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Q: What does literature tell us about what it means to be human?A: Hooooboy, here goes…Firstly, don’t hate me cos I’m a genius. (See: my 2018 article: StoryAlity#151 – Kubrick, Darwin and the monomyth - in - The Journal of Genius and Eminence)Secondly - why don’t I just paste in here, pages 130–137 of my (2016) PhD thesis.And - wherever I talk about “movies” below, just swap in “literature”. Same deal.(Side note - I do briefly mention, Shakespeare, Homer, and Austen below.)More info on the thesis (What was the point of it all, Why and How did I do it, etc), here: StoryAlity #1 – About my Doctoral Research on Film / Screenwriting / TransmediaOk here comes pp 130-7 of the thesis. I have bolded some bits that I feel go toward partially answering your question; but - it such an 800-ton gorilla of a Question, the answer is a giant 1600-ton T-Rex that basically then fights and eats the 800-ton King Kong Question.`In The Art Instinct (Dutton 2010) Dennis Dutton adopts a Darwinian evolutionary theory perspective in understanding and explaining art: namely the problematic question of “what Art is” and why some works are critically, aesthetically and commercially more creative - or popular and/or critically well regarded.[233]Dutton (2010) includes a list of twelve characteristic features (`cluster criteria’) of art, which can be seen to apply directly to movies: direct pleasure, skill and virtuosity, style, novelty and creativity, criticism, representation, special focus, expressive individuality, emotional saturation, intellectual challenge, art traditions and institutions, and imaginative experience (Dutton 2010, pp. 51-61).Dutton identifies key issues around the question “What does it mean to be human?” or innate features of the human mind and psychology and thus Human Nature (Dutton 2010, pp. 43-4), elements also examined herein as common themes in the Top 20 RoI (Return on Investment) movies.Dutton also briefly refers specifically to movies, correlating with what has emerged as one central finding of this PhD research study: [234]“In cinema today, it is still the story told that makes the greatest films. In this respect, little has changed since our ancestors sat around a fire listening to a storyteller. Hollywood is engaged in a special-effects arms race; every movie has to have bigger explosions, uglier villains, more frenzied, realistic violence, ear-splitting noises and ever-expanding battle scenes… Such effects can give pleasure to many, but they do not replace the fundamental attraction of a rational, coherent story well told… Good stories compel our attention” (Dutton 2010, pp. 133-4).In 2012 Jonathan Gottschall published The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make us Human (Gottschall, 2012) analysing why humans tell stories and drawing on the domains of biology, psychology and neuroscience to examine narrative across different media including novels, movies, television, videogames, poetry and rap music.[235]The Style journal article `Applied Evolutionary Criticism’ (Cooke & Machann, 2012) is a general review of literature in the domain of Evocriticism, including recent journal articles, and serves as a useful introduction for those new to this domain of knowledge.Other journals which contain key Evocriticism articles include Philosophy and Literature, Evolution and Human Behavior, Evolutionary Psychology, Human Nature, Scientific Study of Literature and the journal The Evolutionary Review: Art, Science, Culture.[236]Footnotes for this page:233 - See also: (Dissanayake, 2000, 2008).234 - See the Results and Discussion chapter: The Results section of this thesis aims to demonstrate why the same crucial story (including: plot) aspect outweighs special effects/visual spectacle considerations in the movie stories that go “viral” - such as top 20 RoI movies in comparison to bottom 20 RoI movies.235 - In this work Gottschall formulates the structure of all story as: “Character + Problem (or, Predicament) + Attempted Extrication” (Gottschall 2012, pp. 52, 186).V e l i k o v s k y PhD - P a g e | 131The key contribution of Evocriticism to this study is that it provides a consilient biocultural worldview which, once the Evolutionary Systems view of cultural production is incorporated, appears more holistic than many alternate available worldviews.Biocultural artifacts such as movies, novels and songs are shaped by human Evolutionary Psychology which in turn is shaped by human evolutionary biology and psychology and their interaction with their environments.Evocriticism’s focus on human universals (237) while also acknowledging human and cultural differences (238) on balance also appears to be a more positive worldview than one focussed primarily on differences.(239)Since the Systems (socio-cultural) Model of creativity is an analogue of biological natural selection, evolutionary theory has great explanatory power in understanding the complex units, levels and mechanisms of both biological and (bio)cultural creativity.(240)Since movies frequently depict Human Nature, Evocriticism provides a valuable method to further illuminate Human Nature and unravel its mysteries as it evolves.As a domain of knowledge Evocriticism provides a pathway to consilient answers to questions such as: Why do significant numbers of people like some movies and dislike others?As noted in Evolution, Literature and Film: A Reader (2010):`Biologist David Sloan Wilson observes that because of the unique importance of culture in humans `we have not escaped evolution, as so commonly assumed. We experience evolution in hyperdrive’ (Boyd et al 2010, p. 5). (236)In 2016 a new Evocriticism journal was also launched: Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture. (See: http://www.academicstudiespress.com/journals/esic/)237 The classic work on human universals is Human Universals (Brown 1991):“After studying a large number of cultures Brown discovered that there are over 200 characteristics common to all cultures, including characteristics as diverse as burial rituals, logical operators, sex role differentiation, incest taboos, rituals surrounding food, dance, metaphorical speech, tool making, wariness of snakes, classification of colour and thumb-sucking” (Workman & Reader, 2008, p. 403).In On Human Nature, (Wilson 1978) also notes that (Murdock, 1945) found 66 human universals (Wilson, 1978, pp. 21-22).238 Whereas Evolutionary Psychology focusses on human universals, Human Behavioural Ecology focusses more on cultural differences, as adaptive evolutionary strategies (Buller in Hull & Ruse, 2007, pp. 266-267).239 As Giora (2011) notes in Scientific Study of Literature journal: “We are all a lot more similar than different” (Giora, 2011, p. 104).240 Understanding the units, levels and mechanisms of selection in bioculture (and biology) is one of the goals of the discipline of Applied Evolutionary Epistemology; see: (Gontier, 2012).V e l i k o v s k y - P a g e | 132The Evolutionary(241) view of creativity is thus assumed in this thesis, adopting key theories in Simonton (1984-2014), Csikszentmihalyi (1988-2014), D. T. Campbell (1950-1974), Karl Popper (1963-1999) and Boyd (2009, 2010) all of which assume the evolutionary view of bioculture.Likewise, herein the selection, variation, and transmission-with-heredity model of knowledge - of “memes” (or ideas, processes or products as biocultural units) - is adopted - in both Science and the Arts - and by extension also language and religions or indeed any form of extrasomatic human cultural symbolic knowledge.