Order Extending Final Approval Hearing And Related Dates: Fill & Download for Free

I didn't have time to gather all the facts so forgive me for being so brief but here it goes:“Within his first week, he signed an Executive Order ordering an audit of government contracts, and combating waste and abuse. http://1.usa.gov/dUvbu5Created the post of Chief Performance Officer, whose job it is to make operations more efficient to save the federal government money. http://n.pr/hcgBn1On his first full day, he froze White House salaries for the duration of the Great Recession.http://on.msnbc.com/ewJUIxHe appointed the first Federal Chief Information Officer to oversee federal IT spending and efficiency. http://www.cio.govHe committed to phasing out unnecessary and outdated weapons systems and signed the Weapons Systems Acquisition Reform Act, in an attempt to limit waste, fraud and abuse in the defense procurement and contracting systems. http://bit.ly/hOw1t1http://bit.ly/fz8GAdHe created the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform. http://bit.ly/hwKhKaSigned an Executive Order instructing federal agencies to review all federal regulations and remove any unnecessary and/or burdensome regulations from the books.http://1.usa.gov/Lpo5bdDismantled the Minerals Management Service, thereby cutting ties between energy companies and the government. http://nyti.ms/bw1MLuBanned gifts from lobbyists to anyone in the Executive Branch. http://bit.ly/fsBACNBanned anyone from working in an agency they had lobbied in previous years and placed strict limits on lobbyists’ access to the White House. http://nyti.ms/gOrznVHeld the first-ever first online town hall from the White House, and took questions from the public. http://bit.ly/gVNSgXBecame the first president to stream every White House event, live.http://1.usa.gov/kAgOP5Established a central portal for Americans to find service opportunities.http://www.serve.govRestored the 30-day time frame for former presidents to review records and eliminated the right for the vice president or family members of former presidents to do the reviews, giving the public greater access to historic White House documents, and curtails the use of executive privilege to shield them. http://1.usa.gov/gUetLbImproved the Freedom of Information Act and issued new guidelines to make FOIA more open and transparent when processing FOIA requests. http://1.usa.gov/gjrnp2Streamline the Department of Education’s procurement policies and made them more transparent. http://bit.ly/1r9oQvhProvided the first voluntary disclosure of the White House Visitors Log in history. http://1.usa.gov/hQ7Signed a law to completely reform NSA Data Collection program and keep phone records in the hands of the phone company. http://bit.ly/1dG34vDStaved Off a Bush Depression, Improved the EconomyPushed through and signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, also known as “the stimulus package.” He also launched http://recovery.gov, a website that allows taxpayers to track spending from the Act. http://1.usa.gov/ibiFSshttp://1.usa.gov/e3BJMkBy the end of his first year, the economy created and sustained 2.1 million jobs and stimulated the economy by 3.5%. http://reut.rs/i46CEEHe created the massive TARP financial and banking rescue plan and forced banks and other entities to pay back virtually all of the bailout money.http://1.usa.gov/eA5jVShttp://bit.ly/eCNrD6He created the Making Home Affordable home refinancing plan. http://1.usa.gov/goy6zlIn 2010, more jobs were created than had been created during Bush’s eight years.http://bit.ly/hrrnjYHe pushed through and implemented an auto industry rescue plan that saved as many as 1 million jobs and possibly the entire auto industry.http://bit.ly/ibhpxrhttp://bit.ly/gj7mt5Through his investment in GM, returned to the company to its place as the premiere car company in the world. http://lat.ms/zIJuQxIn February 2016, GM was in such good financial shape, they gave a share of the profit to each worker, with checks up to $11,000. http://detne.ws/1mk7JryDoubled funding for the Manufacturing Extension Partnership, to improve manufacturing efficiency. http://bit.ly/eYD4nfIncreased infrastructure spending after years of neglect. http://bit.ly/f77aOwSigned the Helping Families Save Their Homes Act, which helped millions of Americans avoid preventable foreclosures and provided $2.2 billion to combat homelessness and stabilize the housing market. http://bit.ly/eEpLFnSigned an Executive Order creating jobs immediately by instructing them to reduce the time needed for review and permitting of infrastructure projects. http://1.usa.gov/GHxaYtThrough the Worker, Homeownership, and Business Assistance Act of 2009, he and Congressional Democrats provided tax credits to first-time home buyers, which helped the U.S. housing market recovery. http://bit.ly/dZgXXw http://bit.ly/gORYfLPlayed a lead role in getting the G-20 Summit to commit to a $1.1 trillion deal to combat the global financial crisis. http://nyti.ms/gHlgp5Through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, saved at least 300,000 education jobs, such as teachers, principals, librarians, and counselors that would have otherwise been lost. http://1.usa.gov/ez30DWith Congressional Democrats, provided funding to states and the Department of Homeland Security to save thousands of police and firefighter jobs from being cut during the recession. http://bit.ly/g0IKWRChina’s largest manufacturer, Foxconn, is building a large plant in Pennsylvaniahttp://cnnmon.ie/1k7LT4SWorked with Apple Computer to get them to build more product here, and thecompany is building two large plants to manufacture products here; one in Texashttp://zd.net/1nkpt2O and one in Arizona http://bit.ly/1mXY5VgCreated an institute to invest in more manufacturing jobs in the technology fields of the future. http://nyti.ms/1egyXrVOrdered all federal contractors to pay a minimum wage of $10.10 per hour, leading the way to a national increase. http://wapo.st/1iaU5kdOrdered the completion of the International Trade Data System, a digital trade record book, by 2016. This move will streamline and simplify the process through which small- and medium-sized businesses set up the export of US goods. http://bit.ly/1nwSRF4Specific Examples of Economic ImprovementAs of January 2016, a record 64 consecutive months of overall job growth.http://on.msnbc.com/1TKFCPQAs of January 2016, Unemployment drops below 5% for the first time in eight years and without a significant bubble. 4.9% http://on.msnbc.com/1TKFCPQAs of January 2016, there have been 71 consecutive months of private sector job growth. http://on.msnbc.com/1TKFCPQSince February 2010, when job numbers hit their lowest point, 13.7 non-farm jobs have been created. http://data.bls.gov/timeseries/C... (Republican budget cuts reduced public employment by about 700,000)Oversaw a reduction in the federal budget deficit by two-thirds since taking office.http://bit.ly/1xKMmjYReduced the federal budget deficit from 9.8% of GDP in Fiscal Year 2009 under Bush, to 2.9% of GDP in FY 2014. http://www.cbo.gov/publication/4...Scolds Congress and gets passed a $305 billion highways bill, which will have the added benefit of created hundreds of thousands of new jobs and creating incentives for green cars. http://bit.ly/1NsL2ZqAddressed Wrongdoing in the Financial SectorSigned the Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act giving the federal government more tools to investigate and prosecute fraud in every corner of the financial system, and create a bipartisan Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission to investigate the financial fraud that led to the economic meltdown. http://abcn.ws/g18Fe7Ordered 65 executives who took bailout money to cut their own pay until they paid back all bailout money. http://huff.to/eAi9QqAlong with Congressional Democrats, pushed through and got passed Dodd-Frank, one of the largest and most comprehensive Wall Street reforms since the Great Depression.http://bit.ly/hWCPg0http://bit.ly/geHpcDCreated and implemented rules to reduce the influence of speculators in the oil market.http://bit.ly/MDnA1tCreated and implemented rules so banks can no longer use depositors’ money to invest in high-risk financial instruments that work against depositors’ interests. http://bit.ly/fnTayjSupported the concept of allowing stockholders to vote on executive compensation.http://bit.ly/fnTayjEndorsed and supported the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act of 2009 that would close offshore tax avoidance loopholes. http://bit.ly/esOdfB http://bit.ly/eG4DPMNegotiated a deal with Swiss banks permitting the US government to gain access to bank records of criminals and tax evaders. http://bit.ly/htfDgwSigned the American Jobs and Closing Tax Loopholes Act, closing many of the loopholes that allowed companies to send jobs overseas, and avoid paying US taxes by moving money offshore. http://1.usa.gov/bd1RTqThanks to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, inflation in the healthcare sector dropped to its lowest point in 50 years. http://on.wsj.com/1E6cYjFImproved Conditions for Consumers and Small BusinessesSigned the Credit Card Accountability, Responsibility and Disclosure (CARD) Act, to protect consumers from unfair and deceptive credit card practices.http://1.usa.gov/gIaNcSGuided the housing market all the way back from total collapse, which led to a rally for housing starts. http://reut.rs/1NTAOVU http://reut.rs/1NTAOVUBrought airline industry back to their highest profitability since before the recession. http://lat.ms/1O8H1iEBlocked a monopolistic merger of Staples and Office Depot, to preserve at least some competition. http://bit.ly/1kcY2KvStock market has reached record highs, restoring most of the economic losses felt during the Bush Recession. http://bit.ly/1z4FAtLCreated and Implemented the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau http://1.usa.gov/j5onG http://bit.ly/fnTayjConsumer confidence continues to inch up to its highest level more than a decade.http://bit.ly/1PZLRcKInitiated a $15 billion plan designed to encourage increased lending to small businesses. http://1.usa.gov/eu0u0bCreated BusinessUSA, to allow online collaboration between small businesses and experts re managing a business. (The program has since merged with U.S. Small Business Administration.) http://www.business.govTook steps to improve minority access to capital. http://bit.ly/f9xVE7Used recovered TARP money to fund programs at local housing finance agencies in California, Florida, Nevada, Arizona and Michigan. http://on.msnbc.com/i1i8eVCrafted and signed an executive order establishing the President’s Advisory Council on Financial Capability to assist in financial education for all Americans. http://bit.ly/eyqsNEOversaw the most sweeping food safety legislation since the Great Depression.http://thedc.com/gxkCtPThrough the Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act, extended the False Claims Act to combat fraud by companies and individuals using money from TARP and Stimulus programs. http://bit.ly/SLTcSaSet up rules for banks in handling legal marijuana money. http://nyti.ms/1b80o2KAdded greater protections to consumer financial transactions to reduce identity theft.http://1.usa.gov/1pjfUFqTook steps to prevent pirate fishing and protect fish populations, and ordered stricter labeling requirements on labeling of seafood products in stores. http://1.usa.gov/1BYhTUnSigned the RAISE Act, which should encourage more people to open small businesses and help improve the economy. http://bit.ly/1QhTqkFSigned a bill that allows low-volume vehicle manufacturers that will increase entrepreneurship among small car manufacturers, who often build replicas of classics but who often build green vehicles. http://bit.ly/1QhTqkFStrengthened the Middle Class and Fought PovertyWorked to provide affordable, high-quality child care to working families.http://bit.ly/fNfidSThrough the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, cut taxes for 95% of America’s working families. http://bit.ly/eSEI4FTax rates for average working families are the lowest since 1950. http://bit.ly/f74pD8Extended and fully funded the patch for the Alternative Minimum Tax for 10 years.http://bit.ly/eFeSdPExtended discounted health coverage under the COBRA health insurance law for the unemployed from 9 months to 15 months, and he’s also extended unemployment benefits more than a few times. http://aol.it/evtVxDhttp://nyti.ms/emrqKJhttp://bit.ly/hOtIpg http://bit.ly/fTT7kzProvided a $20 billion increase for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (Food Stamps). http://nyti.ms/gfLqyMSigned an Executive Order that established the White House Office of Urban Affairs.http://wapo.st/eWECA8Included the Buffet Rule in his 2014 budget proposal, in order to fulfill a campaign promise to make sure tax rates are fair between the rich and the middle class. http://1.usa.gov/19PkdQoUsed the fiscal cliff negotiations to extend for five additional years the American Opportunity Tax Credit, which provides tax credits to families for college-related expenses, thus saving those families up to $10,000. http://onforb.es/17zYg3uIncreased protections for the unemployed who are seeking a government job.http://1.usa.gov/1jgXATuUpdated and modernized overtime regulations under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) http://1.usa.gov/1iGDO8eSigned and implemented the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act, to improve nutrition in schools and make children healthier. http://1.usa.gov/GAXkSkTo make college more affordable and accountable, will begin rating colleges with regard to affordability and value. http://bit.ly/14Dn7ULInitiated a reform of federal job training programs, to make them more relevant to the current economy and the job market. http://1.usa.gov/1kZLQHGUnder Obama, the bottom 95% of taxpayers pay lower federal income taxes than at any time in the last 50 years, including under Reagan, or either Bush. http://bit.ly/1w1W8NsSigned a presidential memorandum authorizing six weeks paid leave for all federal employees with a new baby and encouraged Congress to do the same for all workers. http://bit.ly/18613XA2014 marked the first time since 1984 that unemployment dropped in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. 1.usa.gov/1E25u0CTook steps to improve workplace safety by creating an Advisory Board to study workers’ exposure to toxic substances. http://1.usa.gov/1M4s8IGChanged overtime rules to make it far more difficult for employers to avoid paying overtime to workers. http://politi.co/1KHfiBeChanged rules for federal contractors, guaranteeing that all workers earn paid leave; this should affect about 300,000 workers. http://1.usa.gov/1LcHZWlNegotiated a law to finally replace “No Child Left Behind” and remove much of the onerous government “oversight” that caused children to stagnate, not improve, academically. http://bit.ly/1Up9pMlAddressed Civil Rights and EqualityFormed a commission to examine and make recommendations for fixing the broken voting system. http://wapo.st/16K0DAt a press conference August 9, 2013, gave up a small measure of executive power, promising to create adversarial process in FISA regarding NSA surveillance.http://1.usa.gov/1dQmnyQProposed rules to enhance Fair Housing Laws, to give HUD and other enforcement agencies more enforcement power. http://bit.ly/1qkz4uQOrdered a review of capital punishment policies after several botched executions.http://nyti.ms/RDJp58Appointed Kareem Dale as the first ever Special Assistant to the President for Disability Policy. http://1.usa.gov/fi5IY0Concentrated immigration enforcement on those who commit crimes, and vowed to stop breaking up families. http://1.usa.gov/1uTZ8gVStreamlined the visa process, to make it more responsive and humane for those who want to be here legally. http://1.usa.gov/1tgDRtiTook steps to tighten the reins when it comes to providing local law enforcement agencies with military-style equipment and exercising more control over the equipment they receive. http://1.usa.gov/1ATWV3KChanged fair housing rules to make more affordable housing available to more people. http://cnn.it/1JcR3qBHelped Democrats in Congress pass and signed the Civil Rights History Act.http://bit.ly/th0JC8Established the White House Council of Native American Affairs, to improve government-to-government relations with Native American nations. http://1.usa.gov/1cIEeEvLimited local police acquisitions of military-style equipment, to reduce the likelihood of overkill. http://n.pr/1NGkBjTSigned Blue Alert Law, which provides police officers with more information when they are threatened. http://bit.ly/1NGksgaImproved Workers’ RightsHe issued final rules that require all employers to prominently post employees’ rights where all employees or prospective employees can see it, including all websites and intranets.http://1.usa.gov/qu2EhQObama’s Equal Employment Opportunity Commission clarified and strengthened rules prohibiting discrimination against pregnant workers. http://alj.am/1mo0kjVRequired companies who bid on federal contracts larger than $500,000 to publicly disclose all previous violations of labor law, including unpaid claims for back wages. http://1.usa.gov/V54qY3Made it illegal for federal contractors with more than $1 million in contracts to force employees into arbitration in workplace discrimination accusations. http://1.usa.gov/V54qY3Vetoed Republican bill that would have blocked new NLRB rules that were designed to speed up the time it takes workers to unionize. http://reut.rs/1agujMO He also added a Memorandum of Disagreement to make his reasons for the veto clear and made a major statement in support of unions. http://1.usa.gov/1NG7RuACracked down on companies that were previously denying sick pay, vacation and health insurance, and Social Security and Medicare tax payments through abuse of the employee classification of independent contractor. http://nyti.ms/fOGLcjProtected the Rights of Gay PeopleSigned and implemented the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, which made it a federal crime to assault anyone based on his or her sexual