Peter King Abelard'S Intention Alist Ethics Introduction: Fill & Download for Free

Yes. For decades, historians have rejected the term “Dark Ages” ― even for the early Middle Ages variously measured from the fall of the Western Roman Empire until the rise of Charlemagne ― because it is misleading and inaccurate. For example, let me quote Professor Rodney Stark:“…the so-called Dark Ages were a period of profound enlightenment in both the material and intellectual spheres, which when combined with Christian doctrines of moral equality, created a whole new world based on political, economic, and personal freedom.” [The Victory of Reason (New York: Random House, 2006) 68.]Unfortunately, while people knowledgeable about the subject have distanced themselves from derogatory terminology originating in the early modern period, the general public (e.g. Wikipedia, and indeed many answers to this question and other commentaries on the Middle Ages in social media) have actually broadened the term to apply to the entire 1,000 years lumped together as the Middle Ages. The latter is particularly egregious and suggests that those using the term know nothing about the period to which they apply it.The following answer addresses the broader use of this discredited term to the entire Middle Ages while highlighting those developments that took place even in the Early Middle Ages (the more narrow definition.)The Middle Ages, including the early period still unfortunately described by non-historians as the “Dark Ages”, was a period of significant technological, intellectual, and cultural developments that greatly improved the standard of livings for rich and poor alike.Indeed, the greatest improvements undoubtedly came for the poor, as the rich in earlier societies (such as Rome) had often lived comparably well — on the backs of slaves. With Christianity, however, came the concept of the equality of souls in the eyes of God, and dramatic improvements in the status and rights of both working-class people and women. These resulted in substantial and measurable improvements in living standards and physical health.Below is a list of some of the more remarkable or important technological achievements of the Medieval Period as a whole, followed by a more detailed discussion of some common myths. Developments that took place during the Early Middle Ages are noted with an *It was the period in which polyphonic music was developed along with a means of recording music (the musical score).*It was the period in which to organ* was developed and the violin.It was the age in which the first universities were founded ― institutions dedicated to scientific inquiry (not rote learning of religious texts) and protected by the concept of “academic freedom.”It was an age that saw the invention of the chimney and saw huge strides in architecture* as well ― the great cathedrals soaring hundreds of feet into the air as well as the military architecture such a the great concentric castles of the crusader states.It was an age that saw the invention of the compass and of ocean-going nautical architecture including the central rudder.It saw the introduction of brakes* to wagons, and swivel axles*, both radical innovations in their day. These, combined with the development of the horse-collar* and the breeding of larger, stronger horses* enabled the transport of heavy cargoes and equipment inland away from rivers. This was a significant advantage in warfare, where it helped, for example, the deployment of siege engines.Yet, far more important was the impact of horse power on agriculture*. Horses could plow at twice the speed of oxen, enabling a doubling of production. Indeed, they made it possible to bring more land under cultivation. The three-field rotation system was introduced*. In consequence, most peasants moved beyond subsistence agriculture to cash-crops and, except in periods of exceptional natural or political phenomena, had enough to eat to reach their full genetic potential. (For more on medieval horses see: Forgotten Heroes of the Middle Ages)It saw the introduction of clocks and eye-glasses. By the 14th century, eye-glasses were being mass-produced in both Venice and Florence.Let me now turn to debunking a few key myths that have contributed to this inaccurate perception of the thousand years between ca. 500 and 1500 AD which some still insist on referring to as “the Dark Ages.”Myth 1: The Middle Ages were Anti-Scientific, Bigoted and SuperstitiousLet's start with the simple fact that the Church, notably monasteries and nunneries, were the most effective centers for the preservation of classical literature and thought in the period immediately following the "fall" of the Roman Empire (i.e. the Early Middle Ages.) This was especially so in the Eastern Roman Empire where monasteries were not immediately threatened, but more important in the West where they were. It is important to understand that it was in these religious institutions