(242)At the core of Evocriticism is the knowledge domain of Evolutionary Psychology, to which we now turn.4.5.2 Evolutionary PsychologyJournals of or related to Evolutionary Psychology include Human Nature; Journal of Evolutionary Psychology; Evolution and Human Behaviour; Behavioural and Brain Sciences; and Journal of Social, Evolutionary and Cultural Psychology.As the first major edited volume on Evolutionary Psychology and culture The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (Barkow, Cosmides, & Tooby, 1992) is a canonical and foundational work in Evolutionary Psychology including chapters by Steven Pinker, David Buss, Margo Wilson and Martin Daly, and Tooby and Cosmides.Given Bordwell’s problem-solution model and Popper’s All Life is Problem Solving (1999) all living organisms are problem-solvers which may explain why stories (which are examples of problem-solutions) are so attractive to Human Nature.(243)Tooby and Cosmides (1992) list over thirty major problems that must be solved by an individual in order to survive and reproduce; many of these problems also recur in most stories (Tooby and Cosmides in Barkow, Tooby and Cosmides 1992, p. 110).241 - or more broadly, “Darwinian”.242 See also the book chapter: `The structure of the unit of culture’ (Velikovsky, 2016) for more detail. That chapter is also an Appendix to this PhD.243 In Applied Evolutionary Psychology (Roberts 2012), De Backer notes:“…because the cost/benefit ratio is so positive for acquisition of second-hand information, storytelling was probably very popular among our ancestors: `A hunter-gatherer band might contain scores or even hundreds of lifetimes’ worth of experience whose summary can be tapped into if it can be communicated. So vicarious experience of especially interesting events, communicated from others, should be aesthetically rewarding’ (Tooby and Cosmides 2001, p. 23)” (De Backer, 2012, pp. 352-353).This represents one “benefit” of movie stories for audiences; the “cost” for the audience member includes: the cinema-ticket price, the time, possibly car-parking and babysitting costs and the opportunity-cost of the audience member’s next preferred alternative activity to going to the cinema to see a movie.V e l i k o v s k y - P a g e | 133It appears that problem-solving abilities are selected-for, and as Gottschall (2012) notes the algorithm underlying any story is “character + problem + attempted extrication”.DiCarlo (2010) also notes that there are not merely practical benefits but also neurochemical payloads, namely the release of endorphins and other pleasurable drugs in the brain when a problem appears to be solved (DiCarlo, 2010) which partially explains the audience appeal of movie stories that `work’.On this view, any story where a plot problem is solved, or the protagonist’s goal is achieved - or indeed any kind of mystery explained - should be rewarding on various levels - not just cognitively but also chemically and thus also emotionally.Popper (1999) notes that all life is doing science and that science begins with problems. Thus even witnessing a failure to solve a problem - for example when the heroes in a story are eaten by the monster - is satisfying even on a morbid curiosity level in the sense that we are now aware of a demonstrated solution that is suboptimal. Such `tragic’ stories are equally as valuable as formal scientific hypotheses that are falsified by experiment as we may now eliminate that hypothesis as ineffective.Since so many stories coexist they also must compete for human attention; that is to say there must logically be selection pressure on stories in any medium whether in novels, movies, anecdotes, or songs with a narrative and so on. (244)There exist more novels than can be read in a single human lifetime and the extant 500,000 movies (Vogel 2011, 2014) are also too numerous to watch in a single human lifetime. Thus some selection pressure on new movies also logically must exist. The question becomes: Why are some movies (novels, songs) selected over than others? Why are some things popular and others not?In the textbook Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind (Buss 2012) Buss provides a broad overview of the domain of Evolutionary Psychology noting its rejection of the Standard Social Science Model (SSSM) which denies Human Nature;(245).Buss (2012) is focused on solutions to adaptive problems of survival, mating, parenting, kinship and group living (Buss 2012, p. xiv); and summarizing key works by Darwin, Lorenz, Hamilton, Williams, Trivers, E. O. Wilson, Tooby, Cosmides and other researchers.The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology (D. M. Buss, 2005) contains 34 articles divided into the seven major categories of Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology: Survival, Mating, Parenting And Kinship, Group Living, Evolutionizing Traditional Disciplines of Psychology, and Applications of Evolutionary Psychology To Other Disciplines.244 Buss (2012) notes “Attention… is a scarce resource, and must be allocated judiciously” (p. 330).245 Another Evolutionary Psychology textbook, Evolutionary Psychology: An Introduction (2nd Edn) also devastatingly criticizes the SSSM (Workman & Reader, 2008, p. 403), as does The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (Pinker, 2002).246 As Buss (2005) notes in the preamble to the first chapter of the book “The original theoretical papers of Tooby and Cosmides over the past 18 years have informed virtually all work being conducted in the field of evolutionary psychology” (Buss 2005, p. 1). It is for this reason a separate section is devoted to Tooby and Cosmides (2005) below.V e l i k o v s k y - P a g e | 134In the `Conceptual Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology’ chapter of Buss (2005) Tooby and Cosmides detail the core tenets of Evolutionary Psychology as developed since 1992[247] stipulating that:“The long-term scientific goal towards which evolutionary psychologists are working is the