orientation or gender identity. http://bit.ly/gsMSJ7Oversaw and implemented the repeal of the reprehensible “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell” policy.http://bit.ly/fdahuHhttp://bit.ly/mZV4PzExtended benefits to same-sex partners of federal employees. http://1.usa.gov/g2RLCjAppointed more openly gay officials than anyone in history. http://bit.ly/g1lA7DAppointed first openly transgender Cabinet Official in History. http://bit.ly/58zUp7Advocated that United Nations adopt a policy supporting gay rights worldwide.http://lat.ms/pQe1RSAs soon as the Supreme Court invalidated the Defense of Marriage Act, he moved to extend federal benefits to same-sex couples. http://wapo.st/1avDjueIssued an order requiring hospitals to allow visitation by same-sex couples.http://reut.rs/llNJekChanged HUD rules to prohibit gender and sexual orientation-based discrimination in housing bit.ly/9RxEnPChanged his mind and publicly expressed support for same-sex marriage.http://bit.ly/JsiFKpIssued a Presidential Memorandum reaffirming the rights of gay couples to make medical decisions for each other. http://1.usa.gov/aUueGTAppointed several prominent gay athletes and others, and plans to show US government’s commitment to gay rights to anti-gay Russia. http://on.cpsj.com/1fckN9hDepartment of Agriculture propagated new rules to better enforce non-discrimination when it comes to USDA investigations and to extend non-discrimination to gender identity. http://bit.ly/1yChJhiBanned all federal contractors from discriminating against gay workers. http://1.usa.gov/1ok1gfHPersevered with his campaign to turn “gay marriage” into “marriage” and won in the Supreme Court. http://cbsloc.al/1M4qLKbImproved Conditions for WomenEstablishing the White House Council on Women and Girls to ensure that all Cabinet and Cabinet-level agencies consider the effect of their policies and programs on women and families. http://bit.ly/e1puTk http://1.usa.gov/rFfqMMImplemented the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, which restored basic protections against pay discrimination for women and other workers. http://bit.ly/fT3CxgEliminated federal funding for abstinence-only education, and rescinded the global gag rule. http://bit.ly/eCFAI1 http://bit.ly/f92drFImproved the Paycheck Fairness Act, making it possible for employees to talk about their salaries without retaliation, and ordering salary data collection, so as to make it harder for employers to pay women less. http://huff.to/1nwVOWfSigned an Executive Order pledging support for efforts to end the global problem of violence against women and girls. http://1.usa.gov/MHTRVUShattered another glass ceiling by naming Janet Yellen chair of the Federal Reserve beginning Feb. 1, 2014. http://usat.ly/1gqMBfkExpanded funding for the Violence Against Women Act. http://1.usa.gov/dSbI0xOrdered companies with 100 employees or more to disclose pay data based on race and gender, to address the pay gap. http://theatln.tc/1Q04XPLAddressed Criminal Justice Failings and the Gun CultureMade significant reductions in drug sentencing guidelines for current prisoners. http://n.pr/1mWBLkMOversaw the first drop in the federal prison population in 32 years. http://bit.ly/1B5h8rWIncreased his use of clemency to release thousands of non-violent drug offenders from prison. http://nyti.ms/1KE8DJGOrdered a ban on solitary confinement for juvenile offenders in federal prisons.http://bit.ly/20ObRzATook executive action to promote smart gun technology, to make them safer.http://1.usa.gov/1RhK1tUAfter a failure by Congress to act, proposed executive orders to create more background checks and to fully staff the background check system. http://cnn.it/1JXmUg6Relaxed HIPAA rules enough to allow for more information to be available to the background check system. http://on.wsj.com/SX9xaZOrdered the tracing of guns as part of criminal investigations to provide data to researchers. http://on.wsj.com/SX9xaZOrder the Justice Department to look at the categories of mental health problems prohibited from owning guns to make sure people aren’t falling through the cracks, getting guns. http://onforb.es/1nUAGw3Expanded the definitions of gun dealers and expanded the information available and required in background checks for firearm purchases. http://bit.ly/1K5aXeeSet up a task force to figure out what other measures can be taken to limit gun violence in the wake of Congressional inaction. http://1.usa.gov/1QjYMGJImproved Treatment of Soldiers and VeteransProvided active combat troops with better body armor. http://bit.ly/hzSv2hCreated a Joint Virtual Lifetime Electronic Record program for military personnel, in order http://abcn.ws/1ghLrEshttp://abcn.ws/1ghLrEs to improve the quality of their medical care. http://1.usa.gov/f4yaxWPut an end to the Bush-era stop-loss policy that kept soldiers in Iraq/Afghanistan beyond their enlistment date. http://nyti.ms/e2YQ7QSigned and implemented Veterans Health Care Budget Reform and Transparency Act, making more money available to enable better medical care for veterans.http://1.usa.gov/fN4ur1With Congressional Democrats, oversaw largest spending increase in 30 years for Department of Veterans Affairs, for improved medical and extended care facilities for veterans. http://1.usa.gov/gY8O3xImplemented the Green Vet Initiative, which provides special funding to provide veterans with training in green jobs. http://bit.ly/epwUQYInitiated and signed a recruitment and employment plan to get more veterans into government jobs. http://bit.ly/b48coiOversaw a $4.6 billion expansion of the Veterans Administration budget to pay for more mental health professionals. http://bit.ly/gjzTxXSigned the Military Spouses Residency Relief Act, which ensures that spouses of military personnel who are forced to move because their spouse is posted for military duty can avoid state taxes in their temporary residence. http://bit.ly/1Gh0NXOrdered improvements to access to mental health care for veterans, military personnel and their families. http://1.usa.gov/TP7PVZGot Syria to dismantle its chemical weapons without military firing a single shot or dropping a single bomb. http://nyti.ms/1lVEkU7Along with Congressional Democrats, not only reauthorized families of fallen soldiers to be able to visit when the body arrives at Dover AFB, but also provided funding for it. Ended the media blackout on coverage of the return of fallen soldiers. Pentagon Will Help Families Travel to Dover http://bbc.in/gWSSkAFunded Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) with an extra $1.4 billion to improve veterans’ services. http://1.usa.gov/huhqfoSigned into law a bill that provides support, counseling, and breastfeeding supplies to military moms who are covered under TRICARE, the health insurance provided to veterans. http://bit.ly/1yNxL8OSigned into law a bill that makes it easier for military dogs to retire at home with their handlers. http://bit.ly/1J78Y2UImproved America’s Reputation Around the WorldVisited more countries and met with more world leaders than any previous president during his first six months in office. http://bit.ly/hZycdaAs he promised, he gave a speech at a major Islamic forum in Cairo early in his administration. http://nyti.ms/dKvY4gMade a speech at a US mosque to demonstrate his commitment to religious rights and send a message to Muslims around the world. http://cnn.it/1PGU1uIRestored America’s reputation around the world as a global leader.http://bit.ly/h743y7http://bit.ly/ho4TCrRe-established and reinforced our partnership with NATO and other allies on strategic international issues. http://1.usa.gov/e7QuDjClosed a number of secret detention facilities. http://nyti.ms/rpUc9lImproved relations with Middle East countries by appointing special envoys.http://1.usa.gov/tiGAGePushed forward the first realistic Middle East peace strategy in more than a decade, without abandoning the two-state solution. http://wapo.st/1avystePushed for military to emphasize greater development of foreign language skills. http://bit.ly/AxUCLVOffered $400 million to the people living in Gaza, while calling on both Israel and the Palestinians to stop inciting violence. http://bit.ly/9axfWhRefused to give Israel the green light to attack Iran over their possible nuclear program.http://bit.ly/xVmSZKOrdered the closure of the prison at Guantanamo Bay, although blocked by Congress.http://bit.ly/eW6CVFOrdered a review of our detention and interrogation policy and prohibited the use of “enhanced interrogation.” http://bit.ly/g6MTuCOrdered all secret detention facilities in Eastern Europe and elsewhere to be closed.http://bbc.in/h6N9axReleased the Bush torture memos. http://bit.ly/hWJ5z0On his second day in office, banned torture, reversed all Bush torture policies and put the US in full compliance with the Geneva Convention.http://1.usa.gov/dL6Zvehttp://nyti.ms/hzWWysIn response to the emerging “Arab Spring,” he created a Rapid Response fund, to assist emerging democracies with foreign aid, debt relief, technical assistance and investment packages in order to show that the United States stands with them. http://bit.ly/zfmGv9Ended the F-22 program, saving $4 billion. Though the 187 aircraft cost $358 million each to build, it had never flown a combat mission. http://slate.me/PYzmzTPassed the Iran Sanctions Act, to prevent war and encourage the Iranian government to give up their nuclear program. http://1.usa.gov/wLtNjbEnded the Iraq War. http://tgr.ph/ru0tySWorked to keep our withdrawal from Afghanistan on track, despite GOP opposition.http://reut.rs/1cIOsF1 Reiterated that commitment in 2014.http://nyti.ms/1exnmRFConducted a secret mission by SEAL Team Six to rescue two hostages held by Somali pirates. http://bit.ly/y8c9FzThrough United Nations Ambassador Susan Rice, helped negotiate a peaceful split of Sudan into two countries, creating an independent South Sudan. http://reut.rs/qzE0TjHelped make donations to Haiti tax deductible in 2009. http://huff.to/6YkAVYEstablished a new U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue. http://1.usa.gov/eX28DPIssued Executive Order blocking interference and helping to stabilize Somalia.http://1.usa.gov/hxdf8UEstablished new, more reasonable policies in our relations with Cuba, such as allowing Cuban-Americans to visit their families and send money to support them.http://n.pr/hY3Kwa http://nyti.ms/emQBdeThe new policies in Cuba led to thawed relations and the first US Embassy in Cuba in more than 55 years. http://abcn.ws/1ghLrEsNegotiated a deal with Iran that will prevent them from getting a nuclear weapon anytime soon, without firing a shot or invading the country. http://cnn.it/1M3HpvvAs a result of the Iran agreement, Iran shipped pretty much all of it nuclear material to Russia. http://nyti.ms/1PrzLtyBecame the first US President to visit Jamaica in more than 30 years, worked to restore relations with the country and signed a natural gas distribution agreement with the country. http://bit.ly/1JtpFqiChanged US Approach to “Defense” and National SecurityCreated a comprehensive new strategy for dealing with the international nuclear threat.http://1.usa.gov/gDX1nEAuthorized a $1.4 billion reduction in Star Wars program in 2010. http://1.usa.gov/gLFZl2Restarted nuclear nonproliferation talks and built up the nuclear inspection infrastructure/protocols to where they had been before Bush. http://lat.ms/gkcl3iSigned and got ratification of a new SALT Treaty. http://bit.ly/f3JVtwNegotiated and signed a new START Treaty that will stay in force until at least 2021.http://1.usa.gov/cI1bC4Committed the US to no permanent military bases in Iraq. http://bit.ly/hk73OJDeveloped a comprehensive strategy with regard to Afghanistan and Pakistan designed to facilitate the defeat of al Qaeda, the withdrawal of most troops and the rebuilding of Afghanistan. http://wapo.st/ee4XcsRe-focused on Afghanistan, stabilized the country, and began the process of withdrawing troops from the country. http://bit.ly/lNXUnaNegotiated a deal with Afghan government, to withdraw troops and military support, while assisting in rebuilding and modernizing of the country. http://bit.ly/K362anTook steps to severely weaken al Qaeda and limited their ability to terrorize the world.http://yhoo.it/n5lXs6Negotiated and signed a nuclear nonproliferation treaty with India.http://1.usa.gov/aHp0CnWorked with NATO to limit the slaughter of innocents in Libya, so that Libyans could topple the despotic Khadaffy government and determine their own fate.http://aje.me/qAh4SjGot Egyptian President/dictator Mubarak to leave the Egyptian government to the people, to determine their own fate. http://f24.my/efvgNZIn 2011, reoriented American focus from the Middle East to the Asian-Pacific region by simultaneously engaging China and crafting new alliances with Asian countries uncomfortable with Chinese behavior. http://bit.ly/RGlMDiRestored federal agencies such as FEMA to the point that they have been able to manage a huge number of natural disasters successfully. http://bit.ly/h8Xj7zIncreased border security http://bit.ly/1JQDGz9Ordered and oversaw the Navy SEALS operation that killed Osama bin Laden.http://bit.ly/jChpgwEstablished the Homeland Security Partnership Council, to enhance the nation’s ability to “address homeland security priorities, from responding to natural disasters to preventing terrorism, by utilizing diverse perspectives, skills, tools, and resources.”http://1.usa.gov/VJjLXOSigned agreement with Afghanistan to end war, turn security over to Afghans.http://nyti.ms/1xSjgBdBreaking with recent presidential tradition, instead of just attacking Syria in the wake of chemical weapons attacks on Syrians, Obama ordered a full report on the decision-making process. http://cbsn.ws/184RFguInstead of holding hearings and creating a political football, he quietly captured a suspect who actually committed the Benghazi terrorist attack. http://wapo.st/1jFlmzv He is also getting a lot of useful information from the suspect. http://nyti.ms/UfE2KaInstituted rules to order sanctions against individuals and groups that threaten national cybersecurity. http://1.usa.gov/1HWcGMGImproved Education and Educational OpportunitiesThrough the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, invested heavily in elementary, secondary and post-secondary education. http://1.usa.gov/gGRIArCreated the Race to the Top program, which encouraged states to come up with effective school reforms and rewards the best of them. http://bit.ly/NHtZ7LOversaw major expansion of broadband availability in K-12 schools nationwide.http://bit.ly/fNDcj3Oversaw major expansion in school construction. http://bit.ly/fYwNrVThrough the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, put $5 billion into early education, including Head Start. http://1.usa.gov/tzT2RrSigned the Democratic-sponsored Post-9/11 GI Bill, also known as GI Bill 2.0, to improve veterans’ access to education. http://bit.ly/hPhG7JOversaw expansion of the Pell Grants program, to expand opportunity for low and middle income students to go to college. http://bit.ly/hI6tXzSigned and implemented the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which provided an extra $12.2 billion in funds. http://1.usa.gov/dQvtUeTook major new steps to protect students from ineffective for-profit colleges through “gainful employment” measures, whereby schools have to demonstrate that its students actually find work to get federal aid. http://1.usa.gov/jkzQe2Repeatedly increased funding for student financial aid, and at the same time cut the banks completely out of the process, thus us creating greater accountability.http://bit.ly/gYWd30 http://bit.ly/e9c7Dr http://bit.ly/eEzTNqReformed student loan program, to make it possible for students to refinance at a lower rate. http://nyti.ms/dMvHOtCreated a rating system for colleges, so that those applying for student financial aid know better what they’re paying for. http://bit.ly/14Dn7ULRestored the Adult View on Science and TechnologyCreated a Presidential Memorandum to restore scientific integrity in government decision-making. http://1.usa.gov/g2SDuwOpened up the process for fast-tracking patent approval for green energy projects.http://bit.ly/j0KV2UThrough the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, committed more federal funding, about $18 billion, to support non-defense science and research labs. http://nyti.ms/fTs9t7Obama EPA reversed research ethics standards which allowed humans to be used as “guinea pigs” in tests of the effects of chemicals, to comply with numerous codes of medical ethics. http://bit.ly/bKgqdSConducted a cyberspace policy review. http://1.usa.gov/gmbdvCProvided financial support for private sector space programs. http://bit.ly/fn8ucrOversaw enhanced earth mapping, to provide valuable data for agricultural, educational, scientific, and government use. http://bit.ly/dNTRyPThrough American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, provided $500 million for Health Professions Training Programs. http://bit.ly/ecQSgAIncreased funding for community-based prevention programs. http://bit.ly/frMPG3Expanded space exploration and discovery options to include more players.http://1.usa.gov/13qmZpmThrough the Connect America Fund, pushed through and received FCC approval for a move of $8 billion in subsidies away from telephone landlines to assist lower-income rural families in accessing broadband. http://lat.ms/vhRUEs http://bit.ly/129V3SYIn the wake of the West Fertilizer tragedy, formed the Chemical Safety and Security Working Group, to work on measures to prevent another such events.http://1.usa.gov/18kHSlAEstablished a Cyber Threat Intelligence Integration Center, a recommendation made by the 9/11 Commission, to coordinate efforts to fight cyber-crime and terrorism. http://1.usa.gov/1A0aEoSThe Obama FCC, with his leadership, adopted strong net neutrality rules, to keep the Internet open and equal for everyone. http://fcc.us/1MhTlIAOrdered rules to speed up deployment of a more comprehensive broadband infrastructure.http://1.usa.gov/M7rVpeSet up a National Strategic Computing Initiative, to “maximize benefits of high-performance computing (HPC) research, development, and