that the teachings not only of Christ but of Aristotle and Plato were preserved, copied, read, studied and analyzed.Monasteries continued to be centers of learning ― not rote learning as in the Koran schools familiar across the world today ― but as centers of inquiry and study, even after the political situation had stabilized.By the 11th century (High Middle Ages) they were very much centers of intellectual inquiry and debate. Peter Abelard (unfortunately more famous for his affair with Heloise than for his philosophy) is just one example of a critical thinker as a theologian, philosopher, and logician. Hildegard von Bingen is, of course, another example from the same century. She wrote treatises on medicine and natural history characterized by a high quality of scientific observation. Later scholars of note included Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas.Indeed, the very concept of universities ― places dedicated to learning and debate protected by the notion of academic freedom ― evolved out of the Cathedral schools of the Middle Ages. Pope Gregory VII in a papal decree from 1079 (High Middle Ages) regulated Cathedral schools and is credited with thereby providing the framework for independent universities. The first such university was established just nine years later in 1088 at Bologna, Italy. It was followed by the University of Paris in 1150 and the University of Oxford in 1167. (All High Middle Ages)The learning taught in these universities was not confined to scripture. On the contrary, the study of ancient Greek and Roman texts was an essential component of medieval higher education. It is a fallacy ― but a frequently repeated and propagated one ― that knowledge of classical texts was "re-discovered" in the Renaissance after such knowledge was "preserved" by the Muslims. This is nonsense. The University of Bologna at its inception was focused on teaching Roman law―that is ancient Roman, not canon law! The principal sources used for teaching medicine in medieval universities were Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna. Aristotle and Plato were hotly debated in studies of law, politics, logic, and philosophy. Universities also provided the study of mathematics and the natural sciences, based largely on classical but also Byzantine and even Muslim scholars. The university culture at this time, furthermore, was based on debates, disputations, and the requirement to read extensively in order to pass examinations, which entailed defending one's ideas before a panel of established scholars. The concept of "peer review" and defense of a doctrinal dissertation today is based on this medieval tradition.Just one small example, the knowledge that the earth was a sphere was widespread in intellectual circles in the Middle Ages. In the 6th century, for example, Bishop Isidore of Seville included the fact that the earth was round in his encyclopedia. The Venerable Bede, writing roughly a century later, described the earth as an "orb" at the center of the universe. Hildegard von Bingen, writing in the 11th century, described the earth as a sphere, no less than did Dante's Divine Comedy written in the 14th century. Galileo was condemned NOT in the Middle Ages, but in the so-called Renaissance; furthermore, he was condemned not for saying the earth was round, but rather that the earth revolved around the sun rather than the reverse.This brings us to the fact that fundamentalism, the belief that all knowledge is contained in Scripture, is inherently more bigoted and anti-science than was the medieval church. It was the Reformation, with its emphasis on the Bible ― and the Bible alone ― that bred religious bigotry in the West. Likewise, it is Islamic fundamentalism, not enlightened Islam, that poses a threat to peaceful co-existence between peoples holding different religious beliefs to this day.Myth 2: Feudalism was Arbitrary and Autocratic.The notion that kings and nobles were all-powerful, and their subjects were oppressed, intimidated and utterly without legal protections is one of the most ridiculous, ignorant and persistent of the misconceptions about the Middle Ages. People appear to project backwards the characteristics of totalitarian states upon medieval feudalism ― mixed together with images of Hollywood kings (usually Henry VIII) shouting “off with her head.” Aside from the fact that Henry VIII was a “Renaissance” king and not medieval at all, the entire notion of absolutism is a post-feudal concept or, more correctly, anti-feudal.The essence of feudalism was a hierarchical pyramid of mutually beneficial agreements. Simplified: between the king and his barons, barons and their knights, knights and their peasants. Feudal oaths bound both parties and established duties on both sides. In its simplest form, the subordinate pledged loyalty in exchange for a promise of protection from the superior.Feudalism evolved because in the early feudal period life was