mapping of our universal human nature” (Tooby & Cosmides, 2005, p. 5).It is for this reason that Evolutionary Psychology is clearly relevant to movie storytelling since - as the screenwriting doxa suggests - movie storytelling typically aims to depict and illuminate Human Nature.In the screenwriting orthodoxy, Blake Snyder (2005) repeatedly emphasizes the need for `primal’ elements in successful movie stories, and thus screenplays. With such `primal’ elements in mind, Tooby and Cosmides (2005) define the EEA (248) as follows:“The environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) refers jointly to the problems hunter-gatherers had to solve and the conditions under which they solved them (including their developmental environment)” (Tooby and Cosmides in Buss 2005, p. 22).The authors note that a behavior can be simultaneously: cultural, learned and evolved (pp. 30-1). Regarding “universal architectural design versus genetic differences” Tooby and Cosmides note there is a universal species-typical design in almost all individuals as per Gray’s Anatomy (1918); the authors also present a detailed argument, a summary of which is that: with humans - as indeed with all animals - there is a universal human design but genetic variation and environmental influences result in differences in personality, structure, temperament, and appearance (pp. 38-40).246 The second edition of Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology was published in 2015 in two volumes, namely (D. Buss, 2015a, 2015b). Joseph Carroll’s chapter `Evolutionary Literary Study’ (Carroll, 2015b) updates the first edition of the Handbook’s (Buss 2005) summary of research in evocriticism. In chapter 30 of The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology Volume 2 - Integrations, `Cultural Evolution’ (Chudek, Muthukrishna, & Henrich, 2015), the authors examine cultural evolution but do not examine the evolutionary creativity research such as Simonton (1984-2014), Csikszentmihalyi (1988-2014), Sawyer (2006, 2012). It appears that this extant scientific research on creativity could fruitfully be integrated.247 For an extensive list of Evolutionary Psychology publications by two of its key founders, Tooby and Cosmides, see: Publication List Cosmides and Tooby248 The EEA as a shaper of Human Nature in the Pleistocene era also correlates with Wilson’s observation that “Human nature is, moreover, a hodgepodge of special genetic adaptations to an environment largely vanished, the world of the Ice-Age hunter-gatherer” (Edward O. Wilson, 1978, p. 196).V e l i k o v s k y - P a g e | 135With regard to why certain movies attract and maintain more attention than others, Tooby and Cosmides (2005) note that evolutionary psychologists view attention not merely as a single mechanism but as a whole collection of mechanisms designed to select information from a scene for various different processing purposes, namely “massive modularity” theory (p. 42).Popular movies clearly capture and maintain an audience’s attention but what exactly might be attracting and maintaining attention can vary for individuals as movies are information-rich. (249)Tooby and Cosmides (2005) also note the scientific paradigm change that Evolutionary Psychology represents:Biology is not split into evolutionary biology and non-evolutionary biology. At some point, all psychology will be evolutionary psychology, simply because it will make no sense to wall off the study of humans from the rest of the natural world (Tooby and Cosmides in Buss 2005, p. 44-5).The categories of human knowledge and brain modules listed by Tooby and Cosmides (2005) also go toward illuminating, via science - rather than speculative philosophy - “What it means to be human” and also help to explain the tendency towards a fallacious belief in separatist human exceptionalism.Due to the accelerated progress of human biocultural evolution as the human population increases - despite the universal commonalities of life as systems - humans clearly exhibit many unique behaviours when compared and contrasted to rest of the entire animal and plant kingdom on Earth (D. E. Brown, 1991, 2001; Murdock, 1945; Pinker, 2002, pp. 435-440; Edward O. Wilson, 1978, pp. 21-22). (250)However this thesis asserts that humans are indeed still animals (i.e. we are what I term “humanimals”) despite highly-evolved levels of consciousness (Dennett 1993, 1995) and are still systems which are ultimately if not proximally dependent on their environment of polysystems including biological ecosystems, as do all other lifeforms. (251)249 Additionally individuals predominantly have Visual; Aural; Read/Write; or Kinaesthetic `mode’ preferences for absorbing new information (or indeed may be multi-modal); see: a guide to learning preferences250 Gross (2012) suggests the term “Humaniqueness”, or “Hauser’s (2009) term for the key ingredients of the human mind which together distinguish us from all species. The four major ingredients are: generative computation, promiscuous combination of ideas, mental symbols and abstract thought” (p. 291).V e l i k o v s k y - P a g e | 136Evolutionary Psychology as a domain of knowledge examines the many complex adaptive problems of survival and reproduction in the EEA over deep evolutionary time and to the cognitive mechanisms they have resulted in.252This may also help to explain why so many (over 50%) of the Top 20 RoI movies can be classified in the `Survival’ genre.These movies include: Paranormal Activity, Mad Max, The Blair Witch Project, El Mariachi, Night of the Living Dead, Halloween, Open Water, Friday the 13th, Saw, The Evil Dead, ET: The Extra-Terrestrial - recalling that ET will die, if he stays on Earth, and also Star Wars (1977), recalling that the rebellion is viewed as a terrorist organization by The Empire.To a lesser degree other Top 20 RoI movies also directly concerned with survival and also reproduction include Rocky, Primer and The Full Monty.On this view it seems likely that these Top 20 RoI movies capture attention and thus memory in a wide range of human individuals all of whom in general evidently share the same universal human psychological architecture, mechanisms and general preferences yet of course with variations in each individual.These canonical movie stories appear designed - whether intentionally or even by accidental by-product - to appeal to elements within universal Human Nature.In summary, knowledge from the domain of Evolutionary Psychology may be one useful method for more movie creators to better achieve their storytelling aims rather than via folk psychology.253Although individual audience-member emotional reactions or emotional journeys while experiencing a movie may well differ on a normal-curve(254) and in particular if Narrative Transportation Theory