deployment.” http://1.usa.gov/1IN3FZaOrdered a federal level change in national earthquake standards.http://1.usa.gov/1T5wGoRImproved Our HealthEliminated Bush-era restrictions on embryonic stem cell research, and provided increased federal support for biomedical and stem cell research. http://bit.ly/h36SSOhttp://ti.me/edezgeSigned Democratic-sponsored Christopher and Dana Reeve Paralysis Act, the first comprehensive attempt to improve the lives of Americans living with paralysis.http://bit.ly/fOi2rbExpanded the Nurse-Family Partnership program, which provides home visits by trained registered nurses to low-income expectant mothers and their families, to cover more first-time mothers. http://bit.ly/jRRRJc\Along with Democrats in Congress, ushered through and signed a bill authorizing FDA to regulate tobacco and order tobacco companies to disclose their ingredients and to ban cigarettes falsely labeled as “light.” http://on.msnbc.com/fiKViBHas overseen a 50% decrease in cost of prescription drugs for seniors.http://bit.ly/e5b1iq http://1.usa.gov/fVNkt9Eliminated the Bush-era practice of forbidding Medicare from negotiating with drug companies on price. http://bit.ly/fOkG5bTwo weeks after taking office, signed Democratic-sponsored Children’s Health Insurance Reauthorization Act, which increased the number of children covered by health insurance by 4 million. http://bit.ly/fDEzGvUrged Congress to investigate Anthem Blue Cross for raising premiums 39% without explanation. http://yhoo.it/e8Tj9CPushed through and signed Affordable Care Act, which expanded health insurance coverage greatly and ended many detrimental insurance company practices. He also established Get 2016 health coverage. Health Insurance Marketplace . http://www.healthcare.gov/Through ACA, allowed children to be covered under their parents’ policy until they turned 26. http://nyti.ms/fNB26VThrough the ACA, provided tax breaks to allow 3.5 million small businesses to provide health insurance to their employees. http://nyti.ms/fNB26VThrough the ACA, millions of people receive help in paying their health insurance company premiums. http://nyti.ms/fNB26VThrough the ACA, expanded Medicaid to those making up to 133% of the federal poverty level. http://nyti.ms/ekMWpo (Note: except for those states whose Republicans refused to take the extra money.)By 2014, the Affordable Care Act dropped the number of uninsured Americans by 22.3%, which amounts to more than 10.3 million people with insurance who didn’t have it before. Only 13.9% of Americans are uninsured, a drop from 18.9% in 2013. http://on.msnbc.com/1r4kjGnThe Affordable Care Act has increased the life expectancy of Medicare greatly.http://on.wsj.com/1yuNco6Through the ACA, health insurance companies now have to disclose how much of your premium actually goes to pay for patient care. http://nyti.ms/fNB26VMedicare costs actually declined slightly, for the first time in decades in 2011, according to the Congressional Budget Office. http://1.usa.gov/oMxpThSince passage of the ACA, health care inflation is at its lowest level since 1960.http://1.usa.gov/1vXR0LdCreated the HIV Care Continuum Initiative, to strengthen the government’s ability to respond to the continuing domestic HIV epidemic, after years of Republicans weakening the government’s ability to deal with the crisis. http://1.usa.gov/1iLED0tSigned bill that will provide health insurance premium support to workers who lose their health insurance due to foreign competition. http://bit.ly/1evvVDFIn response to the confusion triggered by the asinine Hobby Lobby decision, which essentially declared that corporations could have “religious rights” and lord them over employees, created new rules to give all women with insurance the right to free birth control. http://on.wsj.com/1O44a1tImplemented the National HIV/AIDS Strategy for 2015-2020, which is a follow-up to the first such strategy in US history, which he implemented in 2010. http://1.usa.gov/1IXknHmSigned and will implement new child safety standards for e-cigarettes.http://bit.ly/1XaFCISSet up a White House Cancer Moonshot Task Force, in order to implement ways to develop a cure for cancer. http://1.usa.gov/20AeKY4Addressed the Environment While Dealing with Energy NeedsDoubled federal spending on clean energy research. http://bit.ly/iN0sCEPushed through a tax credit to help people buy plug-in hybrid cars. http://bit.ly/j8UP5YCreated a program to develop renewable energy projects on the waters of our Outer Continental Shelf that will produce electricity from wind, wave, and ocean currents.http://1.usa.gov/fgfRWqReengaged in the climate change and greenhouse gas emissions agreements talks, and proposed one himself. He also addressed the U.N. Climate Change Conference, officially reversing the Bush era stance that climate change was a “hoax.” http://bit.ly/dX6Vj3 http://bit.ly/fE2PxK http://nyti.ms/hfeqvvFully supported the initial phase of the creation of a legally-binding treaty to reduce mercury emissions worldwide. http://bit.ly/eJ6QOORequired states to provide incentives to utilities to reduce their energy consumption. http://bit.ly/lBhk7PUnder Obama, our dependence on foreign oil has dropped to its lowest rate since 1985, and continues to drop. http://1.usa.gov/1p6kTUyMeanwhile, oil consumption is way down because of reduced driving and higher mileage standards. http://ti.me/1z4HFG8Improved siting, review and permitting stations for power plants, in an attempt to seriously improve the nation’s electric grid. http://1.usa.gov/1l8zNqnReengaged in a number of treaties and agreements designed to protect the Antarctic.http://bit.ly/fzQUFOCreated tax write-offs for purchases of hybrid and electric vehicles. http://bit.ly/glCukVEstablished a quadrennial review of our energy infrastructure, to encourage a modernization of the grid, and to encourage the transition away from fossil fuel use. http://1.usa.gov/1nx2oMoMandated that federal government fleet purchases be for fuel-efficient American vehicles, and encouraged that federal agencies support experimental, fuel-efficient vehicles.http://1.usa.gov/hmUSbk http://1.usa.gov/fLWq5chttp://bit.ly/h5KZqyEncouraged BP to pay $20 billion to establish Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, to reduce the need for taxpayer funds to be used for compensation and clean up.http://wapo.st/ds2BxT (Note: it took 20 years to get $1.3 billion for the Exxon Valdez spill. )Oversaw and pushed through an amendment to the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 authorizing advances from Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund for the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.http://1.usa.gov/yTRYVoActively tried to amend the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 to eliminate the liability limits for those companies responsible for large oil spills. http://nyti.ms/bxjDi3Became the first President to simply say “Climate Change is a fact,” and set up the first federal government protocols for dealing with the impacts of climate change. http://1.usa.gov/1b7V67BInitiated Criminal and Civil inquiries into the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.http://nyti.ms/bVuB7aAsserted federal legal supremacy to bar Texas from authorizing new refinery permits on its own.http://bit.ly/ww8eMdSet up new, stricter standards limiting power plant emissions. http://1.usa.gov/1mML2M3Strengthened the Endangered Species Act. http://bit.ly/hscjsHStrengthened protection for wildlife, and expanded enforcement of laws against wildlife trafficking. http://1.usa.gov/1fce1AiObama EPA improved boiler safety standards to improve air quality, and save 6500 lives per year. http://bit.ly/jYH7ntThrough the EPA, attemped to take steps to severely limit the use of antibiotics in livestock feed, to increase their efficacy in humans. http://bit.ly/fBuWd2Through new EPA regulations, he created a pretext for closing the dirtiest power plants in the country, by limiting emissions of mercury and other toxic gasses. http://bit.ly/rQCIgAIncreased funding for National Parks and Forests by 10% http://bit.ly/fbJPjYAnnounced greatly improved commercial fuel efficiency standards.http://1.usa.gov/oQiC1KAnnounced a huge increase in average fuel economy standards from 27.5mpg in 2010 to 35.5mpg starting in 2016 and 54.5 starting in 2025 http://1.usa.gov/qtghsWFacilitated investment in industrial energy efficiency to create jobs and strengthen US manufacturing while saving businesses $100 billion over a decade.http://1.usa.gov/WsIgbxSet up the Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Council to oversee Gulf Coast restoration efforts after the 2010 BP oil spill. The money to fund the restoration efforts comes from fines against BP. http://1.usa.gov/Rxjb29Engaged in the most comprehensive plan to combat climate change in a generation.http://bit.ly/13lXhETOrdered energy plants to prepare to produce at least 15% of all energy through renewable resources like wind and solar, by 2021. http://reut.rs/fV155pOversaw the creation of an initiative that converts old factories and manufacturing centers into new clean technology centers. http://bit.ly/mjnq2RGuided a 418% increase in solar power capacity between 2010 and 2014. http://bit.ly/1rHkWJCAs of May 2015, 74% of new electrical capacity was provided by solar and wind power. http://bit.ly/1T5r0LCBypassed Congress and ordered EPA to begin regulating and measuring carbon emissions.http://bit.ly/froaP5Oversaw a tripling in the use of wind power to generate electricity. The US now leads the world in increased wind power capacity. http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5448Ordered the federal government to incorporate climate resilience and climate science into all international development in which the United States engages. http://1.usa.gov/YV1EpWFast-tracked regulations to allow states to enact fuel efficiency standards that exceeded federal standards. http://nyti.ms/e8e94xFast-tracked increased fuel economy standards for vehicles beginning with the 2011 model year. It was the first time such standards had been increased in more than a decade.http://politi.co/hiaPKMOversaw establishment of an Energy Partnership for the Americas, to create more markets for American-made biofuels and green energy technologies. http://bit.ly/lZp73yObama EPA reversed a Bush-era decision to allow the largest mountaintop removal project in US history. http://bit.ly/lP3yELOrdered the Department of Energy to implement more aggressive efficiency standards for common household appliances. http://1.usa.gov/g3MTbuObama EPA ruled that excess CO2 is a pollutant. http://bit.ly/iQTSNNClosed a deal with China to limit carbon emissions to slow down climate change. http://nyti.ms/1xzyS8KBlocked all oil and gas drilling in Bristol Bay, Alaska, one of the most pristine environments in North America http://lat.ms/13xUVFDSigned an Executive Order to improve environmental efforts in the Arctic region and to combat climate change by better coordinating the efforts of the 23 federal agencies operating in the area. http://usat.ly/ZEzLzEVetoed a bill to fast track construction of the parallel Keystone XL pipeline.http://nbcnews.to/1DVDFo7Expanded clean water regulations to more stringently protect all of the nation’s waterways, even when states fail in their duty. http://bit.ly/1RdQpTcSigned an Executive Order committing the federal government to lead the way in building a sustainable economy. It’s his fifth doing just that. http://1.usa.gov/1EzO2neBanned the use of antibiotics in food served in US Government-run cafeterias and ordered agencies to only use antibiotic-free meat. http://bit.ly/1G1vUxi http://bit.ly/1KHkl4NDeveloped new rules to address climate change and to create a significant boost to clean energy. http://bit.ly/1UnQcuRNegotiated and signed a virtually Republican-Proof global agreement on climate change, with 190 countries signing on. http://bit.ly/1RkjVG8Became one of 196 countries that signed onto a UN Framework on Climate Change.http://unfccc.int/2860.phpOrdered a moratorium on new coal leasing on federal land, and they will examine the whole leasing process. http://wapo.st/23Q6en8There’s a Lot More!Nominated Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan to the Supreme Court. Sotomayor is the first Hispanic Justice in the court’s history, and the women represent only the third and fourth women to serve on the court, out of a total of 112 justices.http://huff.to/eOChg6http://bit.ly/i02wgPAppointed the most diverse Cabinet in history, including more women than any other incoming president. http://bit.ly/dX6vNBLoosened the rules and allowed the 14 states that legalized medical marijuana to regulate themselves without federal interference. http://huff.to/eQfa7jSigned national service legislation, increasing funding for national service groups, including triple the size of the Americorps program. http://bit.ly/idgQH5Signed a bill that provided $4.3 billion in additional assistance to 9/11 first responders.http://bit.ly/o7cWYSSigned the Claims Resolution Act, which provided $4.6 billion in funding for a legal settlement with black and Native American farmers who had been cheated out of government loans and natural resource royalties in the past. http://1.usa.gov/dGppUaTo help those communities devastated by Hurricane Sandy, issued an executive order setting up the Hurricane Sandy Rebuilding Task Force, and asked Congress to approve $60 billion in supplemental assistance to aid in storm recovery. http://1.usa.gov/134L7hlProduced 23 Executive actions designed to make it easier for law enforcement to identify those who shouldn’t have guns, thus helping them enforce the law.http://on.wsj.com/SX9xaZExpanded trade agreements to include stricter labor and environmental agreements in trade pacts like NAFTA. http://bit.ly/etznpYOversaw funding of the design of a new Smithsonian National Museum of African American History, which is scheduled to open on the National Mall in 2015. He protected the funding during budget negotiations.http://on.fb.me/fD0EVO http://bit.ly/ff5LuvOversaw and passed increased funding for the National Endowment for the Arts.http://bit.ly/dFb8qF”And Did You Know?Despite the characterizations of some, Obama’s success rate in winning congressional votes on issues was an unprecedented 96.7% for his first year in office. Though he is often cited as superior to Obama, President Lyndon Johnson’s success rate in 1965 was only 93%.http://n.pr/i3d7cYAnd of course…Despite the odds, became the first black president, and then was reelected by a wide margin of the population.

The crucial thing to understand here, is that popular societal perceptions on homosexuality has always varied greatly throughout the 5,000 year long history of China. Thus there is no one constant prevailing view, on how homosexuality was to be perceived by the public at large.Before the Imperial Era for example, homosexuality wasn’t particularly regarded as abnormal, and was even commonly practiced by the highest members of the gentry.Then, with the adoption of Confucianism as the state’s national ideology, came an exacerbated state of conditional tolerance in which being homosexual was only permitted, as long (and only as long) as the core Confucian beliefs of family and the production of an heir, were being adhered to first and foremostly.The first barriers to homosexuality ironically came to China during the tolerant and liberal Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), but at the time was widely suppressed in favour of a more libertarian attitude with regards to an individual’s private life.An artist’s impression of homosexual intercoure during the Ming Era:By the times however of the totalitarian Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) hundreds of years later, with the ever encroaching influences of Western civilization on China’s metaphorical doorstep, homosexuality was now widely looked down upon more so than ever before, as a degenerative and abnormal social behaviour, especially after the attempted modernization efforts of the Late Imperial era.The main dependent factor here; the reason why Sino civilization has had such a varied view on homosexuality over the course of thousands of years, rather than a solitary unchanged view, is because Chinese culture is not, nor was not, ever stationary. Instead over time, as new philosophical and religious ideologies came and went internally and externally, so too did Chinese societal views on being gay likewise change in accordance with the teachings of these philosophies.Regardless of the era however, Lesbianism on the other hand was strangely omitted from China’s written records more so in comparison to its male variant, which has had a widespread plethora of written works focused entirely on the said topic at hand.The reason for this was presumably since literature and scholarship were usually written by men, for men, and as a consequence many aspects of female sexuality unrelated to male concerns were seldom mentioned as such, with more common referencing from the times the Ming Dynasty of China (1368–1644 AD) onwards.Compared to other regions of the world also however in the last 2,000 years especially, Chinese attitudes towards same sex relations, is widely considered today to have certainly been many times more lenient, than elsewhere in the world at the time, especially with the advent of fundamentalist Christian and Muslims societies.Warning: Long answer dead ahead of 10,500 words, good luck.Also, although some of the images used in this answer are of historical relevance, should still be treated as “Not Suitable For Work” (NSFW), nor for minors… but really, who’s actually going to stop minors from reading this anyway?Here are the contents of the answer for ease of navigation:Chapter I: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Pre-Imperial EraChapter II: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early Imperial EraChapter III: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Post-Classical EraChapter IV: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early Modern EraFinal Summary (and TL;DR)Offline Sources UtilizedOnline Sources UtilizedChapter I: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Pre-Imperial