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The Buried History of the 1982 Massacre at Hama, Syria.Hama Syria (Hama - Wikipedia)In August 1999, I attended an archaeological conference in Hama, Syria. It was my first year of excavating and living in Syria, while working on my dissertation at the University of Chicago. My arabic was non-existant and I was travelling alone, intending to meet up with others in a few weeks. Unfamilar with the country, customs and late summer heat that literally takes your breath away, I stayed at hotels reminiscent of those back home.Hama was a beautiful city with an intact Old City reminiscent of the Middle Ages with traces of occupation dating back almost 9000 years. Due to the influx of tourists and scholars, finding a hotel within walking distance of the conference was challenging, and I settled for a hotel just outside the medieval city walls on a promontory.After the second day of the conference, there was a reception overlooking the historic watermill and amphitheatre. Seated at a table with collegues, talk quickly shifted to on going excavations, projects, research etc. Towards the end of the evening around 8:30 PM a signal was given letting all female attendees know it was time to return to their lodgings. Hama is a conservative city and women are strongly requested to be out of public view by 9 PM.I noticed that many colleagues were leaving the property, making transportation arrangements. Slightly confused, I inquired where everyone was going, assuming like myself, they were staying at the hotel adjacent to the meeting hall. I recieved many shocked and uncomfortable looks, before someone was kind enough to pull me aside and share with me the reason many avoided staying at the hotel. This is what I learned.photo of hafez assadHama in particular was a "stronghold of landed conservatism and of the Muslim Brothers," and "had long been a redoubtable opponent of the Ba'athist state."[1]The first full-scale clash between the two occurred shortly after the 1963 coup, in which the Ba'ath party first gained power in Syria. In April 1964 riots erupted in Hama, where Muslim insurgents put up "roadblocks, stockpiled food and weapons, ransacked wine shops."[2] After an Ismaili Ba'ath militiaman was killed, riots intensified and rebels attacked "every vestige" of the Ba'ath party in Hama. Tanks were brought in to crush the rebellion and 70 members of the Muslim Brotherhood died, with many others wounded or captured, and still more disappearing underground.[3]After the clashes in Hama, the situation periodically erupted into clashes between the government and various Islamic sections. However a more serious challenge occurred after the Syrian invasion of Lebanon in 1976.[4] From 1976 to 1982, Sunni Islamists fought the Ba'ath Party -controlled government of Syria in what has been called a "long campaign of terror".[5]In 1979, the Brotherhood implemented a series of guerrilla tactics in multiple cities within the country targeting military officers and government officials.[6] The resulting government repression included abusive tactics, torture, mass arrests, and a number of massacres. In July 1980, the ratification of Law No. 49 made membership in the Muslim Brotherhood a capital offense.[7]Throughout the first years of the 1980s, the Muslim Brotherwood and various other Islamist factions staged hit-and-run bomb attacks against the government and its officials, including a nearly successful attempt to assassinate President Hafez al-Assad on 26 June 1980, during an official state reception for the president of Mali.[8] When a machine-gun salvo missed him, al-Assad allegedly kicked aside a hand grenade, and his bodyguard (who survived and was later promoted to a much higher position) smothered the explosion of another one.[9] Surviving with only light injuries, al-Assad's revenge was swift and merciless: only hours later a large number of imprisoned Islamists (reports say more than 1200) were executed in their cells in Tadmor Prison (near Palmyra), by units loyal to the President's brother Rifaat al-Assad.[10]Between 1980–81, supposed rebellious activity was fermenting in the Syrian city of Hama. The Assad regime appeared to be losing control; it had issued vague warnings about an Islamist takeover, but had gone ominously silent in late 1981.[11] One incident in 1981, resulted in the death of over 300 residents of Hama killed by security forces, in a revenge attack for an Islamist terror incident. [12] A government-planned trip to the city was canceled. Syrian officials warned privately that any attempts by intrepid journalists to visit Hama would be “life-threatening.”