very uncertain and only powerful men had the resources to build castles and hire fighting men to protect ordinary peaceful farmers. Those peaceful farmers, often the descendants of slaves, agreed to till the land in exchange for being protected by their feudal lord from bandits, raiders, and enemies. Knights too entered a contract with a lord, but rather than tilling the soil, they brought service with horse, sword, and lance. The important point was that they did this in exchange for land (a fief) which gave them both income and status. Although at the top of the pyramid the contract is most difficult to grasp because the power relationships between kings and their vassals were not always straight-forward (e.g. Henry Plantagenet and Louis VII of France), in theory, it too entailed loyalty on the part of the vassal (baron) in exchange for good governance by the king.The operative point is that kings had obligations to their subjects. They owed them good governance which entailed not just defense but also the administration of justice, i.e. the maintenance of “law and order.” A king who failed to deliver good governance could legitimately be challenged by his barons for breach of contract. Thus from Magna Charta and the Oxford Provisions to the wars against Frederick Hohenstaufen in the Holy Land, barons challenged their king because of real or alleged abuses of royal power or failure to ensure peace and good governance.A major criticism that came up again and again in the English history, for example, was the failure of a king to consult his barons, i.e. to prefer his “favorites” (who were often men of lower birth) to his “natural” advisors, i.e. the great magnets/barons of the realm. This epitomizes the contractual nature of feudal oaths: while barons pledged to advise the king, in return he pledged to consult his barons. This obligation on the part of the king to consult with his barons was the basis of Parliament in England, the High Court in Jerusalem, and the Curia Regis in France.In short, medieval kings needed to take into account the advice and interests of their tenants-in-chief (which included the most important ecclesiastical lords because of their vast landholdings), but they were also expected to ensure “good governance” for the lowliest in the land as well. (This applies to the Early as well as the High Middle Ages)Myth 3: The Middle Ages were LawlessBecause feudalism was based on mutual consent and obligations in both directions, the right of either party to sue for breach of contract was implicit in the system. Thus peasants and serfs, although in the first instance subject to the courts of their direct lord, could appeal to the royal courts. Louis IX, one of the most outstanding later medieval monarchs, went so far as to institute special courts of inquiry to investigate allegations of corruption on the part of his own administrators and officers.This leads us to another important feudal concept: the right to judgment by one’s peers (Applies to the Early as well as High Middle Ages). What this meant was that, although a seigniorial officer presided over a court, the judgment itself was given by a jury composed of people from the defendant’s own class. The idea that a lord could legally order punishment without a trial is erroneous. Of course, the operative word here is “legally.”Men with power often act illegally, and in an age where wealth and weapons were generally held in the same hands, it was particularly easy to abuse power. Yet it is still important to remember medieval justice was jury justice ― still common in the Anglo-Saxon world but replaced across most of Europe with justice handed down by trained judges, who rarely share the social status, background or problems of the defendants.Feudalism ended slowly as powerful monarchs across Europe gradually consolidated their power at the expense of their barons and then evolved an ideology, “the divine right of kings,” to justify their usurpation of power. The concept of “the divine right of kings” ended the notion of a contract between ruler and subjects, and replaced it with the idea that the kings derived their power directly from God. While history books still tend to describe this as “progress,” it was in fact regressive. It weakened the checks-and-balances on the abuse of royal power that had been inherent in the feudal system.Myth 4: Serfs were no better off than slavesThe 20th-century popular image of serfs was expressed in the Hollywood film “The Kingdom of Heaven” when the lead character (I hate to call him Balian d’Ibelin because he bore so little resemblance to the historical figure) says to the Hollywood Imad ad-Din that he “had been a slave ― or very like” meaning (inaccurately) that he had been a serf before coming to the Holy Land.The conflation of slavery and serfdom is not only inaccurate, it fundamentally inhibits our understanding of feudal society. As I noted above, feudal society was based on the