EraPrior to the advent of the Imperial Era in 221 BC, the status of homosexuality was one of widespread indifference by the public at large. Same sex love in those days was usually treated with openness, free from vice nor the dangers of death for what would later be considered in certain parts of the world, as a perversion against nature.To this extent, even the legendary “Yellow Emperor”, the earliest pioneer of Chinese civilization, was perceived by the early Chinese to have set the precedent for same sex relations when he begun to acquire a vast harem made up both of wives and concubines, and yet also male lovers in addition.An artist’s impression of the mythical Yellow Emperor, who was traditionally held by Ancient Chinese to have been the first one to set the precedent of homosexuality:Likewise in China’s actual documented history, no one thought it was particularly strange for a person to engage in homosexual activities nor pursuits, but even more still homosexuality was especially widely referenced, and even celebrated in the popular literature and culture of both the Spring and Autumn, and Warring States Periods (771–476 BC and 476–221 BC).The “Intrigues of the Warring States” for example, a compilative military text, made up of stories, speeches and events dating back to the Warring States Era, notes the installation by Duke Xian, 9th ruler of the State of Jin, of many handsome young men into the royal courts of his enemies, where they were to purposefully obstruct the enemy king’s ability to lead, by keeping him perpetually distracted with their physical charm.Such a clever tactic, was referenced by the text itself which insisted that:“The Book of Zhou says, ‘A beautiful lad can ruin an older head’.”In this way, the agents were to gain the trust of the enemy kings, which would in turn allow them to sabotage his plans by purposefully giving him counterproductive advice, thereby allowing the Jin State to eventually hold a comparative advantage on the battlefields over its rivals.An artist’s impression of Duke Xian preparing his army for war, having successfully by this time distracted his enemies with such a cunning tactic:The fact that such tactics were legitimized and endorsed officially even at the royal level, suggests that it was widespread common knowledge, that many of the rulers were “bisexual” (since there was no such thing as homosexuality, as rulers all had to reproduce, those who had same sex relations were just assumed to be automatically bisexual instead), serving therefore to imply that there was no such need to hide one’s sexual preferences, since there was at this time no existing social stigma against it.Similarly, Han Fei (the father of the brutal totalitarian ideology of Legalism) who lived roughly 300 years after the Duke of Jin, observed in his eponymous philosophical book titled after himself, regarding the famous homosexual love between Duke Ling, 28th Ruler of the State of Wei, and his Viscount, Mi Zixia, noting how the Duke went to extra abnormal lengths to bend the law in favour of his lover, in order to protect him from the legal physical ramifications which would have otherwise applied in normal circumstances:“Mizi Xia was a favorite, and a Great Master, during the reign of the duke Ling of Wei: he was the lover of the duke. According to the law of the kingdom, the use of the duke’s carriage without permission was forbidden to all, upon pain of having one’s feet cut off.One time it happened that Mizi’s mother took gravely ill, and a breathless messenger came running to the palace in the middle of the night to bring him the news. He, without a second thought, jumped into the duke’s carriage and took off. When the duke found out, instead of punishing him he praised him, saying:‘What a devoted son! For his mother he risks even losing his own feet!’”An artist’s impression of Mi Zixia and his lover Duke Ling of Wei:On another occasion similarly, the Viscount was even recorded by Han Fei as eating from a Peach intending to consume it all at once, before remembering that it was better to share the remainder with his lover instead:“Another time, on a warm summer afternoon, he was strolling with the duke through the royal orchard. A beautiful peach on a low-lying branch caught his eye and he plucked it. Biting down on it he found it sweet, so he offered the rest to the duke. The duke, touched by the intimate gesture, said:‘He loves me to the point of forgetting his own mouth and giving it to me!’”Another artist’s impression of Mi Zixia and Duke Ling engaging in the act of sexual intercourse (note how Mi Zixia is lighter in skin tone to reflect his femininity, and therefore status as the submissive party, whilst the older Duke is considered to be the dominant party, and is thus dark in skin tone in order to reflect his masculinity):Yet it was indeed a romantic, rather than a platonic or fraternal love, since as the years went on and as the Viscount’s physical attributes faded away, so too did the Duke’s tolerance for his shortcomings:“Later, the beauty of the viscount began to fade, and the duke’s love also waned. When the viscount was one time accused of a crime, the duke said:“That one once hijacked my carriage, and he even gave me a half-eaten peach to eat!”Mizi Xia had not done anything unusual. If the ruler was now accusing him of a crime instead of praising him like he used to, that was because the duke’s love had now turned to hate.”The philosopher Han Fei, who recounted such a tale wrote it to prove a point. He wanted to assert his view that that in the end, the Duke did the right thing by neglecting his lover, but not because homosexuality was an evil abnormality, but because the ruler has to put the State first and foremostly, rather than worry about such earthly and sensual pleasure, as that of romantic love, regardless of what gender his lover actually was.As such, Han Fei even once warned against such an evil, recounting that such a distraction to the efficiency of the ruler could come in the form of both genders, indirectly implying the widespread prevalence of same sex relations:“The ruler is easily beguiled by lovely women and charming boys, by all those who can play and fawn at love.”A portrait of Han Fei, one of the pioneers of the totalitarian ideology of Legalism:The next most prominent story regarding homosexuality in the Warring States was of another unnamed King of the Wei State, and a favoured subject of his by the name of Lord Yang, in which Yang began to cry after he caught two fish in a row, lamenting that he would have to dispose of his first fish because the second was much better in quality, and likewise, he himself would be disposed of one day sooner rather than later by his lover, when a better replacement came along:“Why does that make you cry?” the king asked.Long Yang replied, “When I caught the fish, at first I was extremely pleased. But afterwards I caught a larger fish, so I wanted to throw back the first fish I had caught. Because of this evil act I will be expelled from your bed! There are innumerable beauties in the world. Upon hearing of my receiving your favor, surely they will lift up the hems of their robes so that they can hasten to you. I am also a previously caught fish! I will also be thrown back! How can I keep from crying?”Because of this incident the king of Wei announced to the world, “Anyone who dares to speak of their beauties will be executed along with his entire family”.-Passions of the Cut Sleeve, Bret HinschAn artist’s impression of Lord Yang catching his fish beside the King of Wei:Thus it was, that the status of homosexuality in Pre-Imperial China, was one of widespread acceptance most evident from its widespread referencing, and lack of condemnation from writers and the public alike, a fact which was further exemplified by the lack of an apparent desire to hide what would otherwise be “scandalous” affairs, deeply serves to imply the widespread view of homosexuality in Pre-Imperial China as one of widespread acceptance.Though this would be the prevailing view on the subject matter for the rest of the Pre-Imperial period, such an open view with regards to homosexuality would be damaged slightly with the introduction and subsequent adoption of the philosophy of Confucianism.Though Confucianism was very lenient in comparison to the totalitarian ideology of Legalism, it still stressed order and the family unit first and foremostly, and as a result, this conflicted with homosexuality:“To put the world in order, we must first put the nation in order; to put the nation in order, we must put the family in order; to put the family in order, we must cultivate our personal life; and to cultivate our personal life, we must first set our hearts right.”-Confucius (551–479 BC), founder of ConfucianismA statue of Confucius, the father of Confucianism, the ideology which changed the way the Chinese viewed homosexuality during the Early Imperial Era:Confucianism extended down to the individual itself, it forced and obligated one to comply with its teachings for maximized societal benefit, and it promoted collectivism at the expense of the individual. Therefore, any private reservations and inclinations as a result had to be swept aside as such. Confucianism and freedom, even the freedom to pursue a same sex relationship, were thus incompatible.And of course in time, such a development would prove to be all too inevitable, as Confucianism was adopted and sponsored officially, by the ruling Imperial Liu Family of the mighty Han Dynasty of China (206 BC-220 AD), as a means to safeguard the prosperity of the Empire, at the expense of same sex relations.Chapter II: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early-Imperial EraStrangely enough however, Confucianism actually had little to say about the act of homosexuality itself directly, and likewise had little to say against the act of same sex relations also. Its major concern, was with whether or not the family unit was stabilized. This theoretically permitted for there to be a continuation of same sex relations, on condition that the concerned parties’ families were first put in order.Thus, Confucianism was not overly damaging to homosexuality, as many men eventually found that they were free to do whatever they pleased outside their normal and public lives, as long as they followed the teachings of Confucianism, by having children as was popularly encouraged by Han society, whilst also financially taking care of their family.Some have also claimed that in fact, Confucianism had the opposite effect regarding homosexuality, and perhaps may have even indirectly encourage it, by encouraging men of all classes to not only maintain a harmonious relationship with one another, but to take up an intimate master-disciple relationship also.A Qing Era illustration of Liu Bang, First Emperor of the Han Dynasty, and implementer and patron of the philosophy of Confucianism:Anyways, if all of the above was satisfied, then all would be fine, and nobody would care as to what one was doing in one’s spare time. Exclusive homosexuality on the other hand however, which brought about no socially “productive” nor obvious societal benefits, was greatly frowned upon during the Han Dynasty unlike in Pre-Imperial China. In this way, Early Imperial China differed from the Warring States, and Spring and Autumn Periods which came before, regarding same sex relations.Anyways, the fact that conditional homosexuality was still permitted, was a social “loophole” which saw 10 out of the 13 Emperors of the Western (first half of the) Han Empire (206 BC-9 AD), continue to pursue homosexual relations concurrently whilst also possessing an army of concubines and wives. The most famous of these said rulers, was Emperor Ai of Han (reigned 27–1 BC), who had a very particular lover named Dong Xian.In the case of Emperor Ai and his lover, the former was a notorious seducer of men, and sexually favoured Dong, a government official, because he claimed that Dong’s personality, which was extremely simplistic, direct and drama free, was in direct contrast to the ever calculating malices of the Imperial Court, giving him lengthy periods of respite from the treacheries of public appearances, and official Imperial business.Thus it was that before long, the two pursued an openly announced homosexual relationship, which still to this day is remembered in China best for the story of the “Passion of the Cut Sleeve”, in which the Emperor had to leave to meet with his officials, but couldn’t as Dong was still asleep, his head lying on the Emperor’s sleeve. Not wishing to disturb his lover, he instead cut off the sleeves of his presumably expensive robes, before leaving to attend the crucial meeting:“Emperor Ai was sleeping in the daytime with Dong Xian stretched out across his sleeve. When the emperor wanted to get up, Dong Xian was still asleep. Because he did not want to disturb him, the emperor cut off his own sleeve and got up. His love and thoughtfulness went this far!”-Records of the Han, Ban GuAn artist’s impression of Emperor Ai of Han cutting of his sleeve, in order to not disturb his sleeping lover Dong Xian:After finally reaching the meeting with his officials, he even publicly informed the Imperial Court as to the events which had just transpired before, and showed off his cut sleeves to the present officials. And in response, his subjects in turn showed off their approval to the Emperor, by cutting their own sleeves off in turn, to voice their assent at such a thoughtful action.As is thus obvious, homosexuality despite being partially damaged by the advent of Confucianism, was still extremely normal as viewed by Chinese society at this point in time. The most notable thing about their relationship, was that not only was it publicly known by all individuals in the Imperial Court, but both were also married, directly proving that even the highest men in the Han Empire fully exploited social loopholes, in order to pursue homosexual relations with one another, but only after first fulfilling the commonly agreed upon Confucian norms.This lack of care regarding their homosexuality was a fact which was most evident in the way in which the Han Historian Sima Qian (who wrote about Emperor Ai and Dong Xian) recorded his events.Though he is often equated with the Roman Historian, Suetonius, unlike his Roman counterpart who sometimes passed judgement on the homosexual activities of the individuals on which he was studying in his “Lives of the Twelve Caesars”, Sima refrains from passing similar judgement on his subjects, preferring to focus instead on their influences on Court Politics, partly implying to this author, that homosexuality was perhaps even more accepted by Han China, than it was in Imperial Rome.Sima himself however, did also note the potential of the male aesthetic to be used as a weapon to distract:“It is not women alone who can use their looks to attract the eyes of the ruler; courtiers and eunuchs can play at that game as well. Many were the men of ancient times who gained favor this way.”A portrait of the Historian Sima Qian, the most authoritative figure on the History of China up until his contemporary Han Dynasty, whose writings have allowed sinologists to learn much about Chinese attitudes to homosexuality today:Other noteworthy occasions referenced in the official histories of the Han Dynasty meanwhile, extended to Huo Guang also, a politician in the Western Han Empire. Huo, who was infatuated with his slave master it was noted, was subsequently made fun of publicly by all non-Chinese foreigners alike who were informed of such a story, but his fellow countrymen by contrast, didn’t even so much as raise an eyebrow at the mention of such a fact.A certain General Liang Ji in the Eastern (later half of the) Han Empire (25–220 AD) was particularly noted meanwhile for his exceptional devotion to his wife, allowing her to share him with his male de facto “concubine”, Qin Gong, when the time came for him to be sexually pleasured, in which all three parties would partake in a “threesome” whensoever he asked them to.It was also during the times of the Han Dynasty, that one of the first, if not the first mention regarding female homosexuality surfaces. A Historian in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Ying Shao, made observations regarding several Imperial Palace women forming homosexual attachments with one another, in a relationship titled “Duishi” (a term interpreted to refer to reciprocal cunilingus), in which the two acted as husband and wife. Ying noted regarding many of the pairs that:“Duishi refers to ladies of honor pairing together like husband and wife; they are very jealous of one another.”-Passions of the Cut Sleeve, Bret HinschIt was a term which was also used by the Empress Zhao Feiyan to refer to her observations regarding two of her female palatial servants, who she interestingly noted especially for “sharing their meals together”. The Empress Chen, wife of the great Emperor Wu of Han likewise was known to have had sexual liaisons with other women, having said to have fallen in love a shamaness she hired to cite incantations to bear her husband a son, having failed to have done so up until then.The fact that contemporary archaeologists have discovered double-ended dildos recovered from tombs dating back to the Han Dynasty, suggests also that Lesbian sexual relations was quite commonly practiced during the Early Imperial Era, although as they were found in princely tombs, suggests also that such activities were merely limited to the highest orders of Han society.The double-ended dildos in question, recovered from the Princely Han Era tombs:The greatest times in Imperial China for homsexual activities however, came with the collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 AD, and its subsequent replacement many hundreds of years later under the turbulent era of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589 AD). This would in turn be the era which would be most open to homosexuality in Imperial China, akin to the levels of acceptance reached in the Pre-Imperial Era.The reason for this was simple, with the end of the Han Empire ended an era of extreme power and centralization. All the dynasties which followed the Han for the next 400 years were all too weak and decentralized to return to a Confucian led society, and Confucianism was thus widely disregarded during this time period, letting loose a wave of tolerance once more, a wave which had once existed hundreds of years earlier in Feudal China.As such, homosexuality once more accelerated greatly, and soon enough it was commonplace yet again, and sometimes even went against the non-existent Confucian teachings, as some men begun to neglect both their family duties, and wives, and became exclusively homosexual.In the 5th Century AD in the case of the Southern Dynasty of Liu Song (420–79 AD), it was even recorded that the act of homosexuality had even become so widespread, that there was even now a surplus of bitter single women all over China:“All the gentlemen and officials esteemed it. All men in the realm followed this fashion to the extent that husbands and wives were estranged. Resentful unmarried women became jealous.”