[13]Although the massacre in February 1982 became known worldwide, the Syrian regime committed, before this massacre, several other massacres in adjacent regions. Many of the losses were women, children and elderly. One these massacres was the massacre on Jisr Alshaghoor, which took place on the 10th of March 1980. Some sources said that mortars bombed the city and 97 people were shot dead, after being taken from their homes, and 30 houses were demolished.[14]The massacres of Sarmadah saw 40 citizens killed[15] , as well as dozens massacred at the village Kinsafrah, which took place at the same time as the massacre of Jisr Alshaghoor.[16] This massacre took place when the villagers asked for improved public services, one citizen was killed and 10 injured.Several months later, the massacre of Palmyra prison was committed on the 26th of June 1980, when around 1200 detainees were killed in their cells.[17] The massacre in the Mashariqah neighbourhood, occurred on the morning of Eid Al-Adha, which saw 83 citizens killed after being forced out of their flats.[18] And the massacre at the Sunday market where 42 citizens were killed and 150 were injured. In Al-Raqah, tens of citizens held captive in a secondary school were burnt to death.[19]James MacManus,reporting for The Guardian in a dispatch from 23 January 1982, reported that government forces laid siege to Hama as house-to-house fighting wiped out any opposition.[20] He recalled a series of car bomb attacks in Damascus culminating in an attack on a shopping centre in which more than 100 people died, describing the attacks as "the high point, but by no means the end, of a campaign of terror and counter terror... which President Assad now claims to have won".[21]The 1982 Hama MassacreAccording to Syrian media, anti-government rebels initiated the fighting when they "pounced on our comrades while sleeping in their homes and killed whomever they could kill of women and children, mutilating the bodies of the martyrs in the streets, driven, like mad dogs, by their black hatred."[22] Security forces then "rose to confront these crimes" and "taught the murderers a lesson that has snuffed out their breath".[23]Hama became the epicenter of a massacre in February 1982 when deceased leader of the Alawi regime President Hafez al-Assad, father of the current president Bashar al-Assad, razed the city to crush an armed Sunni rebellion (estimated to consist of 200–500 fighters), slaughtering an estimated 20,000 of his own people.[24] Assad's troops pounded Hama with artillery fire for several days and, with the city in ruins, his bulldozers moved in and flattened neighborhoods.While Western reporters stationed in Damascus were acutely aware that a bloody insurgency was underway in the city, they had little sense of its scope. On Feb. 24, the Associated Press quoted Western diplomatic sources saying that the fighting in Hama had “resulted in an estimated 2,000 casualties on both sides” — an approximation that grossly underestimated the number of people killed.[25]It was not until a year and a half later that reports of the Hama massacre’s true extent filtered into the international media. Amnesty International’s November 1983 report estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people had been killed during the crackdown. The report also contained chilling details about the Assad regime’s methods of coercion. “I was stripped naked…. My wrists were then tied and I was hung up and whipped on my back and all over my body,” recounted a Syrian trader detained in 1980. “I was beaten on the toes until my nails fell out.”[26]Even then, Hama did not become a byword for the brutality with which Middle Eastern autocrats treated their subjects until the publication of Thomas Friedman’s From Beirut to Jerusalem in 1989, which offered a blow-by-blow account of the massacre.[27] Friedman recounted a conversation he had with a friend — a businessman who had been involved in several deals with Rifaat al-Assad — who said that the Syrian general had pushed back against some estimates of those killed as too low, not wanting to erode the fear that the Assad regime had instilled in the Syrian population.[28] “What are you talking about, 7,000?” Rifaat reportedly said. “No, no. We killed 38,000.”[29]Ruins of Hama 1982 (Breaking the silence over Hama atrocities)The subsequent 27-day military campaign left somewhere between 10,000 to 40,000 people killed and almost two thirds of the city destroyed, according to human rights organisations and foreign journalists who were in Syria but were not allowed to enter the city.[30] Some neighbourhoods were completely destroyed and at least 80 mosques were demolished.