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The most important Japanese visitor to Europe prior to 1623 was a samurai, Hasekura Tsunenaga (支倉常長), who from 1613–20 travelled eastwards via the Americas, in an attempt to further develop diplomatic relations with Spain and Rome.Tsunenaga’s visit to the West was important, because it occurred at a time when relations between Japan and the European powers was being strained, due to the persecution of Christians under Tokugawa rule (1600–1868). Aside from the fact that it also occurred shortly prior to Japan’s self imposed isolationism in the early 17th century, the Tsunenaga Embassy was then the island nation’s largest recorded visit of its kind, and would not be followed up for a period of nearly 250 years by the time that the “First Japanese Embassy to Europe” (第１回遣欧使節) was carried out in 1862.A portrait of Hasekura Tsunenaga by French Baroque painter Claude Deruet during the samurai’s visit to Rome (1615):The Tensho Embassy (1582–90): First Japanese Trip to EuropeWhilst historic both due to its size and importance, it should be noted that Tsunenaga’s Keichō Embassy (慶長使節) was not Japan’s first diplomatic mission to Europe. Rather it was both a successor to and inspired by previous efforts committed under the Tenshō Embassy (天正の使節), which had been launched from 1580–82 based also on religious undertones.Swayed by the arguments of Alessandro Valignano, a Jesuit priest who was particularly determined to bridge the cultural gap between East and West, three Christian daimyōs by the name of Arima Harunobu (有馬 晴信), Ōtomo Sōrin (大友 宗麟) and Ōmura Sumitada (大村 純忠) eventually resolved to sponsor what would become the first Japanese embassy to the Western world. A Japanese nobleman, Mancio Itō (伊東マンショ) was meanwhile chosen by the daimyos to act as the mission spokesperson and thus also the de facto leader of the embassy whilst in Europe.Together with three other noblemen, Miguel Chijiwa (千々石 ミゲル), Julião Nakaura (中浦 ジュリアン) and Martinho Hara (原 マルチノ) in addition to Valignano himself, two servants and the group’s interpreter Diego de Mesquita, the Tensho Embassy headed by Mancio Ito departed Nagasaki on February 20th 1582 and headed west to the Indian subcontinent, visiting Portuguese controlled territories such as Macau, Kochi and Goa along the way. Unfortunately upon arrival at the latter settlement, Valignano was forced to abandon the Embassy due to the emergence of new administrative responsibilities (as he was head of the Jesuit Order in Asia). What remained of the group meanwhile continued on their way to Lisbon, where they finally arrived in August 1584, exactly two and a half years post their departure from Japan.An artist’s impression of Lisbon, capital of the Portuguese Empire (1415–1999) in 1600 where the Tensho Embassy first reached on their European mission:From Lisbon, the Tensho Embassy made its way to Madrid, visiting the cities of Talavera de la Reina and Toledo on their way to the Court of Phillip II, king of both Portugal and the Spanish Empire (1492–1975) at that time. Whilst in Spain, Mancio Ito and his retinue had the opportunity to also visit El Escorial monastery, the University of Alcalá, and the cities of Murcia and Alicante.Since neither Spain nor Portugal were the main focus of the Embassy however, the group quickly left Madrid and headed for Rome instead where their true prize lay: Pope Gregory XIII. For this had always been the main objective of the Embassy as envisioned by its original architect, Alessandro Valignano, who as mentioned prior had had an agenda since day one of the Embassy’s European trip, the agenda in question being for lack of better words “cross- cultural awareness”. It was a topic he was particularly devoted to, having previously experienced racism first hand on part of both Japanese and European alike.The latter for example was a particularly frequent sight when he first arrived in Japan. At that time, the Jesuit Order had made significant progress in terms of proselytizing the Japanese, but alas it had come at a terrible cost. Putting it lightly, the Europeans showed little care for Japanese culture and often denigrated it whilst trying to make a case for the merits of Christian teachings. Valignano noticed this, and soon personally made a written complaint in regards to the conduct of his colleagues who as he described had a tendency to:“…regard Japanese customs invariably as abnormal and to speak disparagingly of them. When I first came to Japan, ours (the crowd usually follows the leader), showed no care to learn Japanese customs, but at recreation and on other occasions were continually carping on them, arguing against them, and expressing their preference for our own ways to the great chagrin and disgust of the Japanese.”An artist’s impression of Alessandro Valignano - chief architect of the Tensho Embassy:Plans for a Japanese visit to the Western world, were thus based on resolving these misconceptions in part.The Jesuits as Valignano perceived it were operating out of their depths, and if Christianity were ever to succeed in Japan then this was a problem that had to be addressed even before setting foot on the island itself. Following on from this logic, it was decided that the best course of action then was to bring a select few Japanese individuals to the West, and have them converse with the secular and ecclesial authorities of Europe. If all things worked according to plan, the Europeans would be able to better grasp the intricacies of Japanese culture, and thus avoid any unwanted hurdles in their future interactions with the island nation.In addition to cross cultural awareness, Valignano’s hope was that the presence of the Japanese in Europe would also prove and confirm 30 years worth of Jesuit writings on Japan to be genuine, as opposed to a mere “fabrication” as the Order’s rivals had previously claimed.But it was the last reason for the Embassy’s trip that was perhaps the most important of them all: to impress upon the Japanese visitors the glory and grandeur of the Catholic faith, the majesty of the European rulers who had embraced it, the richness and splendour of the continent’s kingdoms and cities, and the honour and authority that Catholicism enjoyed throughout the Western world. Both as a Catholic priest and as a man who knew the importance of cultural understanding, Fr. Valignano of course placed huge emphasis on this last objective in particular.For like how the Europeans knew little on Japan, the Japanese likewise knew little of Europe outside of stereotypes and misconceptions. The average Japanese of the late 16th century, believed that missionaries were essentially “losers” in their own countries, who because they had failed at home, had to go overseas to even succeed at life, whereby “succeed” in this context meant to make their fortunes under the pretext of religious conversion. In defence of the Japanese however, they were not just basing this perception on the imagination, but rather because most Jesuits indeed tended to live in luxury (little did they know however, this was intentional).Anyways, to counter such a negative perception in addition to healing the “great disunion and aversion” that existed between the Jesuits and their native irmãos (brothers), Valignano thought it mandatory that a few intelligent, young Japanese of noble stock should see for themselves the reality of Europe, or rather what the priest intended for them to see. In order to further secure the effectiveness of the mission, Valignano decided against selecting adults for the mission (as they were deemed too opinionated and thus less easy to influence), and opted for a group of previously mentioned 14 year old youths instead.The 14 year old Japanese envoys in question and their Portuguese interpreter as portrayed by a European impression (1586) - Top: Julião Nakaura, Fr. Mesquita, Mancio Itō; Bottom: Martinho Hara, Miguel Chijiwa:Now Valignano had originally intended to lead the Embassy to Europe, but alas this was not to be. Instead, upon arriving in India he was ordered by the Jesuit superior-general to stand down.Disheartened, he accepted the decision and instead transferred authority over the Tensho Embassy to Nuno Rodrigues, the rector of the Jesuit college in Goa, to whom he also entrusted personal responsibility for the wellbeing of the four boys, in addition to a series of documents concerning the future of the Japan missions. Whilst disappointed, he did remain confident that the presence of the Japanese boys would win over the affections of Europe however, as they were a “carta viva” (embodiment) of what the Jesuits had been long about claiming about Japanese civilization as a wealthy and sophisticated society wholly worthy of Western respect.And to that extent, Valignano was correct - the boys did not disappoint. In just two years, the four youths managed to impress upon all of Europe a more faithful image of Japanese society than had previously been perceived. The Tensho Embassy was widely received with open arms all over the continent, and ultimately met with Phillip II (then arguably Europe’s most powerful monarch) in addition to two Roman pontiffs, Gregory XIII and Sixtus V. All throughout Portugal, Spain and Italy in fact the Tensho Embassy was received by many of the most important social, political and ecclesial figures of late 16th century Europe, not least amongst which was Francesco I de’ Medici, Duke of Tuscany.Such was the European reception of the Tensho Embassy in fact, that the original plan by Valignano for a low profile and almost secretive visit was flatly ignored by Pope Gregory XIII, who instead opted to receive the boys in Rome in an open consistory with “pomp and public honour”. Although it should be noted however, that this was also because the Pope wanted to show Protestant Europe how far the “glory of the Holy Roman Church which you persecute” extended. As for Valignano himself, the priest reacted with utmost elation, for the Tensho Embassy’s trip had been received far better than he could have ever hoped for.An artist’s impression of the Tensho Embassy meeting with Pope Gregory XIII (1585):Then with their mission complete, the Embassy left Rome and departed for Lisbon where they made preparations for the long journey home. Come April 13, 1586 the Tensho Embassy departed for Nagasaki where they arrived nearly four years later on July 21, 1590 amidst a hero’s welcome. For when they had just departed, the four Japanese boys had been just that, boys. But now, they returned as men, stronger, wiser and matured from the long and arduous trip there and back again. But of course, this was not the only thing that had changed, for the Embassy as Valignano originally planned was successful in more than one way.To that extent, it did not just enlighten the West on the true image of Japan, but also succeeded in showcasing the grandeur of Catholic Europe to the four Japanese youths. And being mere boys, they were easily influenced and impressed by what