-Passions of the Cut Sleeve, Bret HinschTerritories of the tolerant Liu Song Dynasty in 440 AD:Poetry especially, during the Age of Disunity (220–581 AD) in the 6th Century AD, despite often writing about homsexuality indirectly (for direct sexual mentions of any kind were commonly considered to be vulgar), were so obsolete due to the widespread existence of homosexuality, that everyone would understand what a certain poet was truly alluding to in his poems. One of the such relevant works of poet, Liu Xiaozhuo, was an excellent example of this:“She dawdles, not daring to move closer,afraid he might compare her with leftover peach** (“Leftover Peach” is a reference to the story of Viscount Mi Zixia and Duke Ling of Wei in Pre-Imperial China as mentioned back in Chapter I, where Mi shared his Peach with the Duke instead of consuming it himself entirely).”Another example meanwhile of this obvious allusion, was certainly also very evident likewise with the poet, Xu Ling, who likewise recounts in a poem of his (titled “Charming Boy”), the physical beauties of any certain young men:“Charming boy—You look so handsome!You surpass Dong Xian and Mizi Xia.Our feather curtains are filled with morning fragrance,Our curtained bed is inlaid with ivory …Your face is more beautiful than rosy red dawn clouds …You’re enough to make the girls of Yan envious,And cause even Zheng women to sigh.”And thus by now, it should be clear, that even in the Early Imperial Era of China’s long history, homsexuality at this point in time was still viewed very positively by society at large.An artist’s impression of a woman engaging in the act of voyeurism, as she spies on a homosexual couple engaged in the act of intercourse:Though initially during the Han Empire Confucianism did place a few restrictions with regards to the limits of homosexuals, such restraints were once again as was the case under the Pre-Imperial Era, far removed for the most part in practice, due to the aforementioned loopholes, which allowed for a more libertarian attitude to apply to one’s private life, if his public life was put in order first and foremostly, as a precondition.This was not to be the case for long however, for soon with the imminent reunification of China under the Sui Empire (581–618 AD), and its subsequent replacement by the ironically liberal Golden Age of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), barriers to the absolute freedoms of homosexuality, rose again once more.Chapter III: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Post-Classical EraWhilst the Tang Empire is both widely recognized and celebrated as the single greatest Chinese dynasty to this day, this great period of Cosmopolitanism and openness which acted to encourage both the Imperial Li Family, and the Tang citizenry to import from overseas, the very best aspects of the International community, unavoidably served to also bring back some of its more negative facets.Homosexuality thus in comparison to the Early Imperial Era, became noticeably less in the Post-Classical Era, regarding the instances where we have written records of such trends taking place.Buddhism for one, which became the main national ideology of the common Tang people, generally advocated for the ideal individual, to have been one which favoured not, the value of a physical relationship, instead encouraging the view that sex was merely for procreational purposes. Thus homosexuality was not to be encouraged according to this strict religious view, which it believed would only distract one from attaining a state of enlightenment; a state of “Nirvana”.However, this was certainly not a universal Buddhist rule which had to be obeyed by all. Only certain schools of Buddhism believed such to be the case, other schools by contrast maintained a more neutral view on the matter, as did Buddhism’s most prominent religious rival; the native Chinese philosophy of Taoism, which though not as strong as it once was, acted to further diversify popular thought on homosexuality.Taoism most notably, even perhaps acted instead to normalize the notion of homosexuality, as it was an ideology which preached balance between the forces of Heaven and Earth. This was and still is represented today by the Yin and Yang symbol, representing a balance between the feminine and masculine energies of Yin and Yang respectively.In case it is unclear, this is the Yin and Yang symbol which represents the Taoist value of balance:Every human being, was widely regarded by Taoists to have contained both, therefore men also possessed Yin, whilst women also possed Yang. Thus, whenever there was an instance of homosexuality, the homosexual male for example was considered to have an overabundance of the feminine energy of Yin, hence by Taoist logic, it was to be expected that they would of course be attracted to the masculine energy of Yang belonging to other men.Given that there were many differing schools of Buddhism also, it would of course be expected that certain schools of thought would be more favourable to homosexuality, than others. Certain schools for example strongly believed in the existence of a past life, and the notion of “Karma”, which was then subsequently used to support the naturality of homosexuality.It was believed by these certain schools, that in the event a man fell in love with another man, that it was surely because the latter was in fact once his wife from a past life, but their marriage, was one of complete unhappiness. Thus as was interpreted by these particular Buddhist schools, the homosexual relationship was the universe’s way of giving the couple a second chance at happiness. Thus the two had to make their amends in this life, or risk the cycle restarting all over again.This acted to normalize homosexuality in the same way as Taoism, and counter the homophobic tendencies of the other less “gay-friendly” philosophies and religions, such as Christianity and Islam, by providing a natural explanation as to why homosexuality existed in the form in which it did.Confucianism also, whilst not particularly strong as was once the case with the masses, was not only present there during the Tang Era, but also officially endorsed still by the Imperial Court, as the Li Family’s primary “go to” ideology.The Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam meanwhile also served to reinforce the first barriers against homosexuality. Hinduism in the form of many homophobic Hindu texts, has also been suggested by many Historians today as a reason for grassroot resistance to Chinese homosexuality during the reign of the Tang Empire.A wall painting originating from a Nestorian Christian Church, depicting the a procession of Nestorian priests celebrating Palm Sunday (during the Tang Dynasty, Christianity came to the Celestial Empire, greatly affecting how homosexuality was seen in the Tang Dynasty):To this extent, not only did the first pejorative term against homosexuality originate during the Tang Era, which at the time insulted all homosexuals with the term “Jijian”, but China’s first officially endorsed efforts into enforcing a more “moral” societal order, in accordance with the views of these new ideologies were sponsored and implemented. They were all in vain however, and no Tang Chinese ever really took them seriously.Despite these negative influences on Tang society however, the benevolent and libertarian precedent set by the reign of the Imperial Li Family (under Li Shimin or Emperor Taizong), would in time finally overwhelm the external influences of the foreign ideologies, and in doing so allow for the Tang citizenry to negate these barriers to their individual freedoms, and thus return to the “Han Model” regarding popular views on same sex relations.To this extent, by the time the Arabs (most of whom were Muslims) came to trade in China en masse, they were disgusted with the common Tang Chinese norm of sodomizing pre-pubescent boys, acting as temple prostitutes.Lesbainism meanwhile, like under the Han Empire before it, was also rampant, this time however in the Buddhist nunneries as well, as many Buddhist nuns seeked relationships with one another according to the “The Memoir on the Music Academy”, a treatise on music (written between 742–907 AD) which mentions that many lesbian unions modeled after heterosexual marriage existed. Taoist nuns meanwhile were recorded as having exchanged many upon many love poems to one another.A modern film reenactment of a Lesbian gathering during the Tang Dynasty (note the clothing of the woman in the center, she is in fact cross-dressing, and is donning the male attire of the Persian and Xianbei influenced “Yuanlingpao”):The Tang Dynasty, being the Golden Age of Chinese poetry as well at this time most memorably, is noted by 21st Century sinologists for being especially difficult to differentiate, as the word both for “he” and “she” were written using the same character in Classical Chinese: tā (他). Given that the poets refused to disclose the sexes, and that Middle Chinese did not have grammatical genders, has led scholars to believe that the poems were supposed to have been read either through heterosexual, or homosexual lenses, based purely on the reader’s desire.Tang poems were also often wrote by men masquerading as women, using a female voice upon writing their poems, to lament being abandoned by a close male comrade or lord.Sometimes, teenage girls were also depicted in heavily suggestive sexual relationships, who were shown to have done so directly because of the knowledge that they were destined to one day sooner than later, end up in an arranged and forced marriage to someone that they did not love. In this way, Tang poems often acted as social commentary, raising awareness of many societal issues during the Tang Era.It was during the Tang Period also, that the first attempts at the compilation of the history of what is recognized today, as the homosexual and therefore an awareness of the existence of homosexuality, was first referenced to by the Tang poet, Bai Xingjian, in his work titled, “Rhapsody on the Supreme Joy of the Sexual Union of Heaven and Earth and Yin and Yang”.After the reign of the Cosmopolitan Tang Era came the society of the Proto-Industrialized Song Empire (960–1279 AD), in which the first official laws against homosexuality, but more specifically against male prostitution were passed.This was despite the fact that the Song, like the Tang before it was also an ironically tolerant, liberal and quasi-free society. An edict from the Zhenghe Era (1111–1117 AD) especially, called for the arrest and subsequent flogging of male prostitutes for gross public indecency.An Imperial portrait of Taizu of Song, First Emperor of the Song Dynasty, who set the precedent of relative liberalism in China for next 300 years of the Empire’s existence:However as time would have it otherwise, these Imperial efforts were all in vain. For the Song unlike the Tang before it, was less cosmopolitan and accepting of foreign influences, and this therefore as such acted to curb the negative influences against homosexuality, which were once pervasive throughout the preceding Tang.Given also, that during the Song, a state of economic and scientific pre-industrialization was attained, these phenomenons combined with the liberalism and widespread quasi-free society which was allowed to exist under the Song Empire, would in time render any new legal legislation passed to curb homosexuality, entirely redundant and non-enforceable (a fact which was well known by all of Song society).Under the Song, as China’s population grew to account for roughly 1/3 of the world’s population, and as a vastly accelerating rate of urbanization continued, combined with the invention and introduction of paper currency, simultaneously allowed both the beginnings of an ever wealthy Capitalist “Middle Class” to thrive, and also prostitution rates to increase en masse directly as a result.A small section of the famous “Along the River During the Qingming Festival” Song Era painting (a painting which was 25.5 centimetres in height and 5.25 meters in length, and contained a total of 814 humans, 28 boats, 60 animals, 30 buildings, 20 vehicles, 8 sedan chairs, and 170 trees) depicting the great economic prosperity of Song China, resultant from International Trade which would in time lead to the imminent rise of the Capitalist Middle Classes, directly leading to a rapid rise in male prostitution, and steady monetization of all things sexual:Using their new found power and wealth, the traditional position of the “Mandarin” Bureaucrat as the preeminent power in Chinese society, was severely displaced by the Song Capitalist, who then became the most economically dominant class of Chinese society. With an overabundance of money to spend, little else to expend on, and unfulfilled sexual fantasies to fulfill, Song Capitalists turned instead towards both heterosexual and homosexual prostitution in their spare time as a common recreational activity.Such a trend saw the monetization of all things sexual, and therefore increased male prostitution in response, actually negating the Imperial laws which were once passed to halt such a phenomenon from further spreading. Now, more than ever before, the middle classes often frequented brothels to visit their favoured male courtesans, more often than not who would today be considered “underage”, who were to in turn cater for their wealthy clients who were eager to promote their masculinity, by taking on a feminine, “submissive” role instead.Homosexuality during the Song Dynasty, was also beginning to be more greatly obstructed by new advances in Confucianism. The former philosophy, adopted since the times of Han was now during the Song Era “updated” with a new philosophy, which valued both secularism and puritanism, by the name of “Neo-Confucianism”.Neo-Confucianism, advocated for abstinence, and advised against sexual gratification and indulgence in any form, both heterosexual and homosexual. Though, due to the aforementioned reasons cited earlier, combined with the fact that the ideology was just newly formed, and also that the Song had no official “religion”, instead preferring to balance the three ideologies of Buddhism, Taoism (which was either gay neutral or gay friendly) and now Neo-Confucianism equally, saw to it that such puritan teachings on sexuality, were likewise also largely ignored by all of Song society for the most part.A Qing Era impression of Lu Zhishen, one of the many characters from the 1 of the 4 Great Classical Novels of China, Water Margin, uprooting a tree (the novel, which was set in the Song Era has sometimes been interpreted to subtly refer to the homsexual relations between all of the 108 outlaws which feature in it):The only notable influence, was on the modest clothing of Song women, which contradicted their Tang counterparts, regarding the fact that they no longer exposed cleavage, nor were loosely fitted. Otherwise however, the effects of Neo-Confucianism were quite minimal, neither affecting heterosexual activities, nor homosexual relations for the most part.Thus it was that homosexuality during the Post-Classical Era of China was adversely altered, and more restricted than under the Pre or Early Imperial periods of China, due to new developments in the adoption of foreign ideologies, and also of “homegrown”, Chinese domestic ideologies.For the most part however, such developments remained purely nominal, and the negative effects of such a phenomenon were largely ignored by the liberal and prosperous Dynasties of Tang and Song, under the reign of the Imperial Li and Zhao Families respectively.The same could not be said however, for the Early Modern Period of China, which soon followed thereafter, which though still retained some pro-homosexual features here and there, often reflected the totalitarian natures of the Ming and Qing Administrations. China, long an open civilization with regards to same sex behaviour, was open no longer by the very end of it.Chapter IV: Chinese Perceptions of Homosexuality in the Early Modern EraUnlike the Tang and Song before it, the Early Ming Emperors of Hongwu and Yongle (reigned 1368–98 and 1402–24 AD) did not practice neither tolerance nor liberalism, and instead promoted the former Song Dynasty ideology of Neo-Confucianism, as the new dominant state philosophy of the Celestial Empire. Totalitarianism was the Emperor’s new weapon, and he used it to enforce his will.Neo-Confucianism however, had the opposite effect of what it was intended for, and instead only broadly acted to halt Mandarin Officials especially from visiting female courtesans, forcing them to turn instead en masse to young male prostitutes instead for their “horizontal exercises”.The brutally restrictive yet puritan nature of the Ming Administration, meant that they were forced to maintain a homophobic stance on same sex dalliances, this was true such that many laws were passed by the Mid-Ming period, which explicitly prohibited sodomy.Before such a law was finally amended in 1526 AD, legislation involving anal penetrations was compared