concept of mutual contracts ― a fact that made medieval Europe very litigious by the way. The fundamental difference between slaves and serfs was that the former (slaves) had no rights, while the latter (serfs) had very clear rights.Let us start by looking at slavery. Slaves own nothing ― not even their own bodies. They can be mutilated, tortured, raped and killed by their masters without the latter committing a crime. Anything slaves produce, even their own children, does not belong to them. Their children belong to their master, who can choose to kill or sell them. As a result, slaves cannot and do not have families. They rarely even know who their parents, siblings, and children are. The products of their hands, from crops to works of art, also belong to their masters. The magnificent pottery of ancient Athens, for example, was the work of slaves who might have been from any part of the ancient world.From the Duke of Berry's Book of HoursSerfs historically derived from Roman slaves. With the spread of Christianity in the 4th century AD, however, slavery became increasingly unacceptable because Christianity viewed each human as a soul loved by God. Within a few hundred years it was universally accepted in the Latin Church that no Christian could be held as a slave. But the economy of the period was still utterly dependent on the labor of those former slaves to plant and harvest the food needed by all. So the status of slaves was altered and became one of serfdom, in which the former slave was still required to till the land and was not free to leave it, but was granted control over his person and with it the right to marry, have a family, and above all retain 50% or more of his produce depending on locality. Compared to slaves, serfs lived a very privileged life!From the Duke of Berry's Book of HoursFurthermore, at the time this status evolved, the concept of being “tied to the land” was not seen as a brutal violation of “human rights.” On the contrary, the contract between serf and lord gave the serf both physical and economic security. The lord was responsible for providing armed protection against outlaws and raiders, and for the serf not be thrown off the land any more than he could walk away from it; he was guaranteed his share of the harvest not just one year at a time but for as long as he and his children and his grandchildren and their children, etc., lived.Renowned French historian Regine Pernoud points out in her book Those Terrible Middle Ages: Debunking the Myths (Ignatius, 1977, p.88):It was this intimate connection between man and the soil on which he lived that constituted serfdom, for, in all other respects, the serf had all the rights of a free man: he could marry, establish a family, his land, as well as the goods he was able to acquire, would pass to his children at his death. The lord, let us note, had, although on a totally different scale, the same obligations as the serf, for he could neither sell nor give up his land nor desert it.Furthermore, archaeology increasingly provides evidence of the very high standard of living serfs could attain. Clever peasants, like clever lords, made judicious marriages. Through good marriages and careful husbandry, peasants could accumulate more and more hereditary plots of land. It mattered little that they did not “own” the land in the modern, capitalist sense of the word; feudal lords didn’t own it either. The point was that some serfs accumulated the right to use the land and harvest its produce. Peasants that accumulated more land than they could themselves cultivate, hired laborers to work it for them. A wealthy serf could build a large house, purchase furnishings, and other luxuries, and live like a lord ― just as long as he didn’t try to leave his land.From the Duke of Berry's Book of HoursThe standard of living among peasants increased as Europe became more prosperous and new technologies, from the horse collar and horseshoe to axles that swiveled and plows that could turn the soil, were introduced. These new technologies increased farm productivity dramatically. By using horses rather than oxen, for example, the amount of land one farmer could cultivate doubled. These technologies also enabled land that had previously been considered marginal to be brought under cultivation. With more land under cultivation, it was possible to introduce (in the eighth century) the three-field system, which left one-third of the land fallow each year.This enabled the soil to regenerate and so the sustainability of agriculture increased. As a result of these innovations, European serfs “began to eat far better than common people anywhere, ever. Indeed, medieval Europeans may have been the first human group whose genetic potential was not badly stunted by a poor diet, with the result they were, on average, bigger, healthier, and more energetic than ordinary people elsewhere.” (Rodney Stark. God’s Battalions. HarperCollins, 2009, p. 70.)From the Duke