they saw. How magnificent it all was they thought, Spain, Portugal and Italy - the likes. Such glory and splendour that they had never glimpsed, how did this come to be and was it possible to learn this power? Then came the answer - as Valignano had always intended - per the Catholic faith. Of course. Europe’s prosperity was only possible because they had God on their side the men believed. And so based on this logic, they all elected to become Christians.In this way, the four noblemen had essentially undergone a role reversal. For whereas before in Europe, dressed in Japanese clothing they were representing their country, now they were home, dressed in European clothing given to them by the Pope, and representing the Catholic West. In the words of Valignano himself who by this time had rejoined the group in Japan, they had become “so Portuguese-like and accustomed to our world” that they appeared like Europeans much to the surprise of their Japanese brethren. Valignano, knowing that this new found faith of the noblemen’s was too precious to waste, spared no time in showing them off to important Japanese figures.Relishing their roles as teachers, the new converts were only too enthusiastic to describe their travels to their countrymen, using both the spoken word in addition to a series of treasures that they had brought back from Europe with them, including a map of the world, a European map (the first ever) of Japan, a printing press which would go on to print the island nation’s first book, an astrolabe, musical instruments, and a series of Western texts including cartographer Abraham Ortelis’s “Theatrum Orbis Terrarum”. Inspired by the great importance of this undertaking, all four noblemen eventually elected to heed their calling and fulfill their destinies by becoming Jesuit priests.A monument to the four boys of the Tensho Embassy, depicted in European clothing:After overcoming their respective obstacles, the men were finally admitted into the Society of Jesus on the Feast of St. James (July 25, 1591). And it was possibly the worst mistake of their lives. Ever. For an anti-Christian regime headed by the famous Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣 秀吉), then lorded over a recently unified Japan in 1591. On the premise that the Catholics were hostile to Japanese culture, that they enslaved Japanese citizens and that they were also growing too influential, Toyotomi cracked down hard on Christianity. In 1597, a serious edict aimed at the prohibition of the Roman faith was propagated and Christians left and right were ruthlessly hunted down by Japanese authorities.Out of the four original converts, only three - Nakaura, Hara and Ito - would ultimately stay true to the Christian faith, Miguel Chijiwa meanwhile apostatized and renounced Catholicism in favour of his Japanese identity. The state persecution of Christians then intensified under the succeeding Tokugawa Shogunate placing added strain on the health of the Japanese converts.This still did not diminish the spirit of the converts however, who elected to remain Christians in spite of increasing persecution such, that by September 1608 they even took the next step by being ordained properly as Jesuit priests. But no man could escape death forever, and eventually Juliao Nakaura was arrested in 1632, tortured and ultimately martyred the following year. Mancio Ito and Martinho Hara were more fortunate however, and died peacefully in 1612 and 1639 respectively. The apostasizer Miguel Chijiwa meanwhile, died in 1633. Thus ended the last vestiges of the Tensho Embassy.This was not however the end for Japanese relations with Europe, which would eventually continue with a follow up embassy - the Keicho Embassy - as headed by the previously aforementioned samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga. This next trip to Europe whilst successor to the Tensho Embassy and thus similar in its aims, was more centered around fixing religious relations with the Catholic West rather than improving it through the rebuttal of cross-cultural misconceptions, as Japan was of course by this time during the early 1600s embroiled in great controversy over the persecution of Christians.Even so, the Tensho Embassy was a great success for Japanese-European relations at the time, as planned by Alessandro Valignano. The trip was more than successful, and lived up to its intentions to encourage East and West alike to not only shed their mutual prejudices for one another, but also to instead engage and build rapport in a manner that would produce what he called a “union of minds”. This initial success only made it all the more tragic in hindsight, when all efforts at diplomatic engagement eventually failed, and Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world despite the best efforts of all keen to see greater engagement.The Keicho Embassy (1613–20): Second Japanese Trip to EuropeCome 1609, in the midst of heavy Christian persecution a Spanish Manila galleon titled the San Francisco, found itself shipwrecked on the Japanese coast near what is today Tokyo.After the survivors were rescued, the ship’s captain, Rodrigo de Vivero met with Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康) the shogun of Japan, where the former was able to impress the latter with stories of his life as former interim governor of the Philippines.So impressed with de Vivero was the shogun, that even before the conversation had ended he relented over Japan’s increasingly isolationist attitudes, and eventually agreed to a number of demands made by the captain on November 29, 1609 via the signing of a treaty which provided for Spanish rights to establish a factory in eastern Japan, to import mining specialists from New Spain (Mexico), to allow Spanish vessels to visit the island nation in emergencies, but most importantly of all, for a Japanese embassy to be sent unto Spain itself, in order to negotiate a trade treaty with New Spain.Several months later, a Franciscan priest named Luis Sotelo who was proselytizing in the area around Tokyo, convinced the shogun to let him represent Japanese interests in Spain. This was a problem for Captain de Vivero however, who while had agreed to sail the Japanese to New Spain, insisted on another Franciscan instead, Alonso Muños - a man he could trust - to serve as Tokugawa’s representative. Compelled to comply, the shogun agreed to let Munos represent him on their journey across the Pacific instead. An Englishman called William Adams meanwhile built the vessel that de Vivero was to helm, and called it the San Buena Ventura, where it was finished some time in 1610.Afterwards, Captain de Vivero, Fr. Munos and 22 Japanese representatives boarded the San Buena Ventura and set sail for New Spain. Upon their arrival, Fr. Munos met with Viceroy Luis de Velasco who heeded the pleas of the Franciscan and responded by authorizing the renowned Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno to represent the interests of New Spain to the Tokugawa Shogunate. And this, by the following year Vizcaino managed to do, meeting with a plethora of daimyos in addition to the shogun himself.However as fate would have it, the Japanese were ultimately not impressed by this representative of New Spain. They believed him to be rude and disrespectful of Japanese customs for one, but also because by this point they had fallen prey somewhat to the influence of the Protestant Dutch, who managed to further play on preexisting Japanese fears of Catholicism, in addition to stressing the imperialistic ambitions of the Spanish. And so naturally, Vizcaino reaped failure in his mission.A map of the mighty Spanish Empire in 1600:Unwilling to wait for the arrival of Vizcaino to Japanese shores in the meantime, Fr. Sotelo managed to convince Tokugawa a second time to let him represent Japanese interests in New Spain, and again the shogun relented. Another ship to that extent, the San Sebastian was constructed and it left for New Spain on September 9, 1612, this time with Sotelo himself on board. The objective was the same as before: to secure a trade agreement with New Spain. Unfortunately, the ship had barely even left southeastern Japan before the vessel foundered and the expedition subsequently abandoned.Following the failures of the Vizcaino and Sotelo, Tokugawa had a new Western style galleon built which was intended to be stronger and better in every way than its two predecessors. For this time around, the Japanese were not just going to New Spain but to Europe also in order to discuss ongoing religious tensions with the Pope in Rome. And this meant that the ship would have to accompany many people - 180 to be exact - comprised of samurai, priests, traders, and servants in addition to the crew itself. The ship in question (and eventually even the Embassy project as a whole) was given over to the charge of Date Masamune (伊達政宗), the daimyo of Sendai Domain (仙台藩) who oversaw the construction of the galleon.The ship took 45 days to build, and no less 800 shipwrights, 700 smiths and 3,000 carpenters worked on it throughout the 1.5 months it took to finish. The 3 masted ship was christened the San Juan Bautista, and truly it was a remarkable vessel. For it measured 55.35 metres in length, 11.25 metres in width at the widest point, 3.8 metres in draught, came attached with an armament of 16 cannons and displaced a total 508 tonnes. With a means of transportation now fixed, all that was left was to choose the members of the Japanese Embassy to Europe itself, and this was where our hero Hasekura Tsunenaga comes into the picture at last.A replica of the San Juan Bautista - or Date Maru (伊達丸) as it was known to the Japanese - in Ishinomaki city today:Based on the premise that Tsunenaga was his loyal retainer (ie. a man he could trust), the daimyo in charge of the Keicho Embassy Date Masamune, naturally selected the samurai to head the Japanese delegation whilst they were in New Spain and Europe, and gave him both his blessing and his authority. And it was so.On October 28, 1613, Hasekura Tsunenaga, Luis Toledo, Sebastian Vizcaino and 177 other men set sail across the Pacific Ocean for New Spain. The San Juan Bautista landed in what is today California state, and then continue to along the coast to arrive in Acapulco on January 25, 1614 after three months at sea. The Japanese were received cordially by New Spain, but at this time physical confrontations also broke out amongst some of the Spanish and Japanese men on board the vessel, due to trivial disagreements on how gifts from the shogun were to be handled. Notably, Vizcaino himself was stabbed and received a flesh wound.Hoping to restore peace, New Spain ordered on March 5th that the Japanese be treated properly on Mexican soil:“The Japanese should not be submitted to attacks in this Land, but they should remit their weapons until their departure, except for Hasekura Tsunenaga and eight of his retinue ... The Japanese will be free to go where they want, and should be treated