is true, emotions are clearly a crucial part of movie experiences. Tooby & Cosmides in The Adapted Mind (1992) and also in (2005) write extensively on emotions but there is not scope to summarize that complex domain of knowledge here, other than the Evolutionary hypothesis that emotions serve as short-cuts for thinking.If movies are viewed as intellectual, emotional and/or aesthetic stimulation then the Evolutionary and Cognitive Psychology view of emotion also helps to explain why in general terms audiences experience the emotions they do when viewing movies.255251 This view is also a recapitulation of the Systems View as outlined in Laszlo (1972) and Capra & Luisi (2014).252 Buss (2012) notes:“Differential reproduction is the “bottom line” of the evolutionary process, the engine that drives natural selection… Living poses a number of problems. Although our current style of living protects us a great deal, everyone has at some point encountered forces that endanger survival. Darwin called these the “hostile forces of nature” and they include climate, weather, food shortages, toxins, diseases, parasites, predators, and hostile conspecifics (members of the same species).” (D. M. Buss, 2012, p. 72).Such hostile forces often provide obvious (`primal’) antagonists in fiction.253 Again it should be noted - it has rightly been pointed out (by at least one Examiner of this thesis) - that folk psychology has also resulted in works by Shakespeare, Homer, Austen and many other classics to date; however this thesis adopts the view that due to the intense competition most movie screenwriters may need all the assistance and shortcuts they can obtain in understanding universal Human Nature.254 Clearly not everyone finds every allegedly-terrifying horror-genre movie `scary’ nor every `rom-com’, both romantic and funny. In fact as a very broad folk psychology generalization males appear to prefer Horror, Science Fiction and Action genre movies in general, while females may tend to prefer Rom-Coms and thus the pejorative gender-terms “chick-flick”, and “bromance”. Yet some movie stories manage toV e l i k o v s k y - P a g e | 137Since at least 1996, David Bordwell (1996; 2008; 2010; 2012) has made significant contributions to such evolutionary and consilient research and theorizing in his neoformalist film poetics. In the essay `What Snakes, Eagles and Rhesus Macaques Can Teach Us’ in Poetics of Cinema (Bordwell 2008) [256] Bordwell provides a model of a movie spectator’s activities as the information in a movie is perceived, comprehended and appropriated in their mind.Likewise in the online essay `The Viewer’s Share: Models of Mind in Explaining Film’ Bordwell (2012) reviews past popular models of movie comprehension including folk psychology, montage theory, semiology, and Freudian theory ultimately suggesting E. O. Wilson’s (1998) consilience as a promising model (Bordwell, 2012, online). [257][end of PhD thesis excerpt]If you want a longer answer, read Graphing Jane Austen for example. And all these books: (I read them all for my PhD)StoryAlity #71 – On Consilience and Creativity…Or - as I say - just read my 450-page PhD thesis (it’s free), and swap in “literature” for “movies”.Hope that helps?cheersJTVPS - Ok now I see the Comment which has Q details. This now sounds like I am doing your homework for you.1. What are the components, seasons, or experience of human lifeRead Joseph Carroll on `Life History Theory’.2. Common human experiencesRead Joseph Carroll on `Life History Theory’. :)Three tips:1. You can draw from specific authorsSure: maybe draw on Shakespeare, Austen etc. Maybe even Robert M Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance.2. You can also draw from the larger issue of cultureSure; why not. But first try and define “culture”. (Good luck with all that - There are hundreds of definitions of it and nobody agreed, until this in 2016:StoryAlity#132 – The holon/parton structure of the Meme, the unit of culture(Read that chapter - it is a free PDF online above - and was also an Appendix to my PhD)And then it was so awesome it got reprinted in an Encyclopedia. It;’s actually worth a Nobel Prize. I am not making any of this up. Don’t hate me cos I’m a genius.StoryAlity#144 – The structure of the meme, the unit of culture (Encyc of InfoSci & Tech 2017)3. You can also speak to group experiences/community/society--hopefully with reference back to the individualSure, why not?Here’s a diagram.See: https://storyality.wordpress.com/2013/12/12/storyality-100a-the-3-universal-laws-of-holonpartons/

Yes. Philosophy is stupid, useless, and a complete waste of time. Here are some quotes by Rosa Lichtenstein:"Simple question: why do we need philosophy if science can tell us all we need to know about reality, and philosophy can only tell us about an unreal world full of a priori 'facts' of mystical provenance, each and every one the result of a misuse of language?""Philosophy is far too confused to be evil.""After 2500 years of going nowhere slowly, Philosophy has rather discredited itself."“Science provides all the answers we need; you do not need anything else. If you want 'ethics' read a good novel, or ask a priest. Better still, give up your need for anyone or anything to guide you in this area. It is far too servile of you.""In 2500 years, philosophers have solved not one single problem. In fact, philosophers have yet to decide what a 'correct' answer would even look like. So, if anything, the history of the subject is its own worse enemy, and is telling us in its own sweet way that the whole enterprise is as bogus as it is useless.”"What job is it of philosophers to tell scientists what to do? And what have scientists been doing all these years? They have made huge strides in understanding the world; philosophers have made zero progress.And I speak of science the way I do since it is a practice that has gone on for well over 2500 years, which, of course, has reacted with philosophy (often in a Platonistic way), but which exists in many forms, so that no one definition can capture it.”“Now that is a description of science, albeit very brief (but a la Wittgenstein); now you need to say why you think there could be one definition of the diverse things scientists have done and still do, and why scientists should pay any attention at all to philosophers, who cannot even make their minds up what a 'thing' is (after 2400 years of trying)!"“If a question is answerable, philosophy is not needed; if it is not answerable, philosophy is no use. I have 2500 years of failed attempts of philosophers to show I am right.A small point, but one worth making."