of Berry's Book of HoursAs prosperity increased, so did the demand for goods, spawning an increase in industry and trade. This, in turn, led to greater urbanization, and with improvements in transportation technology (think of the splendid naval architecture of the Vikings), trade started to spread farther and farther afield. The First Crusade (1097–1099) re-established regular contact with the Byzantine Empire and the Near East, and for the next three hundred years, Europeans dominated the sea lanes of the Mediterranean. Pilgrim traffic, crusades, and trade with the Levant produced a great economic boom that financed the great palaces and cathedrals, monasteries and guild halls, and many more humble dwellings as well.Yet, urbanization also made serfdom increasingly burdensome. Serfs no longer feared to lose their land but longed for the greater opportunities in crafts, industry, and trade that beckoned from the cities. Thus by the twelfth century, serfs were demanding their freedom and more and more mechanisms for emancipation evolved. By the end of the Middle Ages, there were, in fact, many more free peasants than serfs in Western Europe.Myth 5: Medieval man had no understanding or appreciation of hygieneA favorite Hollywood convention is to portray people in the Middle Ages as filthy. Mice run across dinner tables while dogs fight over bones at their feet. Noblemen wipe their mouths on their sleeves (or hair!) and toss the bones from their plates over their shoulders. The poor are consistently depicted in filthy (and usually ragged) clothing and mud-encrusted boots. Yet the evidence we have from the Middle Ages belies this image.First, we should remember that although the "Middle Ages" started with the "fall" of Rome that refers to the political and military might of Rome, not Roman civilization. The customs and habits of people across what had been the Roman Empire from Yorkshire to Palestine were not suddenly extinguished or forgotten simply because the political and military structures that had made it possible to rule an empire from Rome were gone. Rome fell; Roman thought, customs and knowledge remained in the hearts and minds of people all across the former empire. That culture included bathing...Image courtesy of Crystalinks Home PageAcross the Middle East and the Muslim-controlled territory in Cyprus, Sicily, and Spain, as well as in the Eastern Roman Empire, bathing and bath-houses remained a feature of daily life just as it had been in Roman times. In the West, the situation was less clear-cut because this is where the “barbarians” had the greatest impact. Nevertheless, we know from the rule of St. Caesarius’ writing at the very start of the 6th century, that nuns and monks were expected to bathe regularly for hygienic purposes. Other texts recommend washing face and hands daily, as well as washing and brushing hair frequently, and keeping teeth "picked, cleansed, and brushed [sic!]" (Pernoud, Regine. Women in the Days of the Cathedrals. Ignatius Press, 1989, 84.)Furthermore, bathing and washing are referred to in romances and depicted in manuscript illustrations throughout the Middle Ages. Washing hands before meals was part of the ritual at every manor and castle as well as in monasteries and convents. Washing clothes was so important that washerwomen ― always identified as older, respectable women very different from prostitutes ― accompanied armies. Women washing and hanging out clothes to dry are also a motif in medieval manuscript illustrations.By the 13th century, possibly as a result of renewed contact with the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire and with the Muslim world during the crusades, bathing became very popular and prominent. Not only did public bathhouses become numerous, but wealthier citizens invested in elaborate baths which by the 15th century including hot-and-cold running water fed from roof-top tanks. Even before that, the Franks in the Holy Land built aqueducts, bathhouses and sophisticated sewage systems.Obviously, “popular” and “frequent” bathing in the medieval context was fundamentally different than in the 21st century. It took much more effort to heat water over fire and coals, and (except for the very wealthy) it meant pumping or hauling water from a well and lugging it to a tub or going to a bathhouse. The latter cost money. Not necessarily a lot of money, but it was not entirely free, and it was certainly less convenient than stepping into a shower at home today. So, yes, hygiene would not have been at the same standards as today, but that is still a far cry from kings wiping their sleeves on their velvet robes or having mice running across their banquet tables.Other myths include: that medieval medicine was brutal and did more harm than good, that women were “mere chattels,” and many more provided by other answers to this question, but this answer is already long enough and anyone interested in more can ask a new question.