properly. They should not be abused in words or actions. They will be free to sell their goods. These orders have been promulgated to the Spanish, the Indians, the Mulattos, the Mestizos, and the Blacks, and those who don't respect them will be punished.”Whilst staying in Acapulco, Tsunenaga met with Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdoba where he explained to him that he was also planning to meet King Phillip III, in order to offer him peace and to obtain from the monarch a treaty which would allow Japan to trade with New Spain in peace.Meanwhile, inspired by all that they had seen as had once also occurred to the members of the Tensho Embassy, many of the Japanese delegates decided to become Christians during the Embassy’s forays into New Spain. Consequentially, 20 Japanese were baptized on April 9th, with an additional 22 more on April 20th by the archbishop. Five days later, a total of 63 Japanese delegates were then confirmed into the Catholic Church. Whilst wholly sympathetic to Christianity himself, Tsunenaga decided to postpone his baptism until they reached Europe.After this, the Keicho Embassy entered Mexico City on March 24th, where they were once again greeted cordially. Again, Tsunenaga met with Spanish officials and offered free trade between Japan and New Spain. Additionally, he also requested as per the demands of his master Masamune, that the Spanish send several missionaries to Japan (as Masamune was fairly sympathetic to the Christian cause). Quite notably, he also offered to secure a deal which would expel the English and Dutch from Japan, since he knew that both nations were enemies to the Spanish Crown.Then when this was done, the Embassy journeyed to Veracruz in order to board the fleet of Don Antonio Oquendo. Whilst passing through New Spain, an Aztec noble by the name of Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin made some observations on the purpose of the Keicho Embassy itself, noting especially the religious nature of the delegation:“It became known here in Mexico and was said that the reason their ruler the Emperor of Japan sent this said lordly emissary and ambassador here, is to go in Rome to see the Holy Father Paul V, and to give him their obedience concerning the holy church, so that all the Japanese want to become Christians.”An artist’s impression of Mexico City in 1628 several years after the Keicho Embassy’s visit:The majority of the Keicho Embassy being comprised of merchants, ultimately opted to either return to Japan, or to stay in New Spain to trade whilst awaiting Tsunenaga on his return trip to Mexico. Either way, it was only a mere fraction of the original 180 men that continued onwards to Europe. From there, the Embassy travelled to Cuba where they arrived in July and stayed six days in Havana, before swapping ships and continuing on to Europe.Having traversed the Atlantic, the Keicho Embassy then arrived in Europe on October 5, 1614 and disembarked at the city of Sanlúcar de Barrameda. An eyewitness account describes the subsequent arrival of the Japanese in Seville as follows:“The Japanese ambassador Hasekura Rokuemon, sent by Joate Masamune, king of Boju, entered Seville on Wednesday, 23 October 1614. He was accompanied by 30 Japanese with blades, their captain of the guard, and 12 bowmen and halberdiers with painted lances and blades of ceremony. The captain of the guard was Christian and was called Don Thomas, the son of a Japanese martyr.”From there, the Embassy then met with Phillip III in Madrid on January 30, 1615. The Embassy’s head gave the Spanish crown a letter from his master, and made clear Japanese intentions for a trade agreement. The king responded to the Embassy’s requests by maintaining that he would do what he could to appease Imperial wishes.In the meantime, true to his intentions Tsunenaga resolved to be baptized, and on February 17th, was christened by the Crown’s personal chaplain as “Felipe Francisco Hasekura”. As per Catholic tradition which stipulated a godparent for any Catholic convert, Hasekura chose the Duke of Lerma to be his godfather.An artist’s impression of Felipe Hasekura in prayer after his conversion to Christianity (1615):Afterwards, the Embassy set sail for the Italian peninsular abroad three Spanish frigates. Due to poor weather however, they were forced to divert to Saint-Tropez, a town on the French Rivera for several days, where they were warmly received by the charming locals. In this way, the sudden change in plans had brought the Japanese Embassy into contact with France for the first time in its history, leading to the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries shortly thereafter.Taking note of the Keicho Embassy, the French recorded the Japanese visit in the city’s chronicles, and attributed its leadership to “Philip Francis Faxicura, Ambassador to the Pope, from Date Masamunni, King of Woxu in Japan.” In addition to this, several other minor details about the foreign visitors were also noted by the French, inclusive to Japanese dining habits for instance:“They never touch food with their fingers, but instead use two small sticks that they hold with three fingers.”…as well as their hygiene:“They blow their noses in soft silky papers the size of a hand, which they never use twice, so that they throw them on the ground after usage, and they were delighted to see our people around them precipitate themselves to pick them up.”…and even the quality of Japanese swords:“Their swords cut so well that they can cut a soft paper just by putting it on the edge and by blowing on it.”An impression of the Japanese ambassador from the German edition of the “History of the Kingdom of Woxu” (1615):Departing Saint-Tropez, the Keicho Embassy eventually made its way to Rome where Tsunenaga, Fr. Toledo and 15 other delegates arrived in November 1615 to a warm reception by Pope Paul V. As per the wishes of both his daimyo and shogun, the ambassador remitted two golden framed letters to His Holiness, one of which was in Japanese and the other of which was in Latin. The letters as per the main objectives of the Embassy contained a request for a trade agreement between Japan and New Spain, in addition to a plea for Christian missionaries to be sent to the island nation.The Latin letter - which most experts agree was probably written by Fr. Toledo himself on behalf of Data Masamune - read as follows:“Kissing the Holy feet of the Great, Universal, Most Holy Lord of The Entire World, Pope Paul, in profound submission and reverence, I, Idate Masamune, King of Wōshū in the Empire of Japan, suppliantly say:The Franciscan Padre Luis Sotelo came to our country to spread the faith of God. On that occasion, I learnt about this faith and desired to become a Christian, but I still haven't accomplished this desire due to some small issues. However, in order to encourage my subjects to become Christians, I wish that you send missionaries of the Franciscan church. I guarantee that you will be able to build a church and that your missionaries will be protected. I also wish that you select and send a bishop as well.Because of that, I have sent one of my samurai, Hasekura Rokuemon, as my representative to accompany Luis Sotelo across the seas to Rome, to give you a stamp of obedience and to kiss your feet. Further, as our country and Nueva España are neighbouring countries, could you intervene so that we can discuss with the King of Spain, for the benefit of dispatching missionaries across the seas.”The letter in Latin as written by Date Masamune, and addressed to Paul V (1613) as currently kept at the Vatican today:His Holiness agreed to dispatch missionaries to Japan, but declined to weigh in on whether Spain should sign a trade agreement with the Japanese. That being a secular decision, was left to the King of Spain to weigh in on instead, a decision which Phillip III at this that point had still not come to a decision on as of yet.In the meantime, the authorities of Rome had just moved to make Tsunenaga an official nobleman and citizen of Rome, having been pleased with his conduct whilst visiting the Pope. As proof of his citizenship, the Papal authorities gifted him a title which can be seen as follows, dedicated under the name “Faxecura Rokuyemon” (and can still be seen in Sendai today):Aside from the official intentions of the Keicho Embassy, there had also been contemporary evidence from the early 1600s to support the idea of a Papal alliance with Date Masamune, in order to eventually establish Christian influence throughout the entirety of Japan (Masamune was of Imperial ancestry, and thus potentially in line for the throne). The strongest proponent for such a theory was a letter from the Venetian ambassador at the time, which was written on November 7th, 1615 and read as follows:“The Franciscan Spanish fathers are explaining that the King of the Ambassador will soon become the supreme ruler of his country, and that, not only will they become Christians and follow the will of the church of Rome, but they will also in turn convert the rest of the population. This is why they are requesting the dispatch of a high ecclesiastic together with the missionaries. Because of this, many people have been doubting the true purpose of the embassy, and are wondering if they are not looking for some other benefit.”Whatever the case was, the time for the Embassy’s stay in Rome soon quickly came to an end, and before long they were off again, this time back to Spain in order to hear the verdict of King Phillip III on the prospects of a trade agreement between Japan and Spain. And so come April 1616, the Keicho Embassy reached Madrid and were received at the Court of the Spanish Crown. Alas, it was bad news however, and Phillip III announced that he no longer had any intentions to establish trade with Japan.The rationale he gave for this decision, was on the grounds that the Keicho Embassy did not appear to be an official one which was endorsed by Tokugawa himself, who in stark contrast to the pro-Christian attitudes of the delegates had just recently passed an edict two years prior in January 1614, which ordered the the expulsion of all missionaries from Japan thereby accelerating persecution of Christians. And as the defender of the faith, this was not an action which neither the King nor Spain for that matter were willing to tolerate.And thus it was: just like that, their mission had suddenly concluded. And in failure at that. Years and years of efforts, of careful dialogue, of strategic decision making. Trashed. Gone. Greatly disheartened by this failure, the Keicho Embassy opted to return home after merely three years abroad.A copy of the official response from Phillip III to Data Masamune (the letter had a friendly tone and asks for the support of the Christian faith in Japan, but deliberately left out the possibility of a trading relationship, even despite the fact that that was the sole reason the Keicho Embassy had come to Spain in the first place):Prior to the Embassy’s departure