“2500 years later, no definition, no answers, but loads of science. Any wonder scientists by-and-large think philosophy is c*ap?”"Duhem was a scientist and Poicare a mathematician. I agree with you that these two are well worth reading, but I do not include them in the list of 'French Philosophers' since, as you say, they weren't philsophers, and hence knew what they were talking about."“2500 years later, and not one result to show for it, I think history has passed an appropriate judgement on Philosophy."”"All meaningless questions.1) Is there a god?Meaningless, since it contains at least one empty term: 'god'.2) I must have free will.Meaningless, for the same reason except we have here an empty phrase 'free will'.And just because I reject all philosophy does not mean I am not curious about nature; I just look to science to tell me what it contains.[I refrain from commenting about moral issues, since I am not a priest.]""Even if science had produced just one result in 2400 years, that would still be more than that which traditional philosophy has managed in the same interval.""To be honest, I do find some of it intriguing (and a few passages here and there that you could describe with those words), but you could say the same for passages from the Bible.""As I say, an illegitimate set of topics, and a well-trodden way of going nowhere slowly. But, you can waste you time on this; who am I to stop you? If 2500 years of pointless inquiry won't convince you, I certainly cannot."The only use for metaphysics is to fill books, and thus provide fuel for Hume's bonfire.""Sartre's work makes no sense; Kant's very little.It is up to you to decide if mine does or does not (I am hardly a neutral judge of my own work).In which case, I am the wrong person to ask if my work is or is not better/more important than the meaningless prose philosophers have inflicted on humanity.And I cannot accept that philosophers are trying to change the world with their work (as opposed to their political activity, such as it was); if they are then Lewis Carroll's Jabberwocky was as valid an attempt to do so as Sartre's 'Being and Nothingness' was.Except, the Jabberwocky made more sense.""Masturbation is to sex as philosophy is to reality."'Philosophy stands in the same relation to the study of the actual world as masturbation to sexual love.'— Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology"“The difference is, as I have pointed out to you before, that the truth of philosophical theses follows from the alleged meaning of the words they contain. This is not so in Physics, or the rest of science, where theories and hypotheses are counted as true/false only after the evidence confirming/refuting them has turned up.And this means that all of traditional philosophy is just self-important linguistic idealism -- where fundamental truths about 'reality' follow from thought/language alone.”“When this is compared with all the other negative things Marx said about Philosophers and about Philosophy (and the fact that after 1844 he wrote practically zero on the subject), it is clear that, as Bretty said, Marx and W saw practically eye-to-eye on this: Philosophy is just self-important hot air, and the sooner it is put in its place (the bin) the better.""Burn, you must remember that W's philosophy is, like Marx's, an anti-philosophy, designed to bring it to an end.“The only theory we need is scientific; anything else amounts to a capitulation to idealism (the belief that there are non-material things running nature that science cannot study).""I'd still call anti-philosophy a philosophy."Rosa Lichtenstein: “This is like calling anti-capitalism, capitalism.If it makes you happy to do so, who am I to stop you?"As to metaphysics, that is pure idealism. So, if you are a materialist, you will regard my claims above as good news. As to ethics, you should know that this is all ideological. Even if it weren't, why you think philosophy can help decide what is right/wrong, good/bad escapes me.If I were to offer the service of someone who had not solved a single problem in 2500 years, and not even looked like getting close, I hope you would tell me to stick that advice where the sun does not shine.Why you listen to philosophy/philosophers therefore beats me.Only if you have a learning curve close the world's worst would you want to look to philosophy to solve a single problem.Guesswork would be better....""What replaces Philosophy? A big hole (or a bonfire, or both), I hope.Science cannot replace it, since that would suggest that Philosophy did have some use (in that it was a quest for knowledge that went wrong, when it was no more of a search than the mumbling of a drunk is a search for knowledge).""I exclude analytic political and moral philosophy from my sweeping generalisations, providing they avoid setting up/using a priori schemas based on an odd use of language, and it seems to me that much of the work done in analytic philosophy of science, mathematics, language and logic is worthwhile (given those earlier caveats). These disciplines have genuinely practical implications, even if I disagree with much that they say; it is certainly serious work and worth reading.But this encompasses a tiny fraction of philosophy (if we compare it with its entire history), and within that history, metaphysics (which comprises the vast bulk of traditional philosophy) is a total waste of time and effort, and has gone nowhere in 2500 years.""I don't have a (scientific) theory; I leave that up to those who do genuine science, and who don't confuse out-dated, Idealist theories of the 'mind' with science.Moreover, as I have shown in another thread at this site, all philosophical theories are incoherent non-sense (so we definitely don't need a philosophical theory):Here is a typical metaphysical p"Read several good novels; that will tell you more about life than 2500 years of that academic and cloistered discipline called 'philosophy'.""Except, I can show that philosophy (traditionally executed) is incoherent non-sense, and thus a total waste of time and effort -- indeed, as its history has amply confirmed. So, it's not a matter of personal taste.""after 2500 years of aimless speculation, philosophers have absolutely no results to show for all that wasted effort. In fact, they would have been far better occupied watching their toe-nails grow for all the good they have done..""Logic and the sciences are not part of philosophy. It is certainly used by philosophers and was invented by one (Aristotle) but that does not make it part of Philosophy -- any more than meteorology is (which was also studied by Aristotle), or that pens (also used by philosophers) are.""As science progressed, it diverged from philosophy. They are now totally separate. Moreover, science is not only highly useful it has achieved impressive, if not dazzling, results. Philosophy has achieved nothing.""May I recommend you get hold of a copy of the following:Conner, C. (2005), A