[31]To this day, the death toll is in dispute and is at best an estimate. Human rights groups, which were not present during the slaughter, have put the toll at around 10,000 dead or more.[32] The Muslim Brotherhood claims 40,000 died in Hama, with 100,000 expelled and 15,000 who disappeared.[33] The number of missing has never been acknowledged by the Syrian leadership.Thirty three years on the Hama Massacre: The Criminals Remain Outside the Realm of JusticeThe Taleea (the Muslim Brotherhood’s military wing) had tried to resist and clashed with the government forces but was crushed in few days. [34] The Baroudiyeh neighbourhood, where the Taleea was based, was overtaken by the army just hours after the military campaign was launched.[35] Almost every family in Hama, which at the time had about 250,000 inhabitants, lost a member.[36] The campaign continued for days and most of the dead were civilians who had nothing to do with the Brotherhood.On February 27, journalist Harish Chandola reported from Hama after the guns fell silent. He saw a column of smoke rising from the old quarter, where the fighting was the worst, noting: "I was not allowed to visit it. The security forces are tightly controlling entry and exit from the city to prevent the Muslim Brothers from escaping."[37]One of the ugliest phenomenons that haunted the city afterwards were the packs of wild dogs roaming the streets. Because many dead bodies were left on the streets for many days before the families could leave homes to bury them, dogs had eaten some of the dead bodies.[38] The dogs would come at night to attack people, just like in movies. The municipality of Hama struggled for two years to rid the city of these dogs.[39]When the military campaign was over, Hafez al-Assad declared that "what has happened in Hama has happened, and it is all over."[40]Apamee Cham Palace- Hama, Syria (Apamee Cham Palace Hama Syrial)Residents say they knew where the bodies were unceremoniously dumped back in 1982 — in the plot under the Cham Palace Hotel, under the streets of what is now a vegetable market in al-Hamidiyeh neighborhood, in places where residential buildings have since sprung up, in a garden near the Bakr al-Sadiq Mosque in al-Hamidiyeh. They didn't dare pray over them, they say, such was the regime's unrelenting hatred for its foes, even in death.[41]Syrian officials continued to terrorize the Hama community, transporting suspected rebels to the notorious Tadmour prison and executing them there until 1986.[42] The Mukhabarat (members of the security intelligence) continued for many years to interrogate subsequent generations of Hamians. Regular security check-ups and investigations of young men continued well into the 1990s to punish the whole of Hama.[43] Hafez al-Assad wanted to teach all Syrians the consequences of challenging the regime. And it worked. It worked for 30 years. The fear of Hama’s residents to even mention the massacre only began to falter when anti-government protests erupted across the country in March 2011.[44]Stock Photo - Omar ibn al Kattab Mosque Hama Syria Middle East30 years later, the first protest in Hama in 2011 originated from the Omar Bin Khattab Mosque near Hama’s castle. People chanted for freedom and the fall of the regime, the first serious challenge to the Assad dynasty in decades.[45] That same mosque is where, 30 years earlier, mothers, children, elderly and the infirm saught refuge, during the first few days of the military campaign in 1982.In 1982, the mosque turned into a detention centre. Women and children were separated from their fathers, husbands and brothers, never to be seen again. Women leaving the sanctuary of the mosque to search for missing husbands, fathers, sons and brothers remember being shouted at by soliders from behind the mosque’s gate: "Do not expect to see your men when you are out." The regime wanted to keep people in a constant waiting mode. They wouldn’t tell families if their loved ones they took were dead or alive.[46]Yehya Zeidan, the head of the military intelligence branch in Hama, was one of the most loathed officials in the city.[47] He extorted fortunes simply to reveal the fate of a detained person or to grant people a few minute prison visitation. Frequently, people gave him everything they owned but receiving in return. Decades later, families continue to fear retribution inquiring over missing family members.[48]The message was simple: This is what happens when you defy us. That was the lesson, and every Syrian seemed to abide by it for almost three decades. Hardly anyone objected.The Hama massacre is often raised in indictment of the Assad government's poor human rights record.