from Spain however, a group of no less than six samurai elected to remain behind in the town of Coria del Río, where they eventually married and lived out the rest of their days far from home. Their descendants can still be found in Coria to this day, as identified by the surname “Japón”, which first appeared in official records as far back as 1646. And as of 2003, it was found that approximately 650 out of the 24,000 residents of the town, had this surname.Then finally, after this was done the Keicho Embassy departed Europe for good in June 1616. Setting sail for New Spain, it took the failed Embassy nearly 5 months worth of retracing their steps, before Tsunenaga and his retinue arrived in Acapulco, where the San Juan Bautista had been wating for their return for several months, after a second across the Pacific Ocean from Japan to North America. Helmed by Captain Yokozawa Shōgen (横沢将監) who was also loyal to Date Masamune, the vessel was laden with fine pepper and quality lacquerware from Kyoto, which quickly sold out on the Mexican market.In order to avoid too much New Spanish silver leaving Mexico, the Crown requested that the Viceroy ask the Japanese to spend their resulting revenue, exclusively on Mexican goods with the exception of an amount totalling to 12,000 pesos, and an additional 8,000’s worth in silver of which Hasekura and Yokozawa respectively were allowed to bring back with them to Japan. Then with this done, the Keicho Embassy picked up the merchants who had originally decided to stay and trade in New Spain on their journey to the New World, and set sail on the San Juan Bautista for the Philippines.The Keicho Embassy arrived in the Philippines as intended the following year, in April 1618, with Ambassador Tsunenaga and Father Soleto on board. There, they sold the San Juan Bautista to Spanish authorities with the intention to strengthen defences agianst the Dutch and English hostilities both. In Manila, the archbishop described the ultimate exchange of the vessel in July 28 of the following year:“The Governor was extremely friendly with the Japanese, and provided them with his protection. As they had many expensive things to buy, they decided to lend their ship. The ship was immediately furbished for combat. The Governor eventually bought the ship, because it turned out that it was of excellent and sturdy construction, and available ships were dramatically few. In favour of your Majesty, the price paid was reasonable.”Whilst disembarked in the Philippines, Tsunenaga purchased a plethora of goods for his daimyo, before constructing another ship for the return journey home as he explained to his son in a letter he wrote to him. Then with that done, he set sail for Japan at last and finally arrived in Nagasaki sometime around August 1620.The aforementioned letter in question, which was written by the ambassador to his son in Japan, during Hasekura Tsunenaga’s stay in the Philippines:Alas, by the time that he returned home, it seemed as though Japan was no longer recognizable as it had once been when he departed from it, a mere eight years prior.Case in point an extreme effort launched with the intention to completely purge Christianity from Japanese shores, had been underway since 1614, a fact which was only exacerbated by the death of Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1616, in addition to the shogun’s subsequent replacement by far his more xenophobic son, Tokugawa Hidetada (徳川 秀忠). As for Japan itself, there were few silver linings here as well. For whereas previously the Japanese had at least been tolerant of emergency visits by foreign vessels, now they were moving towards the infamous Sakoku (鎖国) or “closed country” policy of nationwide isolationism. The time for all things foreign in Japan, was finally over it seemed.Even so, Tsunenaga still had a mission to complete and so journeyed onwards home to Sendai, where he intended to report on his travels to Date Masamune. Upon being received by his daimyo, Tsunenaga remitted a portrait of Pope Paul V to Date, in addition to presenting him with a set of Indonesia and Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) daggers that he had acquired from his time in the Philippines. The “Records of the House of Masamune” briefly reported an official reaction of the Japanese to Tsunenaga’s findings:“Rokuemon went to the country of the Southern Barbarians, he paid his respects to the king Paolo, he stayed there for several years, and now he sailed back from Luzon. He brought paintings of the king of the Southern Barbarians, and a painting of himself, which he remitted. Many of his descriptions of the Southern Barbarian countries, and the meaning of Rokuemon's declarations were surprising and extraordinary.”The Ceylonese and Indonesian daggers in question that Tsunenaga presented to his master, having acquired them from the Philippines:Now, few know exactly what instigated the following reaction, but merely two days after Tsunenaga returned to Sendai, the practice of Christianity was suddenly outlawed by Data Masamune, as a letter written by a Jesuit priest details in November 1620:“Two days after the return of Rokuemon to Sendai, a three-point edict against the Christians was promulgated: first, that all Christians were ordered to abandon their faith, in accordance with the rule of the shōgun, and for those who did not, they would be exiled if they were nobles, and killed if they were citizens, peasants or servants. Second, that a reward would be given for the denunciation of hidden Christians. Third that propagators of the Christian faith should leave the Sendai fief, or else, abandon their religion.”In hindsight, it has been suggested that the surprising indictment of Christianity in Sendai, after years of tolerance and reception came about as a result of a possible recount by Tsunenaga on the greatness and might of Western countries and the Christian religion. Then there was the secretive factor of the Embassy whilst in Rome, which raised the possibility for an alliance between the Papal States and Sendai Domain, with the intention for the former to use the latter as a de facto base of operations for proselytizing all of Japan. Understandably, the daimyo of Sendai was not too enthusiastic about sharing his power with foreign entities.It has also been suggested that the ultimate decision of the Spanish Crown to not enter in a trade agreement with Japan, based purely on the premise that they were persecuting Christians did little to warm Date up to the continuation of warmth towards the alien ideology.Whatever the case may be, Date opted to suddenly distance himself from the teachings of the Catholic Church. And merely 40 days later, Christians were already being martyred in Sendai for their faith. It should be noted however, that the measures taken by Date to quell the spread of Christianity were merely mild relative to other areas of Japan, as both Japanese and Western Christians repeatedly claimed that he only took them to appease the xenophobic shogun:“Date Masumune, out of fear of the shōgun, ordered the persecution of Christianity in his territory, and created several martyrs.”Supporting this idea, is the fact that around the time that Christians were first being executed in Sendai, Date wrote a letter to the shogun in which he makes a very clear effort to evade responsibility for the embassy, explaining in detail how it was organized with the approval, and even the collaboration, of Tokugawa:“When I sent a ship to the Southern Barbarian countries several years ago, upon the advice of Mukai Shōgen , I also dispatched the Southern Barbarian named Sotelo, who had resided for several years in Edo. At that time, your highness also gave messages for the Southern Barbarians, as well as presents, such as folding screens and sets of armour.”From a practical point of view, the Japanese fear of a “Christian invasion” was not exactly unjustified though. The mighty Spanish Empire was merely hundreds of kilometres away from the island at any given time in the Philippines for instance, and worse yet still, they had a record of invading or even planing to annex entire nations merely in order to spread Christianity.Towards the late 1500s, the Spanish had even seriously considered conquering the entirety of China’s Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) - Asia’s sole and undisputed superpower - using only 30,000 men. From this point of view, the Japanese had much to fear in regards to the Christian West. In fact, it was most likely due in no small part to this fear that the Japanese quickly severed economic ties with Spain in 1623, and then finally diplomatic relations the following year.A map of East Asia as originally composed for Ming China by Jesuit Matteo Ricci in 1602:Little is known about the ultimate fate of the former Japanese ambassador to Europe after Christianity was outlawed in Sendai, but based on hearsay, certain rumours eventually arose claiming that Tsunenaga had renounced the faith. Some meanwhile maintained that he was martyred in the name of Christ, and other yet still assert that he lived out the rest of his days as a “Hidden Christian” (隠れキリシタン). In any case, few knew the true fate of the Christian convert, forcing European Christians based even in Asia to rely on hearsay.With that said though, since Tsunenaga’s servants and even descendants were later confirmed to be executed for being Christians (after absolutely refusing to recant their faith, post being subjected to various tortures such as “reverse hanging” (釣殺し)), there is a strong case to make for the ambassador’s enduring faith even in the face of persecution and death. It’s not certain of course since they could have just converted, but it was likelier that he raised up his son to be Catholic, who in turn passed down the faith throughout the succeeding generations.Father Sotelo who came back to Japan with Tsunenaga was meanwhile arrested by the Japanese authorities in 1624, and subsequently burnt at the stake. Shortly before his death however, he managed to give one final written praise of Hasekura Tsunenaga as a hero of Christendom who defended and propagated the Good News thereby fulfilling the work of the “Great Commission”:“My other colleague, the ambassador Philippus Faxecura, after he reached his aforementioned king, was greatly honored by him, and sent to his own estate, to rest after such a long and tiring journey, where he made his wife, children, servants, and many other vassals into Christians, and advised other nobles who were his kith and kin to accept the faith, which they indeed did.While he was engaged in these and other pious works, a full year after his return, having provided much instruction and a great example, with much preparation, he piously passed on, leaving for his children by a special inheritance the propagation of the faith in his estate, and the protection of the religious in that kingdom.The King and all the nobles were greatly saddened by his passing, but especially the