to forcing garbage down into an individual’s mouth, and such a “disgusting” practice was therefore punished with 100 bamboo cane strokes, to whosoever participated in such a act.The Imperial Portrait of Zhu Yuanzhang, First Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and the man who begun a new age in Imperial Chinese History, by starting the precedent of 500 years of Chinese totalitarianism:By the time of the Mid to Late Ming Era however, as the power of the Ming Emperors became more and more non-existent, and as they retreated back from ruling due to either an unwillingness or inability to continue to rule, so too did official restrictions on homosexuality before long return. And as a result, homosexuality was on the rise once more in the now, anarchic country of Ming China.Mirroring the Song period, which had seen a steady increase of homosexuality amongst the Middle Classes, the Capitalists of the Ming likewise begun to once again consider such an activity to be extremely luxurious, with many practicing it eventually once more, after the totalitarian reigns of Hongwu and Yongle were over, now replaced with more laissez-faire rulers who were either too lazy or unintelligent to take control of the Empire.Homosexuality became so widespread in fact, that the Ming writer Xie Zhaozhe (a contemporary of Shakespeare) once noted regarding homosexuality in Ming China:"From Jiangnan and Zhejiang to Beijing and Shanxi, there is none that does not know of this fondness."Xie likewise also recorded how young men were “shared around” at business meetings in the Capital of Beijing, whenever it was time for the Capitalists to congregate with one another.The famous Ming Era “Blue and White” Porcelain Vase, which was internationally desired by all the countries of the world (16% of Ming Vases were exported to Europe during the Ming Period), was partly responsible for allowing Ming Capitalists to emerge as an economically dominant class once more:In the restrictive Ming Era strangely enough of all time periods, homosexuality ironically thrived to a seemingly greater extent arguably even more so than in the liberal periods of Tang and Song. One Chinese province in particular, Fujian, was widely noted, and stereotyped by other Chinese provinces during the Ming Era, to be the only existing hotbed of homosexuality at the time. If you were a homosexual, you had to be from Fujian province, or so they thought.Homosexuality even became so widespread in Fujian in fact, that the Mandarin Official Shen Defu once commented regarding such a phenomenon that:“The Fujianese men are extremely fond of male beauty. No matter how rich or poor, handsome or ugly, they all find a companion of their own status. Between the two the older is called the “adoptive elder brother” (qixiong), the younger the “adoptive younger brother” (qidi).When this elder brother goes to the house of the younger brother, the parents of the latter take care of him and love him like a son-in-law. And the younger brother’s expenses, including those of his marriage are all covered by the elder brother. They love each other and at the age of thirty are still sleeping in the same bed together like husband and wife.”Most notably, this passage today, is commonly regarded by sinologists as a reference in support of the phenomenon of nominal and de facto “gay marriages” occurring in the Ming Empire, at that time roughly 400-500 years ago.Further regarding the notion of the homosexual marriage, the Ming playwright Li Yu also noted that:"They do not skip the three cups of tea or the six wedding rituals- it is just like a proper marriage with a formal wedding."Afterwards, the younger party was to move into the household of the older party, where he would give himself over to his husband, and come to depend entirely on him. As a result, his husband’s parents were to treat him as a son in law, and he was to even help raise children adopted by his husband, in the event that such a case was to occur.Such a trend was most notable for the fact that the Fujianese were able to incorporate homosexuality into the traditional Confucian order, even altering it to fit their new lifestyles, unlike before from the Han, Tang and Song, where individuals rather, were to alter themselves to conform to Confucianism. Virgin men, made for a more “marriageable” adoptive “younger brother” (qidi).A map of the Ming Empire in the Late Ming Era, with all its provinces displayed (Fujian is on the Eastern Coast, in the Southern half of China in Green next to the Island of Taiwan):It was- make no mistake -indeed a same sex formal union, but it did not last forever by itself of course, and according to Confucian traditions originating back to the Han, the parties were of course sooner than later expected to marry women, and thus subsequently produce heirs as a result. After 20 or so years of an uninterrupted same sex marriage, this was to occur, and the former union dissolved.Yet, even then they often made arrangements with their new wives, which allowed for the two parties’ families, to live together in the same household, so that former husband and “wife” could also live together under the same roof. Exclusive homosexuality as is evident, was still clearly disregarded by Chinese society now under the Ming, as it once was under the Han Era, and only tolerated if children were to be produced somewhere along the course of such an affair.Ming Emperors too, likewise in the Mid-Late Era also did not refrain from homosexual affairs, but instead actively participated in them. A Historian named Mao Qiling from the succeeding Qing Dynasty noted that the Ming Emperor Zhengde had many male lovers, meanwhile the Emperor Tianqi was claimed to have kept two private palaces, one exclusively for his female lovers, the other especially for his male lovers.The Ming Era most notably was also the Chinese Golden Age of Lesbianism, which was widely referenced in Ming China’s popular culture at the time. Both written and visual pornographic works at the time, widely referenced and or focused around lesbianism, with many fictional stories in particular depicting women engaged in Lesbianism, to have been “experimenting” with one another, in order to maximise sexual pleasure.During the Ming Era, lesbian sexual practices even expanded to meet with the rapidly rising trend of sapphism, which were created all in the name of pleasure. This included, but was not limited to the act of frottage, informally called “grinding beans to make tofu” (mo doufu), cunilingus and mutual masturbation.Dildos like in the Han Era meanwhile, came in all sorts of sizes, shapes and makeups, in the form of bronze, wood and ivory. They were denoted and differentiated in the form of many names such as that of "Dumb Husband" (Bu Yu Xiansheng), "Master Horn" (Jiao Xiansheng), or "Cantonese Love" (Guangdong Renshi).A hollow bronze dildo dating back to the Han Dynasty, believed to have been utilized as a strap on makeshift instrument, used both for heterosexual, and of course Lesbian sex:Several mentions in addition, were also made during the Ming Dynasty claiming to have witnessed either first or second hand, stories of concubines, stepmothers, daughters-in-law and especially actresses in female only theatres, falling in love all over China, all of which were keen to initiate a same sex relationship with one another.Mid and Late Ming attitudes remarkably even changed little, despite increasing contacts with European civilization at this point in time, which formally begun when the first Portuguese traders arrived in China for economic purposes in 1557 AD, and thus along with them also came Christian missionaries, and thus also, the morals of Western civilization.Using the biblical books of Exodus and Leviticus, the Christians begun to terrorize the Ming population by promising that God would send them all to the everlasting fires of eternal damnation, should they continue along the sinful path as “Sodom and Gomorrah” once did.To this extent, Dominican Monk, Gaspar da Cruz even begun to rewrite Chinese History, to claim that a series of Earthquakes which had occurred during the Song Dynasty in the 12th century, were directly as a result of the homosexual perversions to which the Chinese subscribed to.The famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci, who was one of the westerners most privileged, as to be shown around the Isolationist Empire of Ming, most notably showed utter disdain for what he described as “unnatural perversions”. He was also especially disturbed by the fact that the Ming Chinese were all so open about it also.An artist’s impression of Matteo Ricci in Ming China, notably wearing the attire of the Ming:But the Chinese didn’t care for his condemnations, and even begun to make fun of the outwardly celibate “holy” men, insisting that the only reason they condemned homosexuality, was because they were forced to refrain from sexual pleasures themselves, the only potential source which could presumably only come about from being intimate with other Jesuit monks, as they were restricted often from meeting with women.For all the widespread animosities introduced by Christianity into the mighty Celestial Empire, China’s attitudes towards homosexuality, despite the fact that many thousands of Ming Chinese had been converted by this point in time, was still one of relative though noticeably waning tolerance, in comparison to Christian Europe at this point in time, or even the Islamic Middle East.The Ming’s generally open attitudes towards homosexuality, was however not accepted by all Ming Chinese alike. Neo-Confucian scholars especially, detested what they saw as a morally corrupt society, and one scholar in particular, Pu Songling, especially detested the notion of exclusively homosexual relationships, and wrote the following lines in response to this rapidly growing national development, which was of course monopolized by Fujian Province:“Illicit trystsTwixt men and womenWere once thought foul;How much fouler reeksThe passion of Cut Sleeve,Of Half-Eaten Peach,Of love twixt man and man!Only the mightiest warriorCan penetrate that tiny bird-track!The narrow grottoLeads to no Peach Blossom Spring:Surely the fishermanPoled up it by mistake!”It was the arrival of the Europeans however, that finally signalled the beginnings of a new era of morality, morals which were non-Chinese in origin, instead imported from the West, which at first slowly made its way into the Celestial Empire, before rapidly accelerating towards the very last days of the Manchurian Qing Dynasty, acted to slowly overtime end thousands of years of Chinese tolerance towards homosexuality.A Dutch illustration below of the surrender of the Island of Formosa (Taiwan) by the Dutch East India Company to Ming China (the arrival of the Europeans often also led to full on battles between the Chinese, and at times the Dutch or Portuguese):And as a result of this rapidly ascending wave of Western cultural influence, tolerance was henceforth replaced with a new cultural system, which instead favoured Western influenced homophobia.Prior to such later times however, such a widely “celebrated” attitude during the Late Ming Era, continued onwards even under the totalitarian Early Qing Era which soon succeeded the Ming Period thereafter. Both male and female homosexuality continued ahead, barriers free for the most part at this point in time.As early as 1651 AD (merely 7 years after 25 million people were killed and the entire nation destroyed in the Manchu Invasions), the Chinese play, “Pitying the Fragrant Companion” for example was composed by the playwright Li Yu, centered on the premise of a Lesbian infatuation between two young teenage girls, as they fought for their right to love one another:“Madame Fan, who is seventeen, meets a girl two years younger in a Buddhist convent. They fall desperately in love and take oaths of devotion before the Buddha in the presence of their approving servants. The girl laments that they must be separated and wishes they could be reincarnated as man and wife.In a charming scene they playfully try on a man’s robes to see who might better fit the part. Then Madame Fan hits upon a more practical solution: she asks her husband to take the younger woman into the household as a concubine. He agrees, and the play ends happily.”-Louis Crompton, Homosexuality and CivilizationAn artist’s impression of the two female protagonists and lovers in the play, “Pitying the Fragrant Companion”:Soon thereafter though, Early Qing attitudes took a slight turn once more, as those who had lived in the last days of the Ming Dynasty complained, and claimed that the reason the Ming had collapsed was because of its widespread lack of morality with regards to the Neo-Confucian way. An even stricter form of Neo-Confucianism was thus upheld by the Qing Empire, and male homosexuality especially, was discouraged through official legislation.To this extent, Emperor Hong Taiji of Qing (reigned 1626–43 AD) implemented a punishment system which prescribed for a punishment of 100 lashes for any form of homosexuality, a punishment which European observers considered to be very lenient. Instead of halting homosexuality however, it served to only legitimize homosexual relations, which were then put on an equal footing with heterosexual relationships. And thus in time, such efforts were abandoned entirely for the next couple of decades, and homosexuality prevailed once more.It wasn’t until 1740 under the great Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735–96 AD), that China’s first major, large scale and permanent laws were finally put in place against homosexual tendencies. The new legislation, not only outlawed exclusive homosexuality, but even consensual homosexual intercourse, and even sex in any form outside of marriage full stop.It should be noted however, that the punishment for breaking such a law was not too serious, with offenders only recorded as being dealt with the least damaging punishment available: one month in jail, and 100 heavy blows from a wooden stick. In addition to such a “lenient” punishment, the Qing Police often did not take the disobedience of such a law to be all too serious, and thus often subtly gave offenders every possible chance to be more discreet with their private lives. Arrests for this crime were thus for the most part, very limited in scale.An Imperial Portrait of Emperor Qianlong, pioneer of China’s first major laws against homosexuality in China, henceforth affecting how homosexuality was seen in the Celestial Empire from then on:During this point in time the might of both the totalitarian Qing Empire, and of Neo-Confucianism in the 5,000 year long history of China, reached its almighty zenith, allowing for most freedoms to be restricted in general anyway. The only exception to this rule, was the relative freedom of expression which was granted exclusively only to the Theatre Industry, due to the low status of actors in Chinese culture, which as a result served to only imply that their ability to harm the social stability of the Qing would be mostly ineffective.As such, it was from the Theatre Industry that new forms of homosexuality and a “brothel culture” begun to spring back to life, slowly at first, then rapidly accelerating as time went on, especially after Imperial Authority was greatly weakened post 1840, after the advent of the First Opium War (1840–42).Professional actors, titled as “Young Gentlemen” (Xianggong), were often hired by the Upper and Middle Classes to perform recitals of their poems at banquets and parties. The Xianggong who specialized in playing female roles (as women were banned from theatre like in Ancient Greece), were especially sought after for their feminine physique and higher pitched voices.Much like their Japanese counterparts (the Onnagata), the Xianggong quickly became celebrated sex symbols all throughout the Qing Empire, and were always at any given time harassed by their screaming fans, male and female alike who followed them wheresoever they went.As time went on, and as the Qing Empire’s strength grew ever so weaker as to finally be non-existent, the power of the Xianggong grew rapidly by contrast. In time, male homosexual relations grew so much, that by the times of the late 19th Century, those who came to Beijing’s pleasure quarters to find female prostitutes, would not only be disappointed by the overwhelming lack of female courtesans, but would also even be laughed at and mocked by their peers for even trying to look for women, to sleep with.A Qing Era impression of two men engaging in sexual intercourse:Not only was that the case, but prior to the times of the late 19th Century, many individual thrill seekers who were willing to risk both life and limb likewise also begun to seek sensual pleasure, at the risk of being caught by the Qing Police in the act of breaking the law.Students begun to seek homosexual relations with their peers, the rich often on many occasions frequently practiced indiscriminate casual sex with their many young, boy servants, and even the great Emperor Qianlong, who had passed the anti-gay laws of 1740 in the first place fell in love with Heshan, his 25 year old Captain of the Imperial Guard, who was 40 years younger than him.For all intents and purposes, the anti-gay laws of the Qing Dynasty were now all but non-existent such, that Westerners who journeyed to China before and during the 100 Years of National Humiliation Era (1840–1949), such as John Barrow, First Baronet were still disgusted as the Jesuit Matteo Ricci once also was, at the overwhelming prevalence of such a deplorable act:“The commission of this detestable and unnatural act is attended with so little sense of shame, or feelings of delicacy that many of the first officers of the state seemed to make no hesitation in publicly avowing it. Each of these officers is constantly attended by his pipe-bearer, who is generally a handsome boy, from fourteen to eighteen years of age, and is always well dressed.”A portrait of John Barrow, an English statesman who was thoroughly disgusted with the homosexual tendencies of the Celestial Empire:Towards the end of the Qing Empire however, faced