People's History Of Science. Miners, Midwives And "Low Mechanicks" (Nation Books).There you will see that science was invented by ordinary working people, not by the empty speculations of work-shy philosophers.Moreover, ordinary human beings were reasoning long before Aristotle was a lad.""Without philosophy, it can be argued that none of the other sciences would have developed."Rosa Lichtenstein: “The very first scientists weren't philosophers (on this see A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and Low Mechanicks by Cliff Conner), and while the first philosophers dabbled in a little science (which distinguished itself from philosophy by being testable against nature), it is equally arguable that they held up its progress by their elitism and Idealism. Indeed, the later progress of science was actually slowed by the involvement of philosophy, as philosophers showed they preferred empty speculation to testable hypothesis formation and revealed their hostility to the experimental method. Science only began to accelerate (in the 17th and 18th centuries) when the latter approach (the experimental method) began to dominate over the former (empty speculation). In modern physics, it has slowed again as the former (empty speculation in the form of mathematical models and 'thought experiments', for example) has come to dominate the latter once more. On this see Peter Woit's Not Even Wrong (PDF available at the link below) and Lee Smolin's The Trouble with Physics.""If you read my 'anti-philosophy' posts, you will see that I too have to 'get my hands dirty', as it were, all the time. This is called an 'immanent critique' -- whereby we use philosophy in order to hasten its demise. I employ this method to show how empty its theses are. But this does not imply I am 'doing philosophy', any more than it implies, for example, that a doctor who uses a virus to attack another virus is spreading disease.Now, Marx did not have to hand the sophisticated critical tools that we have today (thanks to Analytic Philosophy). Hence, Marx tended to stumble where today we can walk straight. But, he still made major strides in the right direction -- in order to "leave behind" this empty ruling-class discipline, philosophy.""But, when it comes to anything you care to mention in science, when you get down to it, we do not know why anything at all happens. This is not to denigrate science, but to point out that it is not metaphysics (thank goodness). Sure, scientists refer us to 'laws', but as we have seen, at best these are merely summaries of past events, and so cannot explain why things had to go the way they did.Scientists just know more and more details about nature, how it has performed in general in the past. That does not show that what has happened had to happen, or why it will continue to happen. Now we do have the wherewithal in ordinary language to explain why, say, wrenches work, but as soon as you try to get into the scientific details, all you emerge with are more descriptions, but no fundamental explanations.This is not surprising, since ordinary language grew as a result of collective labour, and because of our interface with material reality and with one another. Scientific language has to go beyond this, and as soon as it does, it begins to function rather badly, when it comes to explanations as opposed to describing yet more detail. And when it tries to explain, it has to fall back on ordinary language to help it out.And that is just one reason why people turn to metaphysics: to try to find these underlying 'reasons'.But, in doing that, they have to anthropomorphise nature...And that is why Conner is 100% correct.""On why philosophy produces nothing but incoherent non-sense, see here:Here is a typical metaphysical p""This seems to be a defence of theory in science, something I haven't denied, but I still fail to see any evidence, as opposed to assertion, that philosophy has been anything other than a hindrance to science. And, of course, my argument isn't based on the idea that philosophy produced by an elite (or their hangers on) is where the problem lies. Philosophy is worse than useless, whoever indulges in it."“In fact, as my last but one post argued, science and mathematics long pre-dated philosophy, and were invented by ordinary working people. Philosophy only succeeded in mystifying both.""But, in philosophy, if there is any 'supporting evidence' it is post hoc, and highly sketchy (just look at the 'evidence' that Descartes appealed to, for example; it would be laughed out of court even in an undergraduate science essay, even of his day; compare it with the careful work of Tycho Brahe, or Darwin, for example). As I noted, the truth of philosophical theses follows from thought alone, making the 'evidential ceremony' that sometimes follows an empty gesture.""Of course, 150 years ago, scientists were called 'natural philosophers', but that is no more reason for us to accept an overlap between the two disciplines than we should accept that science overlaps with theology just because 150 years ago natural theology was also classified as part of what we'd now call science.Sure, we can re-define the two as overlapping, but then we can also re-define capitalism as 'just and fair', but what would be the point of that?"“Philosophy differs from science in that (1) the latter is committed to the experimental verification or falsification of its theories, and (2) the former aims at discovering theses by thought alone, supposedly true in all possible worlds, and for which experimental evidence is irrelevant. The two disciplines have totally different methodologies and aim at totally different results.This is quite apart from the fact that Marx specifically rejected philosophy.""For 2400 years philosophers have been doing the same sort of thing, just changing the content as each mode of production rose and fell. It is indeed one of the ruling ideas, and it dominates all our thinking. You can see comrades here do the same week in week out, inventing 'theories' about fundamental aspects of reality (that it's all illusion, that everything is 'determined', that time is this or it is that, etc.) all from a brief consideration of a few words!And they do it no matter how many times I point this out to them -- it seems so natural to them to do it."