Christians and Religious, who knew very well the virtue and religious zeal of this man. This is what I heard by letters from the very Religious who administered the sacraments to him, and who had been present at his death, as well as from others.”An artist’s impression of Hasekura Tsunenaga conversing with friend and colleague, Luis Sotelo of the Order of Friars Minor (Franciscans):In the end, Hasekura Tsunenaga passed away from illness in 1622. The whereabouts of his grave are not currently known for sure. Thus ended the last remnants of the Keicho Embassy in this way. And what an ignoble shame it all was.For in the beginning, it was with optimism and honour that the Keicho Embassy was sent forth unto Europe to reap the great rewards of international fraternization. The trip itself well and good, which saw the reception of many a great tales and deeds inclusive to the donning of Roman citizenship onto Tsunenaga in addition to the exchange of pleasantries amongst lords and men, alas, only for all of it to ultimately collapse into an abyss of unfufilled ambitions and hopes and dreams in the end.This therein lay the great tragedy of Japan during the early 17th century, a country which had much to offer the world, but the world heeded it not. So too was the contrary thus, the world had much to offer Japan, but the Japanese heeded it not.And so begun a dark period of isolationism in Japanese history therefore.Conclusion and Additional InformationDramatic nonsense aside, the two embassies - Tensho and Keicho - indeed shared many similarities, but the most common factor was the influence of religion, specifically Christianity as one would have observed by now.But the greatest difference between the two was that the former was a success, whereas the latter failed. Both arose out of a desire to improve relations with Europe, but the Tensho Embassy focused specifically on bridging the cultural gap between East and West via the shattering of many mutual stereotypes, whilst the Keicho Embassy was centered around economic and religious ties.Both were important and unprecedented for their time, and both offer a unique glimpse of what a non-isolationist Japan may have continued to look like, had they not followed through with their Sakoku policy starting from 1623 onwards. But alas, history cannot be changed despite it being 20/20 in hindsight, and we are left irrespective with a version of events whereby the island nation was closed off to the rest of the world until well into the 19th century. And even when Japan did eventually open itself up to the world again, it made sure not to repeat the mistakes of the past thereby accepting European science and technology, whilst rejecting the true pillars of Western civilization: Christianity.Still let it not be forgotten that both the Tensho and Keicho Embassies were only made possible in no small part due to Christianity. And whilst we’re on that topic, the first ever visit by a Japanese individual to Europe by one “Bernado the Japanese” (鹿児島のベルナルド) - who I did not cover for this answer - was also based on the efforts of Christianity. In that particular case, Bernardo, an early Japanese convert to the faith and first of his countrymen to ever set foot in Europe accompanied the famous St. Francis Xavier to the West, in order to “see the Christian religion in all its majesty”, so that he could share his experience when he returned to Japan.At all points therefore, it was Christianity which served as the bridge between East and West during the Early Modern Era. Of this, one can be sure.Alessandro Valignano - WikipediaMonument to the Tensho Boys Mission to EuropeTenshō embassy - WikipediaThe Japanese Embassy to Europe (1582–90)San Juan Bautista (ship) - WikipediaChristianity in JapanHistory of the Catholic Church in Japan - WikipediaHasekura Tsunenaga and His TravelsJapan: Hasekura Tsunenaga, leader of the Keicho Embassy from Japan to EuropeSpain and Japan celebrate 400 years of exchanges | ASEF culture360Circling The Waters: The Keichō Embassy and Japanese-Spanish Relations in the Early Seventeenth CenturyJapan–Spain relations - WikipediaFrance–Japan relations - WikipediaFrom Japan to Civitavecchia: Hasekura Tsunenaga's tripBernardo the Japanese - Wikipedia

Puerto Rico’s relationship with Spain varied greatly throughout the 405-year period (1493–1898) that the territory was a Spanish possession. At certain times, especially under the liberal 1812 Spanish constitution and at other times during the 19th century, Puerto Rico was actually a Spanish overseas province on a par with the different provinces in European Spain proper and Puerto Ricans enjoyed the same rights as Spanish citizens in Spain, including the right to vote while residing in Puerto Rico in elections to the Spanish Parliament (the “Cortes Generales”) and the right to have full and voting representation in that Parliament—rights which we as US citizens still don’t have in the US Congress even after 122 years as a US territory, which is extremely ironic because the US is supposed to be the epitome of democracy and the Spanish Empire in the 19th century is often described in British and American sources as a “backward”, authoritarian (if not actually despotic) and undemocratic political entity.In point of fact, Puerto Rico’s locally elected representative to the Spanish Parliament in 1812, Ramón Power y Giralt, was a commissioned officer in the regular Spanish Navy and was elected Vice-President of the Spanish Parliament that met at Cádiz and drafted the 1812 liberal Spanish constitution (links and illustrations below).Ramón Power y Giralt - WikipediaCortes of Cádiz - WikipediaSpanish Constitution of 1812 - WikipediaPuerto Rico was also incredibly loyal to Spain throughout that 405 year period. Puerto Rico was probably the only Spanish possession were no large scale independence movement ever arose against Spanish domination (Guam may be the only other one); we Puerto Ricans are unique that way, we were intensely loyal Spanish subjects for 405 years and have been intensely loyal US citizens for 122 years. All other Spanish possessions gave rise to strong independence movements that threw off Spanish domination by force of arms between 1815 and 1825 and even Cuba and the Philippines had large-scale pro-independence insurgencies that were on the verge of succeeding when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.By contrast, in Puerto Rico there were only two halfhearted attempts to gain independence from Spain: one that took place in the town of Lares in 1868 and another one that broke out in the town of Yauco in 1897; and they were both put down within 48 hours—mostly by Puerto Rican militiamen loyal to Spain serving under Spanish officers (links below).Grito de Lares - WikipediaIntentona de Yauco - WikipediaPuerto Ricans also proved their political loyalty when they rallied to Spain’s defense and actively assisted Spanish troops in defeating two large scale English invasions in 1595 and 1598, a sizable Dutch invasion in 1625 and a huge British invasion force in 1797—the latter fresh from conquering the (until then) Spanish colony of Trinidad in the Caribbean (links below).Battle of San Juan (1595) - WikipediaBattle of San Juan (1598) - WikipediaBattle of San Juan (1625) - WikipediaBattle of San Juan (1797) - WikipediaInvasion of Trinidad (1797) - WikipediaFollowing the defeat of the 1797 British invasion, the Spanish Crown granted the city of San Juan the coat of arms that it still carries to this day (illustration below) which includes the following motto: “Por su constancia, amor y fidelidad es muy noble y muy leal esta ciudad”(“For its constancy, love and fidelity this city is most noble and most loyal”).After 1820, when Ferdinand VII of Spain went back on his oath and rescinded the liberal 1812 Spanish constitution and became a very autocratic ruler (which finally prompted the Spanish possessions in Mexico and Central and South America to declare their complete independence from Spain), Puerto Rico was actually placed under military governors (technically called “captains general”) for most of the 19th century and these governors had broad powers to suspend civil liberties in Puerto Rico for long periods of time throughout most of the 19th century so they were very unpopular but even then the majority political movement that arose in Puerto Rico didn’t favor independence but rather self-government or autonomy in union with Spain and with the extension of Spanish citizens’ full political rights to the inhabitants of Puerto Rico.Captaincy General of Puerto Rico - WikipediaFinally in 1897, a few months before the outbreak of the Spanish American War in 1898, Spain granted Puerto Rico an extremely broad form of self-government that was comparable to “Dominion” status in the British Empire, so that Puerto Rico’s autonomous relationship within the Spanish Empire became broadly equivalent to the relationship then enjoyed by Canada, Australia and New Zealand with the United Kingdom within the British Empire (links below).The Autonomic Charter of 1897So in general and at least formally, Puerto Rico was an integral part of the Spanish Empire if not of Spain itself in 1898 and its loss was regarded by Spain as the loss of a Spanish province, although less significant, in economic and military terms, than the loss of Cuba and the Philippines; but the loss of all three overseas possessions, in addition to that of Guam at the same time, was a very traumatic blow to Spanish prestige that deeply affected Spaniards’ psychological self-image for many years, was reflected in Spanish arts and literature, and contributed to Spain’s reluctance to enter into any European military alliances which in turn resulted in Spain’s refusal to enter into the First World War on the side of either the Triple Entente (later the Allied Powers) or the Central Powers (link below).Spanish–American War - WikipediaGeneration of '98 - WikipediaSpain during World War I - WikipediaAn interesting and little-known historical footnote may offer some clues as to the importance afforded Puerto Rico by Spain. During the negotiations to end the American War of Independence, Great Britain and Spain got around to discussing how to end hostilities between them; if you recall, after the American victory over the British at Saratoga in 1777 the American Revolutionary War became a global conflict when France, Spain and the Netherlands entered the war on the American side and hostilities spread to Europe, India, the Caribbean and all the world’s seas and oceans (guess you missed that class); Spain tried to ease the pressure on the US by trying to retake Gibraltar from the British, which Great Britain had taken from Spain in 1713 in a previous war (guess you also missed that class). When Spain offered the UK to trade the Dominican Republic or Florida for Gibraltar, the UK made a counter proposal stating that they would only trade Gibraltar for Puerto Rico. When you look at any regional map of the Caribbean it becomes immediately