The primary reason for the so called "dark ages" was that it was a period without education and literature. Shortly after the Roman Empire fell (or split, really, between east and west), Europe lost access to the great libraries of the eastern empire in Greece and Turkey, including many original Bible texts, all of Aristotle, and most of Plato. Until the late 12th Century and early 13th, there were no large education institutions. Peter Abelard, for example, helped to unify loosely affiliated colleges within Paris prior to the emergence of a university. During his life, teachers were basically independent, responsible to get their own students by reputation and additional funding from private wealthy patrons.Christianity had not yet taken hold of European governments. In addition to the east-west divide of the Christian church, there were factions within the Roman church between feuding groups and the titles of the papacy. Feudal lords fought for power over regions and titles, while large areas of farmers lived by the farmer's code, with no particular overarching law, protection, or taxation. During that period, pillages from vikings was a constant threat throughout Europe, providing very little stability. It wasn't until late 12th and early 13th century that the Roman Church started to back particular Kings with both funding and armies in exchange for taxes and land. By the 14th century, nearly all the land in Europe was owned and taxed by a combination of monarchies and Church. Part of the taxes went back into education and the setup of state sponsored universities.It wasn't until the last Crusade that much of the lost literature was recovered, which is what largely contributed to the Renaissance in education, art and intellectual thought. The King James translation of the recovered Biblical texts, the first English translation, was commissioned. And perhaps more importantly, Aristotle's books were rediscovered, putting European education back on track. The Roman Church contributed to the stability of the region in the Middle Ages, setting the political foundation for the Renaissance. But it was really the last Crusade and the recovery of Aristotle which started the intellectual rebirth of the Renaissance.

Here's a wittle wist (by no means exhaustive):CharlemagneClovisNapoleonCharles Martel (stopped the advance of Islam into W Europe)Hugh CapetLouis IX (St. Louis the Crusader)Louis XIV (the Sun King)Antoine Lavoisier (father of Chemistry and Biology)Augustin Cauchy (provided the groundwork for Complex Analysis)Rene Descartes (philosophy)Montaigne (developed the modern essay)Francois Rabelais (writer)Joseph Fourier (Fourier Series, numerous contributions to analysis)Nicolas Sadi Carnot (father of Thermodynamics)Joseph Louis Lagrange (Piedmontese/Savoy mathematician, father of modern mechanics, oversaw creation of metric system)Roland Barthes (critic and semiotician)Michel Foucault (critic and structuralist theorist)Jacques Louis David (painter)Francis I (king and patron of Renaissance arts)Nicolas Poussin (painter)Jean Marie Ingres (painter)Marshal Vauban (general)Marquis de Lafayette (general, statesman)Francois Pierre La Varenne (chef)Claude Lorraine (painter)Eduard Manet (painter)Vincent Van Gogh (Dutch painter but honorary French really)Albert Camus (essayist and writer)Victor Hugo (novelist and playwright)Eugene Delacroix (painter)Theodore Gericault (painter)Peter Abelard (late Medieval thinker, best known pre-Renaissance Scholastic)Bernard of Clairvaux (monk)Chaim Soutine (White Russian painter but honorary French)Marcel Proust (writer)Catherine de Medici (arts patron)Joan of ArcGeorges La Tour (painter)Jean Fragonard (painter)Jean Chardin (painter)Paul Cezanne (painter)Henri Matisse (painter)Marcel Duchamp (artist--laid the groundwork for 20th cent conceptualism)Georges Braque (artist)Claude Levi-Strauss (post-Modernist anthropologist)Jacques Derrida (post-Modernist cultural theorist)Edward Said (culture critic)Jean Jacques Rousseau (Enlightenment social philosopher)Gustave Flaubert (short story)Honore de Balzac (novelist)Guilliame Appollinaire (poet)Charles Baudelaire (poet)Stephane Mallarme (poet)Georges Battaile (poet/essayist)Julia Kristeva (culture critic/semiotician)Jacques Lacan (post-Freudian theorist)Simone de Beauvoir (Feminist)Marie Curie (scientist)Laplace (mathematician...numerous contributions to analysis, Laplace transform)Cardinal Richelieu (AKA "the grey eminence")Turrenne (general)Villars (general)D'Avoust (general)Soult (general)de Saxe (general)Jean-Baptiste Corot (painter)Claude Debussy (composer)Maurice Ravel (composer)Erik Satie (composer)Ferdinand de Saussure (linguist)La Salle (explorer, claimed the Louisiana Purchase)Samuel de Champlain (explorer, claimed Canada for France)Georges Danton (revolutionary)