[49] Within Syria, mention of the massacre has been strictly suppressed, although the general contours of the events—and various partisan versions, on all sides—are well known throughout the country. When the massacre is publicly referenced, it is only as the "events" or "incident" at Hama.[50]The Hama revolt began as a sectarian challenge, with the Sunni Muslims of the Brotherhood against the minority Alawite sect that dominates the regime and the upper ranks of the military. After it was crushed, it then became a lesson to any challenger to Assad family rule. The 1982 massacre is regarded as the single bloodiest assault by an Arab ruler against his own people in modern times and remains a pivotal event in Syrian history. The "Hama example" stood firm until the spring of 2011.[51]After a brief summation of the 1982 Hama massacre, I returned to my hotel room as my female collegues returned to their hotels along the outskirts of Hama. Depite being after 9 PM, I gathered my belongings, checked out of the nicest hotel in Hama and checked into a small local hotel with a view of the Old City. Two days later, after the conference concluded , I left Hama and continued onto the coast for a few days of rest before traveling to Yemen.In all my wanderings throughout Syria, I never travelled through or around Hama again, despite being a place of incredible beauty and archaeology. To this day, I have been unable to comprehend the images of guests enjoying the pool and upscale restaurants all the while thousands of innocent people are interred in the construction fill below the hotel. Maybe that is the lesson- that there is no understanding and that in attempting to bury Hama's secrets, the Syrian government ultimately failed setting the stage for Civil War again 30 years later.Footnotes[1] 1982 Hama massacre - Wikipedia[2] The Islamist Uprising in Syria, 1976–82: The History and Legacy of a Failed Revolt[3] Baath Party Compelled to Restore its Defining Roles in Syria - The Syrian Observer[4] Syrian Military Intervention in Lebanon and Its Consequences[5] 1982 Hama massacre - Wikipedia[6] When Assad Won[7] The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood[8] https://www.revolvy.com/page/June-1980-assassination-attempt-on-Hafez-al-Assad?stype=topics&cmd=list[9] Hafez al-Assad[10] Inside Tadmur: The worst prison in the world?[11] 1982: Syria's President Hafez al-Assad crushes rebellion in Hama[12] A Wasted Decade | Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad’s First Ten Years in Power[13] 1982 Hama massacre looms over Syria revolt[14] Massacre of Hama (February 1982) Genocide and A crime against Humanity[15] SHRC Publishes Names of Hundreds of Political Detainees[16] The Assads An iron-fisted dynasty[17] Inside Tadmur: The worst prison in the world?[18] Downplaying a Massacre[19] The Assads: An iron-fisted dynasty[20] 1982: Syria's President Hafez al-Assad crushes rebellion in Hama[21] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://statecrime.org/data/2018/07/Nafeez-Ahmed-State-Propaganda-in-Syria-ISCI-Report-July-2018.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwijoZPJnvniAhVQA6wKHfEgD5EQFjAJegQICxAB&usg=AOvVaw3N57IuDP2nc5K7DQDApZh3[22] http://The New York Times. 24 Feb 1982. Syria Offers Picture of Hama Revolt][23] http://Fisk, Robert. 1990. Pity the Nation. London: Touchstone, ISBN 0-671-74770-3.[24] Tumult in Syria's Hama in 1925: The Failure of a Revolt[25] The 1982 Hama Massacre[26] Harrowing accounts of torture, inhuman conditions and mass deaths in Syria's prisons[27] From Beirut to Jerusalem - Wikipedia[28] From Beirut to Jerusalem, by Thomas L. Friedman - Commentary[29] From Beirut to Jerusalem[30] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/printpdf/2743&ved=2ahUKEwiK_6zjoPniAhVPF6wKHT-nAxEQFjAcegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw2prYx6NtIHa_V8xwz58_co&cshid=1561074807680[31] Statistics in the Information War: an Instructive Example from Hama, 1982[32] Syria: Shootings, Arrests Follow Hama Protest[33] 30 Years Later, Photos Emerge From Killings In Syria[34] Political Islam and the Syrian Revolution[35] Assad or We Burn the Country[36] Scenes From the Hama Massacre From Those Who Lived It - The Syrian Observer[37] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/middle-east-live/2011/jul/05/syria-libya-middle-east-unrest-live&ved=2ahUKEwjL9bfjovniAhVRKqwKHaxADAYQFjALegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw0LlsCmCZLsC-sQMZVe6rx9[38] Hama’s Ghosts[39] No More ‘Hama Rules’[40] Like Father, Like Son - Tyranny in Syria, A Massacre in Hama - Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training[41] Breaking News, Analysis, Politics, Blogs, News Photos, Video, Tech Reviews - TIME.com[42] Breaking the Silence of Tadmor Military Prison[43] If the Dead Could Speak | Mass Deaths and Torture in Syria’s Detention Facilities[44] Syrian Troops Open Fire on Protesters in Several Cities[45] Syrian Troops and Tanks Push Into Defiant City of Hama[46] Survivors of Syria's Hama massacre watch and hope[47] Breaking the silence over Hama atrocities[48] The 1982 Hama Massacre[49] World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria[50] Hama: The Forgotten Front[51] Syria: Is Homs 2011 Hama 1982 in slow motion?