apparent that Puerto Rico’s position is immensely important from a strategic and naval point of view because it stands at the precise boundary between the Greater and Lesser Antilles (map below). This strategic value was especially important in the 18th century.Puerto Rico at the time was heavily fortified with many fortresses and defensive walls (that’s how the island withstood the British attack of 1797); these fortifications are well-preserved to this day and most of them are managed by the US Park Service as part of the Old San Juan US National Historic Park Site (illustrations below).San Juan National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)San Juan National Historic Site - WikipediaSan Juan National Historic SiteContact Us - San Juan National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)After the British expressed interest in Puerto Rico, that killed the negotiations because Spain considered Puerto Rico a vital military outpost that protected its seaborne trade between Mexico, Central and South America on the one hand and European Spain on the other, so it was not in Spain’s interest to give up Puerto Rico even to recover Gibraltar. The incident isn’t well known except to seasoned military and political buffs like myself but it is a matter of historical record (links below).What If Puerto Rico was traded for Gibraltar?Charles Gravier, Comte de VergennesDepartment of State News LetterSo I think it’s fair to say that Spain was also very appreciative of Puerto Rico throughout the long period of Spanish domination of the territory.This may all sound a bit complicated to non-Puerto Ricans but it’s second nature to us.

The Wars of Alexander the Great were fought by King Alexander III of Macedon ("The Great"), first against the Achaemenid Persian Empire under Darius III, and then against local chieftains and warlords as far east as Punjab India. Due to the sheer scale of these wars, and the fact that Alexander was generally undefeated in battle, he has been regarded as one of the most successful military commanders of all time. By the time of his death, he had conquered most of the world known to the ancient Greeks. Although being successful as a military commander, he failed to provide any stable alternative to the Achaemenid Empire.(Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of Issus, from the House of the Faun, Pompeii)Alexander assumed the kingship of Macedonia following the death of his father Philip II, who had unified most of the city states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony in a federation called the Hellenic League. After reconfirming Macedonian rule by quashing a rebellion of southern Greek city-states and staging a short but bloody excursion against Macedon's northern neighbors, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, under its "King of Kings" (the title all Achaemenid kings went by), Darius III. As it seems, this war would choose whether Alexander would keep his early success, or fall at the feet of the mighty Persians…PERSIAAsia Minor -In 334 BC, Alexander crossed the Hellespoint into Asia. It took over one hundred Trirememes (boats with oars) to transport the entire Macedonian army, but the Persians decided to ignore the movement.In these early months, Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a serious challenge to Alexander's movements. Memnon of Rhodes, the Greek mercenary who aligned himself with the Persians, advocated a scorched earth strategy. He wanted the Persians to destroy the land in front of Alexander, which he hoped would force Alexander's army to starve, and then to turn back. Eventually, with Alexander advancing deeper into Persian territory, Darius put Memnon in control of an army, and told him to finally confront Alexander. The early ignorance of King Darius was a crucial factor that caused him to lose Asia Minor, and later, his Empire.Batte of Granicus River -The army of Alexander was marching through dispersed woodlands of Mysia, no army had confronted the now confident Alexander, but as the days went on, a cold dread started to rise from the depths of their stomachs, followed by distress and concern. The Battle of Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), near the site of Troy. After crossing the Hellespoint, Alexander advanced up the road to the capital of the Satrapy of Phrygia. The various satraps of the Persian empire gathered with their forces at the town of Zelea and offered battle on the banks of the Granicus River. Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank. By doing so, he was able to minimize the advantage the Persians had in numbers. In addition, the deadly Persian chariots were useless on a cramped, muddy river bank.Arrian, Diodorus, and Plutarch all mention the battle, with Arrian providing the most detail. The Persians placed their cavalry in front of their infantry, and drew up on the right (east) bank of the river. The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy Phalanxes in the middle, and cavalry on either side. The Persians expected the main assault to come from Alexander's position and moved units from their center to that flank.Alexander's second-in-command, Parmenion, suggested crossing the river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day, but Alexander rallied his men, and atttacked immediately. This tactic caught the Persians off guard. The battle started with a cavalry and light infantry attack from the Macedonian left, so the Persians heavily reinforced that side. However, by this point, Alexander led the horse companions in their classic wedge-shaped charge, and smashed into the center of the Persian line. Several high-ranking Persian nobles were killed by Alexander himself or his bodyguards, although Alexander was stunned by an axe-blow from a Persian nobleman named Spithridates. Before the noble could deal a death-blow, however, he was himself killed by Cleitus the Black. Alexander's horse was killed in the ensuing charge, although he was not at the time riding his beloved Bucephalus. The Macedonian cavalry opened a hole in the Persian line, and the Macedonian infantry charged through to engage the poor quality Persian infantry in the rear. At this, and with many of their leaders already dead, both flanks of the Persian cavalry retreated, and the infantry was mercilessly cut down as it fled.Alexander consolidates support in Asia Minor -After the battle, Alexander buried the dead (Greeks and Persians), and sent the captured Greek mercenaries back to Greece to work in the mines, as an abject lesson for any Greek who decided to fight for the Persians. He sent some of the spoils back to Greece, including three hundred Panoplies(complete Persian suits of armor) back to Athens to be dedicated in the Parthenon with the inscription “Alexander, son of Philip and the Greeks, Lacedaemonians (Spartans) accepted, these spoils from the barbarians who dwell in Asia”.Antipater, whom Alexander had left in charge of Macedon in his absence, had been given a free hand to install dictators and tyrants wherever he saw fit in order to minimize the risk of a rebellion. As he moved deeper into Persia, however, the threat of trouble seemed to grow. Many of these towns had been ruled for generations by heavy handed tyrants, so in these Persian towns, he did the opposite of what he did in Greece. Wanting to appear to be a liberator, he freed the population and allowed self-government. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. Town after town seemed to surrender to him. The satrap at Sardis, as well as his garrison, was among the first of many satraps to capitulate.As these satraps gave up, Alexander appointed new ones to replace them, and claimed to distrust the accumulation of absolute power into anyone’s hands. There appeared to be little change from the old system. Alexander, however, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. The true effect, however, was to separate the civil from the financial function of these satrapies, thus ensuring that these governments, while technically independent of him, never truly were. Otherwise, he allowed the inhabitants of these towns to continue as they always had, and made no attempt to impose Greek customs on them. Meanwhile, ambassadors from other Greek cities in Asia Minor came to Alexander, offering submission if he allowed their 'democracies' to continue. Alexander granted their wish, and allowed them to stop paying taxes to Persia, but only if they joined the League of Corinth. By doing so, they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander.Siege of HalicarnussusThe Siege of Halicarnussus was undertaken in 334 BC. Alexander, who had a weak navy, was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy. It continuously attempted to provoke an engagement with Alexander, who would have none of it. Eventually, the Persian fleet sailed to Halicarnassus, in order to establish a new defense. Ada of Caria, the former queen of Halicarnassus, had been driven from her throne by her usurping brother. When he died, Darius had appointed Orontobates satrap of Caria, which included Halicarnassus in its jurisdiction. On the approach of Alexander in 334 BC, Ada, who was in possession of the fortress of Alinda, surrendered the fortress to him. Alexander and Ada appear to have formed an emotional connection. He called her "mother", finding her more amicable than his megalomaniacal snake-worshiping mother Olympias. In return for his support, Ada gave Alexander gifts, and even sent him some of the best cooks in Asia Minor, realizing that Alexander had a sweet tooth. In the past, Alexander had referred to his biological father, Philip, as his "so-called" father, and preferred to think of the deity Amon Zeus as his actual father. Thus, he had finally managed to divorce himself from both of his biological parents.Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus. Alexander had sent spies to meet with dissidents inside the city, who had promised to open the gates and allow Alexander to enter. When his spies arrived, however, the dissidents were nowhere to be found. A small battle resulted, and Alexander's army managed to break through the city walls. Memnon, however, now deployed his catapults, and Alexander's army fell back. Memnon then deployed his infantry, and shortly before Alexander would have received his first (and only) defeat, his infantry managed to break through the city walls, surprising the Persian forces and killing Orontobates. Memnon, realizing the city was lost, set fire to it and withdrew with his army. A strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the city. Alexander then committed the government of Caria to Ada; and she, in turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, ensuring that the rule of Caria passed unconditionally to him upon her eventual death.Syria -Shortly after the battle, Memnon died. His replacement was a Persian who had spent time in Macedonia called Pharnabazus . He disrupted Alexander's supply routes by taking Aegean islands near the Hellespont and by fomenting rebellion in southern Greece. Meanwhile Darius took the Persian army to intercept Alexander.Alexander marched his army east through Cappadocia, where, for a stretch of nearly 150 km (93 mi), there was no water. As his army approached Mount Taurus, they found only one route through which to pass, which was a narrow defile called "The Gates". The defile was very narrow, and could have been easily defended. However, the Persian satrap of Cappadocia had an inflated view of his own abilities. He had been at the Battle of Granicus River, and had believed that Memnon's scorched Earth strategy would work here. He didn't realize that the different circumstances of the terrain made that strategy useless. Had he mounted a credible defence of the defile, Alexander would have been easily repulsed. He left only a small contingent to guard the defile, and took his entire army to destroy the plain that lay ahead of Alexander's army. The Persian contingent that was supposed to guard the defile soon abandoned it, and Alexander passed through without any problems. Alexander supposedly said after this incident that he had never been so lucky in his entire career.After reaching Mount Taurus, Alexander's army found a stream that flowed from the mountain with water that was ice cold. Not thinking, Alexander jumped into the stream, suffered a cramp and then a convulsion, Alexander half fainted and fell into the freezing water, his men panicked, and rushed with much haste to pull out Alexander nearly dead. He quickly developed pneumonia, but none of his physicians would treat him, because they feared that, if he died, they would be held responsible. One physician named Philip, who had treated Alexander since he was a child, agreed to treat him. Although he soon fell into a coma, he eventually recovered.Battle of Issus -Alexander's decisive attack -The Battle of Issus took place in November 333 BC. After Alexander's forces successfully defeated the Persians at the Battle of Granicus, Darius took personal charge of his army, gathered a large army from the depths of the empire, and maneuvered to cut the Greek line of supply, requiring Alexander to countermarch his forces, setting the stage for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River and south of the village of Issus. Darius was apparently unaware that, by deciding to stage the battle on a river bank, he was minimizing the numerical advantage his army had over Alexander's.Initially, Alexander chose what was apparently unfavorable ground. This surprised Darius who mistakenly elected to hold the wrong position while Alexander instructed his infantry to take up a defensive posture. Alexander personally led the more elite Greek companion cavalry against the Persian left up against the hills, and cut up the enemy on the less encumbering terrain, thereby generating a quick rout. After achieving a breakthrough, Alexander demonstrated he could do the difficult and held the cavalry successfully in check after it broke the Persian right. Alexander then mounted his beloved horse Bucephalus, took his place at the head of his Companion Cavalry, and led a brutal direct assault against Darius. The horses that were pulling Darius' chariot were injured, and began tossing at the yoke. Darius, about to fall off his chariot, instead jumped off. He threw his royal diadem away, mounted a horse, and fled the scene. The Persian troops, realizing they had lost, either surrendered or fled with their hapless king. The Macedonian cavalry pursued the fleeing Persians for as long as there was light. As with most ancient battles, significant carnage occurred after the battle as pursuing Macedonians slaughtered their crowded, disorganized foe.The Battle of Issus occurred in southern Anatolia, in November 333 BC. The invading troops led by Alexander were outnumbered more than 2:1, yet they defeated the army personally led by Darius III of Achaemenid Persia. The battle was a decisive Macedonian victory and it marked the beginning of the end of Persian power. It was the first time the Persian army had been defeated with the King present on the field. Darius left his wife and an enormous amount of treasure behind as his army fled. The greed of the Macedonians helped to persuade them to keep going, as did the large number of Persian concubines and prostitutes they picked up in the battle. Darius, now fearing for both his throne and his life, sent a letter to Alexander in which he promised to pay a substantial ransom in exchange for the prisoners of war, and agreeing to a treaty of alliance with and the forfeiture of half of his empire to Alexander. Darius received a response which began "King Alexander to Darius". In the letter, Alexander blamed Darius for his father's death and claimed Darius was but a vulgar usurper, who planned to take Macedonia. He agreed to return the prisoners without ransom, but told Darius that he and Alexander were not equals, and that Darius was to henceforth address Alexander as "King of all Asia". Darius was also curtly informed that, if he wanted to dispute Alexander's claim to the Achaemenid throne, that he would have to stand and fight, and that if he instead fled, Alexander would pursue and kill him. By this, Alexander revealed for the first time that his plan was to conquer the entire Persian Empire.Siege of Tyre -The Siege of Tyre occurred in 332 BC when Alexander set out to conquer Tyre, a strategic coastal base. Tyre was the site of the only remaining Persian port that did not capitulate to Alexander. Even by this point in the war, the Persian navy still posed a major threat to Alexander. Tyre, the largest and most important city-state of Phonecia, was located both on the Mediterranean coast as well as a nearby Island with two natural harbors on the landward side. At the time of the siege, the city held approximately 40,000 people, though the women and children were evacuated to Carthage, an ancient Phoenician colony.Alexander sent an envoy to Tyre, proposing a peace treaty, and asked to visit their city and offer sacrifices to their God Melqart. The Tyrians politely told Alexander that their town was neutral in the war, and that allowing him to offer sacrifices to Melqart would be tantamount to recognizing him as their king. Alexander considered building a causeway that would allow his army to take the town by force. His engineers didn't believe it would be possible to successfully build such a massive structure, and so Alexander sent peace envoys once more to propose an alliance. The Tyrians believed this to be a sign of weakness, and so they killed the envoys and threw their bodies over the city wall. The dissent against Alexander's plans to take the city by force disappeared, and his engineers began to design the structure. Alexander began with an engineering feat that shows the true extent of his brilliance; as he could not attack the city from sea, he built a kilometer-long causeway stretching out to the island on a natural land bridge no more than two meters deep.Alexander then constructed two towers 150 feet high and moved them to the end of the causeway. The Tyrians, however, quickly devised a counterattack. They used an old horse transport ship, filling it with dried branches, pitch, sulfur, and various other combustibles. They then lit it on fire, creating what we might call a primitive form of napalm, and ran it up onto the causeway. The fire spread quickly, engulfing both towers and other siege equipment that had been brought up, destroying weeks of hard work.This convinced Alexander that he would be unable to take Tyre without a navy. Fate would soon provide him with one. Presently, the Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander’s control. Since their allegiance was to their city, they were therefore Alexander’s. He now had eighty ships. This coincided with the arrival of another hundred and twenty from Cyprusa, which had heard of his victories and wished to join him. Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his superior numbers. He had several of the slower galleys, and a few barges, refit with battering rams, the only known case of battering rams being used on ships. Alexander started testing the wall at various points with his rams, until he made a small breach in the south end of the island. He then coordinated an attack across the breach with a bombardment from all sides by his navy. Once his troops forced their way into the city, they easily overtook the garrison, and quickly captured the city. Those citizens that took shelter in the temple of Heracles were pardoned by Alexander. It is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyrians' defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city. Alexander granted pardon to the king and his family, whilst 30,000 residents and foreigners taken were sold into slavery. There was a family, though, that Alexander gave a very high position in his government, but the only contact he ever had with them was when he spent the night with the wife of the household.EGYPTSiege of Gaza -The stronghold at Gaza was built on a hill and was heavily fortified. Alexander knew of its strategic importance and took the opportunity to take Gaza once his campaign in the Dead Sea region was extengiushed. Alexander marched his army south from Jerusalem, following the Mediterranean coast, until, as Alexander wished, Gaza could be seen on the horizon.The fortress was located on an eminence, on the edge of a desert from which the surrounding area could be easily controlled. It controlled the main road that went from the Persian province of Syria to Egypt. The city, over 60 feet (18 m) high, was traditionally employed to control the surrounding area, which even then was a hotbed of dissent.Batis was aware that Alexander was marching down the coast, as he had just been victorious at Tyre. He therefore provisioned Gaza for a long siege. It is likely that he was aware of Alexander's scheme of controlling the entire Mediterranean coast before moving to Persia proper.During the Siege of Gaza Alexander succeeded in reaching the walls by utilizing the engines he had employed against Tyre weeks before. After three brutish, unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was taken by storm (“assault in a violent attack,”). Batis, the commander of the fortress of Gaza, expected to hold Egypt in subjection until the Persian Great King Darius III could raise another army and confront Alexander in a battle from this city.First stage of the siege -Upon arriving, Alexander camped near the southern side of the city and deemed the southern walls as the weakest. Near these weak points, Alexander built the mounds that were eventually used to enter the city. It is alleged the mounds were built quickly, despite the engineers' belief they could not be completed due to the nature of Gaza's fortifications. They worked hard, every day, assaulting the walls, every time being pushed back harshly. One