAL COLONIALITY AND THE CHALLENGES OF CREATING AFRICAN FUTURESSabelo J Ndlovu-GatsheniDepartment of Development Studies University of South AfricaThe leading decolonial thinker Aime Cesaire lamented the impact of these epistemicides in these moving but poetic words:I am talking about societies drained of their essence, cultures trampled underfoot, institutions undermined, lands confiscated, religions smashed, magnificent artistic creations destroyed, extraordinary possibilities wiped out. […]I am talking about millions of men torn apart from their gods, their land, their habits, their life—from life, from dance, from wisdom.I am talking about millions of men in whom fear has been cunningly instilled, who have been taught to have an inferiority complex, to tremble, kneel, despair, and behave like flunkeys. […].I am talking about natural economies that have been destroyed— harmonious and viable economies—adapted to indigenous population—about food crops destroyed, malnutrition permanently introduced, agricultural development oriented solely towards the benefit of the metropolitan countries, about the looting of products, the looting of raw material (Cesaire 2000: 43 emphasis is in the original text).Stages of Colonialism in Africa: From Occupation of Land to Occupation of BeingHussein A. Bulhan*[a] Frantz Fanon University, Hargeisa, Somaliland.Colonialism is often misunderstood or narrowly defined. Some mistakenly confine it to either a geographic area or an era. Others convinced that colonialism is outmoded and passé, view it a system no longer operative in Africa and generally in the world. Still others narrow it to a system by and serving only inhabitants and descendants of Europe, ignoring that colonialism would not succeed or sustain in the past and present without local collaborators, minions, and conveyor belts essential for all forms of oppression to take root and persist.No wonder then that discussion on colonialism turned stale in Africa during the last several decades after most African countries attained independence. Euphoria swept through the African continent before and soon after African territories hoisted flags, sang national anthems, and celebrate the rise of African leaders to power.Africans believe then the Europeans had left for good, that therefore Africans could move forward unhindered to enjoy freedom and prosperity they thought in immediate grasp. The euphoria and rising expectation soon gave way to disappointment and despair because colonialism left behind enduring legacies – not only political and economic, but also cultural, intellectual, and social legacies – that keep alive European domination.……Classical ColonialismClassical colonialism in Africa started in the nineteenth century. Like the colonization of the Americans and the Atlantic Slave Trade, it was systemic violence – organized, continuous, methodic and willful. It was not only integral capitalism, but also coexistent with racism, cultural domination and European self-aggrandizement.Whereas slavery focused on exploited isolated and captive individuals, the submission and exploitation of entire populations required sophisticated methods and numerous agents; the first point of colonial assault was occupation of land by force of arms. Land contained not only the world of things, but also the world of people.Taking control of land provided colonizers the raw materials they needed and geopolitical advantage in the competition among them for colonies. After occupation of land, control of the population followed to acquire not only cheap or free labor and market for manufactured goods, but also gradual erosion in the world of meaning. Thus, instead of exploiting defenseless individuals in alien lands as in slavery, classical colonialism held population captive in their own land, forcing them to serve the same economic, racial and self-aggrandizing motives that gave rise to and sustained the Atlantic Slave Trade.Lasting occupation of land, exploitation of human and material resources, and quelling resistance required the erosion of social bonding, indigenous beliefs, values, identities and indigenous knowledge. Colonialists achieved this by using different agents including missionaries, anthropologists, physicians, and journalists.Since violence and outsiders’ propaganda alone cannot sustain oppression, colonizers resorted to local agents to carry out the colonial mission. The most important of these were individuals educated in colonial schools or serving as subordinated in the colonial system. The so-called local elites inherited the colonial state whose function was not to serve the colonized but to exploit them. Classical colonialism ostensibly ended when these local collaborators demonstrated, through training and internalization of colonial values, their proclivity to serve as auxiliaries of neocolonialism.…..MetacolonialismMetacolonialism revives an old system of colonial exploitation and oppression that masquerades in the more savory euphemism of globalization. Many analysts write about globalization in glowing terms, often extolling is as a system of worldwide innovation that shall bring great advances to humanity. Yes, these writings seldom answer this question: Who actually benefits from this new craze, and who suffers of its global effects? We find the answer not directly from the words of its promoters and defenders, but in the structures of power and global locations where its decision-makers concentrate. Specifically, Metacolonialism emanates from the same geography and societies as did the Atlantic Slave Trade, classical colonialism and neocolonialism.————————The USA has no clean hands on what is happening in Africa.The United States of America Has a Long History of Supporting African Dictators | The African Exponent.How U.S. Military Bases Back Dictators, Autocrats, And Military RegimesHow US nurtured dictators to Africa’s detriment | IOL NewsIf anyone understands why the US supported African dictators in the Cold War era it is Herman Cohen, who was at the pinnacle of US policy-making on Africa between 1987 and 1993. He was senior director for Africa on the US National Security Council 1987-1989, and US Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs 1989-1993.Cohen was considered an old-hand on African affairs after being posted as a US diplomat to five African countries during the Cold War.He went on to advise presidents Ronald Reagan and George HW Bush on Africa policy, and bears some culpability for the decisions taken on Africa during those years.At the age of 86, Cohen continues to market his book, The Mind of the African Dictator, which was first published three years ago, although former president FW de Klerk was represented at a launch in Cape Town to promote the book last week.Cohen’s book has been hailed in Western reviews as an insightful account into the minds of African dictators who Cohen engaged with across the continent, from Muammar Gadaffi to Mobutu Sese Seko, and Ibrahim Babangida, to name a few.THE MIND OF THE AFRICAN STRONGMAN: Conversations with Dictators, Statesmen, and Father Figures: Herman J. Cohen: 9780986435300: Amazon.com: BooksWith The Mind of the African Strongman, Herman J. Cohen, career ambassador and former Assistant Secretary of State, takes a look at what has helped and what has hindered economic development and democracy in Africa since the end of colonialism.Despite access to vast natural resources and decades of international development aid, why have so many African countries failed to keep the promises made to their people?With wit and a sharp analytical eye, Ambassador Cohen reflects on nearly four decades of work throughout the continent, sharing stories of his personal encounters with some of Africa's most legendary leaders. From Nelson Mandela to Muammar Gaddafi, Cohen gives readers a never-before-seen look at the men who defined modern Africa, as well as a behind-the-scenes account of dealing with U.S. Presidents, Secretaries of State, and other key leaders shaping U.S. foreign policy toward Africa in the the post-colonial / Cold War era.Ambassador Cohen's historical analysis shows how today's African leaders can fulfill the continent's economic and democratic potential.