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Airbnb is a peer-to-peer marketplace connecting travelers with local property owners.The company was founded in 2008, and its value is currently estimated at $31 bln.So how does Airbnb work?Well, it depends on who you want to be: a traveler or a host?Let’s look at it as you were a traveler.So, you want to go to some city and you don’t want to stay in a hotel. Am I right?The answer is Airbnb.It gives you a lot of varieties of apartments or houses and a good price range.Steps for booking a room or a flat at Airbnb:STEP #1 Go to the Airbnb’s websiteSo, you are on Airbnb’s homepage, visitors see a search form for finding their first apartment. The platform also offers to create a profile, to login to an existing profile, or to register as a host. Having scrolled down, users see a list of the best offers from around the world.STEP #2 Type in the necessary info using search & filtering optionsIn order to make the first booking, the guest only needs to enter the necessary parameters: location, date, and number of travelers (adults, children and infants).The results can be sorted according to basic and advanced criteria. The filtering options allow guests to find, for example, pet-friendly apartments, or accommodations suitable for handling certain events. All booking options are displayed in a map.Then, the basic details of the apartment are displayed: the number of beds, bedrooms, bathrooms, and other accommodations.STEP #3 Check out the apartment detailsBy opening the apartment profile, the guest can see a detailed description: the full list of amenities, traveler reviews, and information about the host. The guest can see the final price of the booking, including services. There is also a map with the nearby sights. For security reasons, the exact address of the apartment is disclosed only after the booking confirmation.STEP #4 Book an apartmentThe users then go to the booking page. There are two ways to book the apartment: to pass the verification by providing an ID document or to send the request to the host. In the first case, the booking will be approved instantly. In the second case, the host must confirm it. It is also possible to add the apartment to a wishlist in order to save it for the future.STEP #5 It’s time to payTo confirm the booking, it is necessary to pay the full amount instantly. With Airbnb, you pay the cost of the apartment + additional host and marketplace fees and taxes. As previously mentioned, the funds will not be transferred to the host’s balance instantly but will be held until the guest stays in the apartment.STEP #6 Fill in the profile detailsThe traveler’s profile contains a dashboard for managing the account settings. The users will be asked to enter the basic profile details and to tell a bit about themselves. To pass a verification, it will be necessary to provide an ID document and to confirm the email address and the phone number. In the account, the users can manage their feedback about the hosts and the hosts’ feedback about them.If you want to be the host, check out the below guideSTEP #1 Go to the websiteUpon signing up as a host, the user must provide more information about the apartment: its type and basic characteristics (number of rooms, beds, bathrooms, facilities, etc), photos, if it is private or shared, etc. The host must also set the exact location of the property, even though it will be only displayed to the guests who confirmed their booking.STEP #2 Verify your identityThe verification procedure is similar both for the hosts and the guests: it is necessary to provide a photo of a government-issued ID and to confirm the mobile number and the email address.STEP #3 Set the priceAfter filling out all the necessary points, set the price for the accommodation. There is also an option to set discounts for the first three guests and long-term bookings.STEP #4 Set the payment detailsThe host selects the preferred payment methods and provides the necessary information.THAT’S ITEasy, right?Let me know if this answer was useful for you!To know more about Airbnb, check out this article.