day during the siege, the Gazans made a sortie against enemy siege equipment constructed on site, and Alexander led his shield bearing guards into a counterattack. Alexander's shoulder was seriously injured in the attempt. According to Arrian, after much work, the rest of Gaza was surrounded by the mound, making the fortress ready to be taken.At some undefined period after this, the siege equipment from Tyre arrived, and was put into use also. It was after this that major sections of the wall were ruthlessly broken by the Macedonians.After three attempts to enter the city, the Macedonians finally entered the city. The Gazans fought bitterly, holding every inch.Consequences of the SiegeBatis still refused to surrender to Alexander. Though a eunuch, Batis was physically imposing and ruthless. Batis made the Siege difficult for Alexander, which ultimately led to the populaces final, blunt demise. When Gaza was taken, the male population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. According to the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, Batis was killed by Alexander in imitation of Achilles' treatment of the fallen Hector of Troy. A rope was forced through Batis's ankles, probably between the ankle bone and the Achilles tendon, and Batis was dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city. Alexander, who admired courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave Persian general, was infuriated at Batis's refusal to kneel and by the enemy commander's haughty silence and contemptuous manner. As a result of the Siege, Alexander was allowed to proceed south into Egypt securely, without his line of communications being threatened from the North by Batis from Gaza.With Gaza taken, Alexander marched into Egypt. The Egyptians hated the Persians, in part because Persia considered Egypt as nothing more than a breadbasket. They welcomed Alexander as their king, placed him on the throne of the Pharohs giving him the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and named him the incarnation of Ra and Osiris. He set in motion plans to build Alexandria, and, though future tax revenues would be channeled to him, he left Egypt under the management of Egyptians, which helped to win him their support.MESOPOTAMIA -Battle of GaugamelaThe Battle of Gaugamela took place in 331 BC in what is now Iraqi Kurdistan, possibly near Dohuk, and resulted in a decisive victory for the Macedonians. After the Siege of Gaza, Alexander advanced from Syria towards the heart of the Persian empire, crossing both the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers without any opposition. Darius was building up a massive army, drawing men from the far reaches of his empire, and planned to use sheer numbers to crush Alexander. Though Alexander had conquered part of the Persian empire, it was still vast in area and in manpower reserves, and Darius could recruit more men than Alexander could dream of. Also present in the Persian army, a sign that the Persians were still very powerful, were the feared war elephants. While Darius had a significant advantage in number of soldiers, most of his troops weren't as organized as Alexander's.Alexander's decisive attackThe battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his eastern satrapies. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry as was the tradition among Persian kings. The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side of the army falling under the direct command of Alexander, and the left to Parmenion. Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. Darius now launched his chariots, which were savagely intercepted by the Agrainians, and quickly rendered useless. Alexander, while heroicly leading the charge, formed his units into a giant wedge, which quickly smashed right into the weakened Persian center. Darius' charioteer was killed by a spear, and chaos rang out as everyone (incorrectly) thought it was Darius who had been killed. The Persian line then collapsed, and Darius fled. Darius escaped with a small core of his forces remaining intact, although the Bactrian cavalry and Bessus soon caught up with him. The remaining Persian resistance was quickly put down. In all, the Battle of Gaugamela was a disastrous defeat for the Persians, and possibly one of Alexander's finest victories.After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his own bodyguard chased after Darius in hopes of catching up. Substantial amounts of loot were gained following the battle, with 4,000 talents captured, as well as the King's personal chariot and bow. Darius planned to head further east, and raise another army to face Alexander while he and the Macedonians headed to one of the Persian capitals, Babylon, and then to another, Susa. There, Alexander found wealth that even he had never imagined possible. He paid his troops, and sent a sum of money six times the annual income of Athens to Greece, in order to put down a Spartan rebellion. Darius, meanwhile, dispatched letters to his eastern satrapies asking them to remain loyal. The satrapies, however, had other intentions, and quickly capitulated to Alexander.Bessus fatally stabbed Darius, before fleeing eastwards. Darius was found by one of Alexander's scouts, moaning in pain. Darius, dying and chained to a baggage train being pulled by an ox, was lying next to a lone dog and royal robes covered in blood. He asked for water, and then, clutching the Macedonian soldier's hand, said that he was thankful that he would not die utterly alone and abandoned. It is said that Alexander may have felt genuinely saddened at Darius' death, he buried Darius next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral. Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death, a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is considered to have fallen with the death of Darius.Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. The majority of the existing satraps were to give their loyalty to Alexander, and be allowed to keep their positions. Alexander’s troops now thought the war was over. Alexander was unsure how to deal with this, so he decided to scare them into submission. He gave a speech, arguing that their conquests were not secure, that the Persians did not want the Greeks to remain in their country, and that only the strength of Macedon could secure the country. The speech worked, and Alexander's troops agreed to remain with him. Alexander, now the Persian "King of Kings", adopted Persian dress and mannerisms, which, in time, the Greeks began to view as decadent and autocratic. They began to fear that Alexander, the king they had hero-worshiped, was turning into an eastern despot, although a young eunuch was eventually introduced to Alexander, and helped to keep his decadence in check.Battle of the Persian Gate -After the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander had advanced to Babylon and Susa. A Royal Road connected Susa with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis and Pasargadae in Persis (the Persian Empire had several "capitals"), and was the natural venue for Alexander's continued campaign. After the conquest of Susa, Alexander split the Macedonian army into two parts. Alexander's general, Parmenion, took one half along the Royal Road, and Alexander himself took the route towards Persis. Passing into Persis required traversing the Persian Gates, a narrow mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush.Believing that, after his victory over the Uxians, he would not encounter any more enemy forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard, and thus walked into Ariobarzanes' ambush. Once the Macedonian army had advanced sufficiently into the narrow pass, the Persians rained down boulders on them from the northern slopes. From the southern slope, Persian archers and catapults launched their projectiles. The furious onslaught slaughtered hundreds of men, soldiers, and horses, even wagons were crushed and smashed. Lines and rows of men were pierced and punctured by the Persians arrows and bolts. Alexander's army initially suffered heavy casualties, losing entire platoons at a time.Ariobarzanes had hoped that defeating Alexander at the Persian Gates would allow the Persians more time to field another army, and possibly stop the Macedonian invasion altogether. After the first massacre, Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month, but Alexander succeeded in encircling the Persian army and broke through the Persian defenses. The defeat of Ariobarzanes's forces at the Persian Gate removed the last military obstacle between Alexander and Persepolis. Upon his arrival at the city of Persepolis, Alexander appointed a general named Phrasaortes as successor of Ariobarzanes. Four months later, Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out and spread to the rest of the city. It is not clear if it had been a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Greco-Persian War.Siege of the Sogdian Rock -After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid Empire’s forces in 328 BC, he began a new campaign against the various Indian kings in 327 BC. He wanted to conquer the entire known world, which in Alexander's day, ended on the eastern end of India. Greeks of Alexander's day knew nothing of China, or any other lands east of India. The Siege of Sogdian Rock, a fortress located north of Bactria in Sogdiana, occurred in 327 BC. Oxyartes of Bacrtria had sent his wife and daughters, one of whom was Roxana, to take refuge in the fortress, as it was thought to be impregnable, and was provisioned for a long siege. When Alexander asked the defenders to surrender, they refused, telling him that he would need "men with wings" to capture it. Alexander asked for volunteers, whom he would reward if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress. There were some 300 men who from previous sieges had gained experience in rock-climbing. Using tent-pegs and strong flaxen lines, they climbed the cliff face at night, losing about 30 of their number during the ascent. In accordance with Alexander's orders, they signaled their success to the troops below by waving bits of linen, and Alexander sent a herald to shout the news to the enemy's advanced posts that they might now surrender without further delay. The defenders were so surprised and demoralized by this that they surrendered. Once inside the fortress, Alexander fell in love with Roxana, whom ancient historians call the "most beautiful woman in the world" (not an uncommon claim for an ancient queen) on sight and eventually married her. The story of the siege is told by the Roman historian Arrian of Nicomedia, in Anabasis.And lo, Alexander the Great had conquered Persia, although difficult, and with many obstacles, Alexander proved a task never before seen by any man or empire. After finishing his quest of Persia, he sought out the rest of the known world, but of course, thats a whole new story….Thanks for reading, Cheers!