with external military threats from abroad, and widespread internal dissatisfaction as China came to be publically perceived to be a bastion of backwardness relative to the Industrialized West, caused the Qing Administration to embark on a widespread modernization effort, attempting to import the very best of Western civilization into China in order to modernize the nation.The “Self-Strengthening Movement” (1861–95), as it was called was thus adopted in order to learn in full the ways of the West in order to re-invigorate the dying Qing Empire.Western Science, Technology and even Economic practices were all adopted by China, yet it is also believed by many to this day, that by doing so the Qing as a side effect also imported into their empire, the homophobic tendencies of the West, which had the effect of finally putting an end, to the centuries old Chinese traditional notion, of relative tolerance with regards to homosexuality.And long thereafter, such norms became finally and fully incorporated into Chinese culture during the Republican Era (1912–1949), where it was widely believed during the said period that anything Western had to be automatically superior to anything of native origins. And thus it was, that thousands of years of Chinese indifference to homosexuality finally concluded, and subsequently thus begun the Age of Repression with regards to being gay.Even today in the Contemporary People’s Republic of China (1949-Present Day), traditional homosexual attitudes have never again still to this day, ever been fully recovered to the levels once seen prior to the Republican Era.Final Summary (and TL;DR)As should be extremely obvious by now, “Ancient” China’s attitudes towards homosexuality varied greatly throughout the ages. Even in times in which it was widely accepted, there were still widespread anti-gay sentiments all over the nation. And likewise, even in times of repression, there was still an abundance of same sex activities occurring all over China. At any given time, the status of homosexuality in Imperial China, was always complex.It was only in the Pre-Imperial Era, that homosexuality was a non-complicated matter which saw overwhelming support for such an act, so far as to even deem it normal. At that time, there was no moral or social ramification for homosexuality, should one decide to partake in such pleasures.Then with the advent of Confucianism, then Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam into the Celestial Empire through the Early Imperial and Post-Classical Eras, saw a state of affairs which acted to limit the normalities of homosexuality. Now compared to before, approval of homosexuality was conditional, and dependent on whether one also had a wife and children first, before being permitted to partake in homosexual liaisons.A “buttplug” dating back to the Han Dynasty, was often used in both heterosexual and homosexual intercourse to maximise sexual satisfaction amongst all the concerned parties:Under the totalitarian Ming and Qing Dynasties of the Early Modern Period, the freedom to practice homosexuality consistently declined as the centuries went on, but during the Ming Era especially, saw great advances in the documentation of Lesbianism, and even in certain provinces of China, especially Fujian Province, gay marriages.With the adoption of the Self-Strengthening Movement however, Chinese attempts at Westernization were in full bloom, even regarding morals, and this acted to once and for all end thousands of years of tolerance regarding homosexuality, in the Middle Kingdom, an effect which lasts up until this very day, which contrary to popular belief, was only recently promoted in Chinese culture, over the last few decades especially, and up to the last 300 years at best.And thus, this was precisely the status of homosexuality in Ancient China: one of extreme variation in how it was seen, perceived and treated. As the new ideologies came and went, and as the foreign influences increased at times and decreased at others, so too in unison followed Chinese attitudes to homosexuality. Hence the vastly differing views over the time in how homosexuality was seen by the Ancient Chinese.Offline Sources UtilizedBan, Gu. (66 AD). Records of the Han. Imperial Publishing Agency.Crompton, Louis. (2003). Homosexuality and Civilization. Harvard University Press.Hinsch, Bret. (1990). Passions of the Cut Sleeve. University of California Press.Li, Yinhe. (1992). Their World: a Study of Homosexuality in China. Shanxi People’s Press.Shen, Defu. (1620 AD). Miscellaneous Musings from the Humble Broom Book Room. Imperial Publishing Agency.Sima, Qian (90 BC). Records of the Grand Historian. Imperial Publishing Agency.Xu, Ling. (551 AD). New Songs from a Jade Terrace: ‘Charming Boy’. Imperial Publishing Agency.Online Sources UtilizedLGBT history in China - WikipediaHistory of Chinese homosexualityhttp://www.columbia.edu/itc/ealac/moerman/fall2000/edit/pdfs/wk3/theint1.pdfA Brief History of Homosexuality and Bisexuality in Ancient ChinaA Queer History | Imperial China | Part 4 | polarimagazine.comHomosexuality in ancient China • r/AskHistoriansA brief history of same-sex relationships in ChinaHomosexuality and religion - WikipediaHomosexuality in Chinahttp://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/China.pdfglbtq >> social sciences >> China

Hysteria and the Strange History of VibratorsFrom the Vault of the Museum of Sex: Macaura’s PulsoconWarning adult content19th-century American author and humorist Mark Twain once observed, on the difference between history and fiction, that: “it’s no wonder that truth is stranger than fiction. Fiction has to make sense”.[1] Twain was correct: many truths about history are so strange that they are believable when fictionalised only if the author/creator can point to an historical precedent.Until the 20th century, American and European men, including physicians, subscribed to the belief that women did not experience sexual desire or pleasure.[2] Women were simply warm receptacles for male lust, and that intercourse culminating in male ejaculation fulfilled women's erotic needs. Women were socialized to believe that they possessed no sex drive,[3] and that duty required them to put up with sex in order to keep their husbands happy and have children.During the 19th century, doctors were obsessed with trying to cure the female illness of hysteria, – a now-defunct medical term that covered everything from headaches to nervous breakdowns.[4] As the story goes, physicians figured only an orgasm could relieve women of this ailment.[5] Due to high demand and because doing that manually took ages, the vibrator was invented, a steampunk cure all that could cure women in minutes, not an hour.Mention vibrators, and most people immediately think of women’s sexual pleasure. And no wonder: an estimated one-third of adult American women now own at least one.[6] Clitoral stimulation with vibrators produces orgasms reliably even in women who have difficulty experiencing them in other ways. And women who use vibrators consistently report sexual enhancement in both solo and partner sex.The Invention of the VibratorBut the theory of medicinal vibrators didn't become prevalent until the '90s -- the 1990s not 1890s. That's when historian and scientist Rachel Maines released her book. The Technology of Orgasm, which became the basis of a myth linking the evolution of the vibrator to curing hysteria.[7] Despite the book’s resounding popularity and acclaim – including the 1999 Herbert Feis Award from the American Historical Association[8] –the theory is not rooted in either historical or medical evidence, according to recent paper published in the Journal of Positive Sexuality.[9] The study is the latest piece of research by historians seeking to undermine the claims of The Technology of Orgasm – and its holds on both the history of sexuality and the popular imagination.Maines argues that Victorian physicians routinely treated female hysteria patients by stimulating them to orgasm using electromechanical vibrators. The vibrator was, according to Maines, a labor-saving technology that replaced the well-established medical practice of clitoral massage for hysteria. She states that physicians did not perceive either the vibrator or manual massage as sexual, because neither method involved vaginal penetration.[10]The book has two main arguments: firstly, that 'massage to orgasm' was a staple of medical practice among Western physicians for thousands of years; and secondly, that vibrators increased the number of patients that Victorian doctors could treat for hysteria.[11] This argument has been repeated in dozens of scholarly works and cited with approval in many more. A few scholars have challenged various parts of the book. Yet, until the last few years, none have contested her central argument, at least not in peer-reviewed literature. Her argument even spread to popular culture, appearing in a Broadway play[12] , a feature-length film, several documentaries (Passion and Power 2007)[13] and many mainstream books and articles. This once controversial idea has now become an accepted fact.English women suffering from hysteria, 1876-1880. D.M. Bourneville and P. Régnard (File:Hysteria.jpg - Wikimedia Commons)However, Maines' key sources were two turn-of-the-century physicians who never claimed they used Victorian vibrators to orgasm hysteria out of women. They only promoted the devices as glorified back massagers to fix small problems and promote general wellness.[14] Mechanical devices known as ‘vibrators’, and advertised as back or neck massagers were being used by women in intimate ways as early as the 1900s and 1910s.[15] But there’s no evidence that that was the case prior to 1900, when vibrators were being marketed to physicians, not directly to consumers.Physicians of the era did describe conducting pelvic and gynecological massages, but these didn’t involve the clitoris or lead to orgasm. One Victorian physician quoted advocates for vibrator use on "the intestines, kidneys, lungs, and skin",[16] another for gout and hearing loss.[17] There is no mention of its use on genitals. There are some French sources suggesting the odd doctor in 19th-century France may have tried manual clitoral massage, but it was never a widely accepted treatment.[18]The term ‘pelvic massage’ usually meant uterine massage, a treatment frequently used for conditions such as dysmenorrhea or uterine prolapse.[19] Dysmenorrhea is the medical term for extreme menstrual cramps,[20] and uterine prolapse is when the uterus slips from its normal position and into the vagina.[21]Pelvic massage was pioneered by physicians and the Swedish obstetrician and gynaecologist, Thure Brandt (1819-1895), who began treating women in 1861.[22] The ‘Brandt method’ of pelvic massage and ‘manipulating the womb’ proved very popular and was widely reported at the time. The New York Medical Journal (1876) was one of many journals that described the technique in some detail. “Brandt claims that his method of treatment is useful in prolapses and protrusion of the uterus; prolapse of the vagina; hypertrophy and induration of the uterus; ulcerations; abnormal haemorrhage, depending on relaxation of the uterus; tendency to miscarriage; slight hypertrophy of the ovaries.”[23]Much of the massage is carried out externally, and involves the physician pushing down on the patient’s pelvic area, ‘combined with vibratory shaking’, as well as stretching out her arms, spine and legs – again, with ‘vibratory shaking’.[24]Confused? Doctors eventually realized the machines were useless as a medical tool and stopped recommending them.[25] Overnight, medical vibrators lost their legitimacy, forcing women to hide them in their nightstands tainting the surest cure for their hysteria, nervousness and anxiety and troublesome behavior.She looks placid and relaxed, but odds are good that a doctor would have diagnosed her with hysteria.She looks placid and relaxed, but odds are good that a doctor would have diagnosed her with hysteria. (10 Bizarre Treatments Doctors Used to Think Were Legit)For millenia, philosophers and historians knew for certain that women didn't have orgasms. Hysteria was the first mental disorder attributed to women (and only women)[26] ,a catch-all for symptoms including, but by no means limited to: nervousness, hallucinations, emotional outbursts and various urges of the sexual variety, including excessive vaginal lubrication.[27] Women relied upon their physician to perform a special type of pelvic physical therapy to achieve something called "hysterical paroxysm”- essentially an orgasm.[28]For over 4000 years, this “disease” was considered from two perspectives: scientific and demonological. It was cured with herbs, sex or sexual abstinence, or punished and purified with fire for its association with sorcery[29] and finally, clinically studied as a disease and treated with innovative therapies.A womb of one’s own… Part one. - Menstrual MattersPelvic massages have been around since the dawn of humanity. According to a comprehensive history of female hysteria, compiled by researchers from the University of Cagliari in Italy[30] , Egyptian texts, dating as far back as 1900 BC argued that hysterical disorders were caused by women's wombs moving throughout their bodies, putting pressure on other organs and causing serious illness, and even death.[31] The ancient Greeks believed in hysteria as well. In the 5th century BC, Hippocrates first coined the term "hysteria" -- from "hysterika," or uterus -- and also attributed its cause to abnormal movements of the womb in a woman's body.[32] According to Hippocrates and his associates, a woman's body is physiologically cold, and in order to warm up, it needs, well, sex.[33] Thus, the term "hysteria" was often used to diagnose women with inactive or incomplete sex lives.In Roman times, physicians largely followed the Hippocratic tradition, without questioning the validity of the ‘wandering womb’ theory. Aretaeus of Cappadocia, a contemporary of Galen, included in his medical treatises a section describing the wandering womb.[34]In women, in the hollow of the body below the ribcage, lies the womb. It is very much like an independent animal within the body for it moves around of its own accord and is quite erratic. Furthermore, it likes fragrant smells and moves toward them, but it dislikes foul odors and moves away from them… When it suddenly moves upward [i.e., toward a fragrant smell] and remains there for a long time and presses on the intestines, the woman chokes, in the manner of an epileptic, but without any spasms. For the liver, the diaphragm, lungs and heart are suddenly confined in a narrow space. And therefore the woman seems unable to speak or to breathe. In addition, the carotid arteries, acting in sympathy with the heart, compress, and therefore heaviness of the head, loss of sense perception, and deep sleep occur… Disorders caused by the uterus are remedied by foul smells, and also by pleasant fragrances applied to the vagina…[35]However, not everyone accepted the wandering womb prognosis. Soranus of Ephesus (98-138 A.D.), and Galen of Pergamon (130-210 A.D.) both insisted that the uterus was fixed in place, as Galen made clear, “We must consider as totally preposterous the opinion of those who… make the womb into an animal”.[36] Sadly, this more advanced understanding of the physiology of the womb, was then largely ignored for centuries.Pelvic massages remained the most effective means of treating a "wandering womb", a practice that persisted in Western medical practice until the 1920s.[37]The 'Veedee' massager is said to have been used by doctors to cure Victorian women of hysteria. But this has been disputed as myth (The 'sex toys' dating back 28,000 years)Documented complaints of female hysteria date back to the 13th century. Doctors of that era understood that women had libidos and advised them to relieve their sexual frustration with dildos.[38] In the 16th century, physicians told married hysterics to encourage their husbands’ lust. One influential physician named Thomas Sydenham, who lived from the mid- to late-1600s, thought that hysterical ladies were everywhere.[39] Apparently, Sydenham once declared that female hysteria, which he attributed to “irregular motions of the animal spirits,” was the second most common malady of the time—behind another nebulous term, "fevers".[40]In 1653, the physician Alemarianus Petrus Forestus published a medical compendium titled Observationem et Curationem Medicinalium ac Chirurgicarum Opera Omnia,in which Forestus devotes a full chapter to the diseases of women.[41] Specifically, he noted that with regard to treatment of hysteria, many male doctors "sought every opportunity to substitute other devices for their fingers, such as the attentions of a husband, the hands of a midwife, or the business end of some tireless and impersonal mechanism."[42]The compendium directed:“This kind of stimulation with the finger is recommended by Galen and Avicenna, among others, most especially for widows, those who live chaste lives, and female religious … it is less often recommended for very young women, public women, or married women, for whom it is a better remedy to engage in intercourse with their spouses.”[43]For hysteria unrelieved by husbandly lust, and for widows, single and unhappily married women, doctors advised horseback riding, which, for some, provided enough clitoral stimulation to trigger orgasm.[44] But riding provided many women little relief, and by the 17th century, dildos were less of an option, because the arbiters of decency had succeeded in demonizing masturbation as “self-abuse.”[45]French pelvic douche device, circa 1860 (File:Pelvicdouche.jpg - Wikimedia Commons)According to Maines' investigations, at various points, high-pressure showers or hoses were also used to treat hysteria[46] (as were clitoridectomies)[47] . One French physician, writing in the mid 1800s, explained that at first this sort of high-powered douching was unpleasant, but then, "the reaction of the organism to the cold, which causes the skin to flush, and the reestablishment of equilibrium all create for many persons so agreeable a sensation that it is necessary to take precautions."