“Science was in fact invented by ordinary working people. Philosophy only succeeded in mystifying it. Sure, logic was codified first by Aristotle (as far was we know), but ordinary human beings had been reasoning for thousands of years prior to that. And, although logic is certainly used by philosophers, it has no more to do with philosophy than a computer has if a philosopher uses it.""It is indeed a waste of space. Not one single philosophical problem has been solved in over 2400 years. In fact, we are no nearer a solution than Plato was, and that is because, as Marx noted (and as Wittgenstein argued in detail), the entire subject is based on the systematic distortion of language:""The philosophical methodology we use is too useful."Rosa Lichtenstein: “And yet not one single philosophical 'problem' has been solved in 2500 years, and we are no closer now to finding a solution than Plato was.And it is not hard to see why: the source of these 'problems' lies in the fetishisation/distortion of language I have outlined here. In short, these 'problems' are no more real than this one is:"In chess, who performed the marriage ceremony on the King and Queen?"This has no 'solution' since it is based on a misunderstanding of the role of certain words in chess.Same with metaphysics/traditional philosophy.I do not expect to win this argument; if I did, then Marx would have been wrong about those 'ruling ideas'...""Without philosophy logic and reason as we know it would not exist""Rosa Lichtenstein: “1) Neither would meteorology. Does that make weather forecasting a philosophy?2) You ignore the fact that informal logic has been around far longer than formal logic, and was invented (if that is the right word) by ordinary working people.3) It's also worth recalling that formal logic was invented (as far as we know) by Aristotle, who was just as much a scientist as he was a philosopher. Subsequently, logic was mystified by philosophers, until Frege (a mathematician, not a philosopher) cleared the subject up in the late 19th century.""Certainly philosophers helped develop Aristotelian logic, but they also mystified it and confused it with a priori psychology at the same time. But, the most significant advances in logic in the last 150 years were the result of the work of mathematicians. I'd like to see you present us with examples of problems philosophers have solved, or problems their methods have helped solve.""Using rational arguments (which long pre-dated philosophy) in order to help accelerate its demise is not also to do philosophy. So, we are still waiting for one, just one, philosophical problem that has been solved in the last 2400 years..."“About the 'value' of philosophy in general?Let me put it like this: I think it allows people to think they can access truths about reality on the cheap.[Freud's ideas have a similar effect; armchair psychiatrists can indulge in easy diagnoses without doing any science, and without worrying about the consequences.]And that is it's only value.[Apart, that is, from helping to ratify ruling-class ideas indirectly: that truths like these can be 'found' by thought alone, on the cheap.Oh, and providing me with more examples of how ruling ideas rule even Marxist minds.Apart from that, no value whatsoever -- Hume's bonfires are sorely needed.""The first people to say the earth is round were philosophers."Rosa Lichtenstein: “In so far as they addressed the material world, they were scientists. And it is open to doubt they were the first to point this out.Check out the following book:Conner, C. (2005), A People's History Of Science. Miners, Midwives And "Low Mechanicks" (Nation Books).There the author (who is a Marxist) points out:Quote:"It is evident from the arguments of the ancient authors, however, that their knowledge of the earth's roundness was drawn from the experience of seafarers.... Strabo [a historian and geographer -- RL] wrote:Quote:'...It is obviously the curvature of the sea that prevents sailors from seeing distant lights at an elevation equal to that of the eye; however, if they are at a higher elevation than that of the eye, they become visible...'" (pp.224-25.)He goes on to point out that Aristotle drew on the experience of sailors to conclude the earth was spherical (p.225). He notes the same is true of Pliny (p.224).Once again, it was ordinary working people who knew more than these work-shy 'theorists'.""Mathematics itself isn't metaphysics, but the prose mathematicians come out with often is.And metaphysics is just self-important hot air; proof here:Here is a typical metaphysical p"Philosophy is based on a distortion of language and so can only ever produce non-sense, whoever engages in it.”“1) Philosophy is just systematic confusion, so it's neither anti-science nor pro-science.2) Wittgenstein's philosophy is in fact an anti-philosophy (indeed, he wanted to give the word ("philosophy") an entirely new meaning); his method was aimed at showing that all philosophical problems arose out of confusion, which was itself a consequence of the misuse of language -- as Marx also indicated.""Since Ancient Greek times, 'philosophy' has come to mean much more than this -- traditionally it relates to an esoteric form of 'wisdom'/'knowledge', pertaining to a hidden world underlying appearances that is more real than the world we see around us, and which is accessible to thought alone.In view of this, it's not hard to see why Marx was an anti-philosopher. Anyone who reads The German Ideology, The Poverty of Philosophy and The Holy Family can come to no other conclusion.""For over two thousand years traditional Philosophers have been playing on themselves and their audiences what can only be described as a series of complex verbal tricks. Since Greek times, metaphysicians have occupied themselves with deriving a priori theses solely from the meaning of a few specially-chosen (and suitably doctored) words. These philosophical gems have then been peddled to the rest of humanity, dressed-up as profound truths about fundamental aspects of reality -- peremptorily imposed on nature, almost invariably without the benefit of a single supporting experiment.""After 2400 years of going nowhere slowly, one would have thought that you'd have got the message: philosophy is little more than the systematic capitulation to the misuse of language, and a self-important expression of ruling-class forms of thought.""The problem is that philosophers take ordinary words, misuse them, and then think that they have made a deep point about "mind" or "Being", when all they have done is build a few castles in the air out of figments of their own imagination. Wittgensteinian OLP does not in fact argue that there are or should be no other uses of language, only that philosophical language is just hot air, and can be shown to be hot air."“Well, I'm sorry to have to say this, but philosophers have been asking such pointless questions since Anaximander was a lad.It reminds me of three cartoons I once saw.The first pictured two individuals having a conversation in a Philosophy Department somewhere:A: 'Ah, the big questions of Philosophy. They're the ones that interest me. Like, "Who am I? What am I? Where am I?"'B: 'Sounds more like amnesia to me...'