[48] Women weren't supposed to indulge in this hydro-therapy for more than four to five minutes or longer.At the end of the 19th century it was estimated that 75 percent of American women suffered from hysteria.[49] With so many possible symptoms, hysteria was always a natural diagnosis when the ailment could not be identified. For instance, before the introduction of the electroencephalography (EEG) test, epilepsy was frequently confused with hysteria.[50] While there is some circumstantial evidence that genital massage was practiced before the 20th century, they could find no proof at all that this was ever a "staple of medical practice".[51]During this period of experimentation for a cure for hysteria, doctors or midwives applied vegetable oil to women’s genitals and then massaged them with one or two fingers inside and the heel of the hand pressing against the clitoris.[52] With this type of massage, women had orgasms and experienced sudden, dramatic relief from hysteria. But doctors didn’t call women’s climaxes orgasms. They called them “paroxysms” because everyone knew that women were incapable of sexual feelings, so they could not possibly experience orgasm.[53]According to research conducted over the past two decades, the treatment was so popular, in fact, that physicians sought a faster, more efficient way to perform the treatment than with their own hands. Unfortunately for doctors, hysteria treatment had a downside — achy, cramped fingers and hands from all that massage. In medical journals of the early 1800s, doctors lamented that treating hysterics taxed their physical endurance.[54] Chronic hand fatigue meant that some doctors had trouble maintaining the treatment long enough to produce the desired (and lucrative) result. A disturbing insight, vibrators succeeded not because they advanced female pleasure, but because they saved labor for male physicians.Science Museum Group CollectionNecessity being the mother of invention, physicians began experimenting with mechanical substitutes for their hands. They tried a number of massage contraptions, among them water-driven gadgets (the forerunners of today's shower massage devices), and pumping, steam-driven dildos.[55] But the machines were cumbersome, messy, often unreliable, and sometimes dangerous.The first electric vibrator was manufactured in the late 1800s, decreasing treatment times from as much as an hour to as little as 10 minutes[56] Joseph Mortimer-Granville’s invention in 1883 was a late achievement in a life devoted to treating mental disorders and devising methods of memory improvement.[57] The vibrator was intended to be used on the male nerve centres, principality those of the spine.[58] Mortimer-Granville was horrified by the mere thought of using vibrators on women (although he failed to say why).[59]But many of his colleagues on both sides of the Atlantic ignored his maledictions on vibrating female patients. One of these colleagues was Alfred Dale Covey, whose book Profitable Office Specialities,[60] which included “vibrotherapy,”[61] went into multiple editions in the early 20th century. It didn’t take long for Mortimer-Granville’s sober-and-serious medical instrument to discover the market for pleasure. The American inventor of a steam-powered, coal-fired vibrator called The Manipulator, George Taylor, wrote in 1869 that physicians had to be careful to limit the “treatment” of women’s pelvic disorders, as the patients would be inclined to demand too much of a good thing.[62]When Doctors Used to Finger Their Patients: Female HysteriaOne of the most enduring misconceptions about the Victorian era is that individuals were often characterized as universally prudish, sexually dysfunctional and repressed. Victorian sexual mores have a bad reputation. So bad, in fact, that some historians have claimed women were brought to a “hysterical paroxysm” (supposedly an orgasm that nobody wanted to admit to), by their doctors through “pelvic massage” (masturbation). To aid them, a vibrating device was invented because there were just so many women who needed this form of treatment that the poor doctors’ hands were getting tired, and they had to use a machine.Machines with hand-held attachments that vibrated were part of the elaborate system of cures for hysteria, neurasthenia, and more common ailments like back pain or asthma. Doctors thought that applying vibration or massage to affected parts of the body (such as the head, neck or back) might help restore electrical imbalances causing the health problems. Doucheing and other forms of water treatments were extremely popular at spas both in Europe and America. Surely some women figured out how to use these devices for masturbatory purposes.The Chattanooga…stood nearly 2m tall and required a couple of men to operate it. Being steam-powered, the engine of the machine was located in a small room and two men shoveled coal into the furnace and monitored the steam temperature, pressure, and thrust required to drive the Chattanooga. The engine room was separated from the doctor’s room by a wall which had a hole in it. A mechanical arm extended from the engine through the wall and into the consulting room where the doctor controlled it and used the vibrating arm to administer the appropriate genital massage to the grateful patient.[63](Chattanooga Choo-Choo: A Brief History of the Vibrator)But just because something is aimed at your genitals doesn’t mean that it is enjoyable, and no one understood this better than the Victorians. Treatments for male sexual neurasthenia and impotence included devices were supposed to enclose the penis and transmit regular shocks[64] In one treatment for both men and women, one electrode was inserted in the rectum and a second one in the urethra if you were a woman, or placed between the penis and the scrotum if you were a man.The Sanax device 1913. In a series of photographs, a serious-faced woman in a ruffled white dress holds this vibrator to her forehead, her jaw, her throat and her chest (The vibrator: from medical tool to revolutionary sex toy).So did Dr Granville invent an electronic device for massage? Yes. Was it anything to do with the female orgasm? No. He actually invented it to help stimulate male pain relief, just as massage is used today. Victorian doctors knew exactly what the female orgasm was; in fact, it’s one of the reasons they thought masturbation was a bad idea. A few theorised that it might be beneficial to a woman for her period pain, but the majority of doctors saw the art of self-pleasure as highly dangerous to your health.[65] This attitude was not because they were on some sort of anti-pleasure, or anti-sex crusade, but because orgasms were actually important to the Victorians.Marriage guides discussing the sex act often claimed that a woman in a sexually satisfying relationship was more likely to become pregnant, as the wife’s orgasm was just as necessary to conception as her husband’s.[66] A book called The Art to Begetting Handsome Children, published in 1860, contains a detailed passage on foreplay, and shows us that, for the Victorians, sex, pleasure and love were concepts that were universally tied together.[67] In A Guide To Marriage, published in 1865 by the aptly named Albert Sidebottom, the advice to young couples exploring their relationship for the first time is that “All love between the sexes is based upon sexual passion”.[68] This is something I’ve come across time and again in researching Victorian attitudes to sex: sexual pleasure, and especially female sexual pleasure, really mattered.Cora Pearl.(The humble English girl who became Cora Pearl, one of the most scandalous courtesans of the Second Empire in 19th century Paris)Unfortunately, scholars and historians seem to be incapable of seeing women in the Victorian period as anything other than sexually passive, a gender so disconnected from their bodies that they had to be stimulated by the inventions of men. This just isn’t true. From the erotic life of courtesan Cora Pearl, to the romantic female relationships of Mary Benson, wife of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Victorian female sexuality was just as expressive and expansive as it is today.[69]Sexual fulfilment isn’t always about getting pregnant, and Victorian women seem to have had a healthy interest in protecting their bodies, while still being able to enjoy a sexual relationship. In 1877, Annie Besant, a one-time vicar’s wife, helped to publish Fruits of Philosophy, a guide that set out every possible contraceptive method available to its Victorian reader.[70] From vaginal douches to early forms of spermicide and even condoms, the information in the pamphlet became so popular that its British circulation reached over 125,000 in the first few months alone.c. 1891 Demonstration using the vibrator (A man invented vibrators because doctors were tired of giving orgasms)Between having their organs crushed by their undergarments (corsets), being poisoned by their underwear (Arsenic),[71] and spontaneously combusting once again thanks to their underwear (crinolines), the life of a Victorian woman was, to say the least, “Not Fun”.[72] And nothing sums up their struggles quite like the infamous illness of "hysteria" – a diagnosis foisted upon women for any number of reasons, for which the only known treatment was hours of industrious masturbation at the hands of a physician. Seen by male doctors as non-sexual because it didn't involve penetration (modern men, of course, would never believe this)[73] these "pelvic massages" eventually proved so tiring that the medical community invented the mechanical vibrator. And the rest, as they say, is history- history that has erroneously become accepted as fact in the last 20 years, despite an obvious lack of evidence and source material for the preceeding 150 years.So can we please stop saying Victorian women were having unknown orgasms stimulated by their doctors? The vibrators from the Victorian period are the least orgasmic devices you have ever seen, because they had nothing to do with sex.[74] They were used for massage, not masturbation. And the idea that a woman would be brought to orgasm by a device that rotates with a loud grinding buzz, and pummels you with the same finesse as a steam-engine, just doesn’t work. Especially when you compare it with the Victorian sex aides that were created for pleasure. From sex toys to sex chairs, condoms and contraceptives, the Victorians had many of the things sold today.[75] They used rubber, wood, ivory, and leather; some are delicately crafted from silver, others decorated in enamel flowers and hidden inside everyday objects, like a walking cane.[76]A 1910 newspaper advertisement (1910 ad: White Cross Electric Vibrator)In the 1920s, vibrators began to appear in erotic and pornographic films (the first erotic short appeared in 1891), undermining its social camouflage as a medical device. The vibrator’s legitimacy as a medical device declined after the 1920s, when Sigmund Freud correctly identified paroxysm as sexual.[77] They were no longer a doctor's go to therapy for anything and everything related to women's health.[78] However, chiropractors, who concentrated their attentions on the skeletal muscles, not the genitalia continued to use vibrators in their practices.[79]By the beginning of the 20th century, women could choose and buy their own vibrators from publications such as the Sears, Roebuck and Co. catalog, Needlecraft, Women's Home Companion. [80] One 1903 advertisement in the Sears Catalogue touted a popular massager as “a delightful companion . . . all the pleasures of youth . . . will throb within you....”.[81] Vibrator advertisements disappeared from the consumer media, and vibrators were hard to find well into the 1970s.[82] That changed when feminism emerged right around the time that Hitachi introduced its Magic Wand, still the world’s most popular vibrator.[83]Female hysteria remained a popular diagnosis until 1952 when it was removed from the American Psychiatric spectrum of mental disorders after a 2,500-year history as what the 19th century French physician Charles LaSegue called “a wastepaper basket of otherwise unemployed medical symptoms”.[84]Footnotes[1] Stranger Than Fiction[2] The Classification of Hysteria and Related Disorders: Historical and Phenomenological Considerations[3] Sex & Sexuality in the 19th Century[4] The Classification of Hysteria and Related Disorders: Historical and Phenomenological Considerations[5] 7 Crazy Things People Used To Believe About Female Hysteria[6] Use of Vibrators Among American Women[7] Victorian-Era Orgasms and the Crisis of Peer Review[8] Herbert Feis Award Recipients[9] http://he%20theory%20has%20some%20pretty%20unstable%20foundations/[10] Victorian-Era Orgasms and the Crisis of Peer Review[11] (PDF) The Technology of Orgasm: 'Hysteria', the Vibrator, and Women's Sexual Satisfaction[12] 'The Vibrator Play': Why Yes, It Is About Exactly That[13] Passion & Power: The Technology of Orgasm[14] History of Wellness - Global Wellness Institute[15] "Hysteria" and the Strange History of Vibrators[16] The Vibrator's Origin Story Is Fantastically Scandalous, But It's Also Probably Fake[17] The History of Sex Toys Is Decadent, Depraved And Will Blow More Than Just Your Mind...[18] Nineteenth-century Attitudes to Female Sexuality[19] It's a myth that Victorian doctors used vibrators to give their patients orgasms[20] Practice Essentials[21] Prolapsed uterus: Stages, symptoms, and home remedies[22] Full text of "Massage treatment (Thure Brandt) in diseases of women : for practitioners"[23] Full text of "New York medical journal"[24] Victorian doctors were not using vibrators on female patients – it was even stranger than that[25] The vibrator: from medical tool to revolutionary sex toy[26] 7 Crazy Things People Used To Believe About Female Hysteria[27] The History of Hysteria[28] 7 Crazy Things People Used To Believe About Female Hysteria[29] Hysteria, Witches, and The Wandering Uterus: A Brief History[30] Women And Hysteria In The History Of Mental Health[31] THE WANDERING WOMB[32] Ancient Gynecology - Antiqua Medicina: From Homer to Vesalius[33] Male and female bodies according to Ancient Greek physicians[34] Aretaeus of Cappadocia, second only to Hippocrates[35] Magical and Medical Approaches to the Wandering Womb in the Ancient Greek World[36] A womb of one’s own… Part one. - Menstrual Matters[37] Hysteria, the Wandering Uterus, and Vaginal Massage[38] A Brief and Twisted History of Dildos and Vibrators[39] The “English Hippocrates” and the disease of kings[40] Sydenham on Hysteria[41] The Technology of Orgasm[42] Observationem et curationem medicinalium ac chirurgicarum, Opera Omnia, ...[43] The History of Sex Toys Is Decadent, Depraved And Will Blow More Than Just Your Mind...[44] The Little Explored Secret of Women's Orgasms While They Exe[45] r/todayilearned - TIL as late as 17th-Century Europe, masturbation was commonly employed by nannies to put their young male charges to sleep.[46] The Technology of Orgasm[47] The rise and fall of FGM in Victorian London[48] 7 Crazy Things People Used To Believe About Female Hysteria[49] The Racialized History of "Hysteria" | JSTOR Daily[50] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/349116/[51] The Vibrator's Origin Story Is Fantastically Scandalous, But It's Also Probably Fake[52] Photo of the Day – Whale Oil Beef Hooked | Whaleoil Media[53] Definition of Paroxysm[54] The History Of “Female Hysteria” And The Sex Toys Used To Treat It[55] The Steam-Powered Vibrator and Other Terrifying Early Sex Machines NSFW[56] A man invented vibrators because doctors were tired of giving orgasms[57] https://www.google.com/url?rct=j&sa=t&source=web&url=https://alcoholanddrugshistorysociety.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/shad-28-2-kneale.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0m2gEcbQih7F0ZtXKhj3U3&ved=2ahUKEwiMpeXW66_iAhUSRqwKHTr8A0MQFjATegQICRAB[58] Selling Sex Toys: Marketing and the Meaning of Vibrators in Early Twentieth-Century America[59] Nerve-vibration and Excitation as Agents in the Treatment of Functional Disorder and Organic Disease[60] The secrets of specialists (1916 edition) | Open Library[61] http://www.ramsni.com/information_links/Vibrotherapy%20Info/Vibrotherapy%20info.html[62] The Steam-Powered Vibrator and Other Terrifying Early Sex Machines NSFW[63] Chattanooga Choo-Choo: A Brief History of the Vibrator[64] Sexual Neurasthenia ( Nervous Exhaustion ), Its Hygiene, Causes, Symptoms and Treatment, with a Chapter on Diet for the Nervous by George M. Beard, A.M., M.D.[65] Let’s Talk about Sex: Victorian Anti-Masturbation Devices[66] Female Sexuality in the Victorian Age[67] The Victorian Citizen’s Advice To Having A Great Sex Life[68] The struggle for married women’s rights, circa 1880s[69] The humble English girl who became Cora Pearl, one of the most scandalous courtesans of the Second Empire in 19th century Paris[70] Birth Control in the Shadow of Empire: The Trials of Annie Besant, 1877-1878[71] 7 Ways Victorian Fashion Could Kill You[72] Crinolinemania: The dangerous Victorian fashion garment that killed around 3,000 women[73] Victorian doctors were not using vibrators on female patients – it was even stranger than that[74] No, no, no! Victorians didn’t invent the vibrator | Fern Riddell[75] The History of Sex Toys Is Decadent, Depraved And Will Blow More Than Just Your Mind...[76] Historical Sex: The Victorians - disease, pornography and royal sex chairs[77] Good Vibrations: Medical Science Cures Hysteria[78] victorian decline in vibrator use[79] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.academia.edu/28556168/Balls_Cups_and_Discs_A_history_of_vibrators_and_massage_machines_1900-_1940_Dissertation_2012&ved=2ahUKEwitq5jzh7LiAhULKawKHbhXC5IQFjADegQIARAB&usg=AOvVaw19o11WLSvlnweR5fW9Pg39[80] 11 Vintage Vibrator Ads To Make You Glad You Live In 2015[81] Vibrators were Sold in the Sears & Roebuck Catalogue[82] The buzz: how the vibrator came to be[83] Hitachi Magic Wand - Wikipedia[84] Charles Lasègue (1816-1883): beyond anorexie hystérique