.The second pictured a man putting his head round the office door of the Philosophy Department and asking:Man: "Is this the Philosophy Department?"Secretary: "If we knew the answer to that one, we wouldn't be here!"The last cartoon depicted a student with a worried expression on her face asking her Philosophy Professor at the end of a lecture on Descartes:Student: "Er, Professor, after hearing you lecture on Descartes' method of radical doubt, can I ask you a question? Do I exist?"Professor: "And who wants to know?"All of which (and more) only goes to show that traditional philosophy is like a mental disease that afflicts supposedly intelligent people, and has been doing so now for over 2400 years.""In fact, I have been reading and studying philosophy since the early 1970s, and I have yet to come across a single philosophical 'problem' that we are any nearer to solving than was Plato. Perhaps you know differently, but you unwisely kept that to yourself. And now you say that philosophy's success is not defined by how many problems it has solved, and you are wise to take that view, since it hasn't solved a single one.But, it's lack of success is perhaps clearer to see from the additional fact that we are no nearer to a solution to a single one than was Plato. Indeed, in that philosophy is now vastly more complex than it was 2500 years ago, we are arguably further away from a single solution than was Plato.So, not so much 'progress' then than retrogression. You are welcome to this total waste of human energy.""The historical evidence tells us that ordinary working people were thinking mathematically, scientifically and rationally long before philosophers pinched their ideas.""Religion may be the projection of alienated humanity's self-image, but so is Philosophy (it is just more abstract than Theology): it amounts to the fetishisation of social forms of communication, and inverts them so that they are then confused with real relations between things, or those things themselves (to adapt Marx's own critique of the fetishisation of commodities)""In fact I object to philosophy since it produces nothing but non-sensical and incoherent theories. The fact that this leads to pointless arguments is a spin-off of this, so it isn't my main objection, nor is it near the top of the list of my objections. My second most important objection is that traditional philosophy expresses little other than ruling-class ideology masquerading as metaphysical profundity.And, of course, I recognize that Russell adopted the approach you suggested, but his foundational work (but not his logic) proved to be totally worthless and had no practical effect on mathematics, a fact which, oddly enough, supports my negative view of philosophy.""However, if you will forgive me for saying this, the sort of material you posted has been churned out now for 2500 years, and we are still no nearer an answer.This is because these sorts of ideas are presented as dogmatic theses, as if they have come down from off the mountain.Partly because of that, I claim they make no sense at all, and depend on twisting language, misusing it, or inventing incomprehensible jargon where ordinary words will not do.So, my stance, if I have one, is that not a single philosophical idea, that has ever been propounded, makes the slightest bit of sense, and we should stop kidding ourselves. We do not need it, just more and better science.""My position on philosophy in general is that like religion, it can reflect genuine distress and a desire to fight back (some of the examples you give illustrate that), but ultimately, it gains its rationale from ruling ideas. However, my objection to philosophy in general is not that it represents ruling ideas, but that it is arrant nonsense.Sure some philosophers were poor, but most of the important ones were not, and these were loinised by their masters."“Again, for the few analytic philsophers who thought that a misuse of language was at the root of philosophical 'problems', they did not think that this had anything to do with linguistics. [Nothing I have said above, or will ever say, has anything to do with that discipline -- not that there is anything wrong with it, but it has nothing to do this problematic.]And language can create nothing. We might be able to do so by means of it, but that is a separate issue.However, this subgroup of analytic philosophers saw metaphysics, as I do, as a sytematic capitulation (by traditional philosophers) to the misuse of the language we already have.Once we stop doing this, metaphysics will just die.But, we can speed its demise up, as I try to do (with respect to dialectics, at least), by exposing the confusions upon which it feeds.""I would hazard a guess that most of analytic philosophers were either empiricists, logical empiricists, positivists, logical positivists, realists of one sort or another, conventionalists, and the like.The minority from whom I have learnt the most were none of the above. They rejected all philosophical theories of nature (or of anything), as I do.In that sense, I am happy to let science (not philosophy) tell us what we need to know about nature, etc.""Whats wrong with metaphysics? Basically, it is an attempt to do supercience (i.e., the endeavour to derive super truths from mere words), and 'discover' industrial strength truths about nature from thought alone, not from actual scientific investigation. Knowledge on the cheap, as it were.As such it is 100% idealist.”[quote]Existentialism is an attempt to do a priori super anti-science, so it suffers from all the failings of traditional thought -- in that it tries to derive truths from words/concepts, trivial apercu, and fiction. [So, if anything, it is worse!]It was also an expression of the failings of French Communism -- and amounted to a retreat into despair by certain intellectuals.”“Sartre's philosophy is wind-baggery dressed up as profound insight.""Well, I am not the one to say, since I am so biased -- but if you want my slanted opinion, dialectical philosophy is too confused to achieve anything --, other than cloud the issues, that is. It certainly has not tackled the above problems, nor could it.That would be like, say, George W Bush trying to solve problems in Quantum Mechanics; you'd be lucky if he or it could even recognise the problem, let alone know what to do about it.""As I noted, we just need more and better science -- but no Philosophy at all.""In fact, if you read Socrates's 'arguments', the vast majority depend on word-juggling and the systematic distortion of ordinary words, as Marx alleged. So, if anything, Socrates sent human rationality backwards!”

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I don't mind talking to some outsource support agents but for my review they did not admit that they were not from America.10.Offers and Extra ServicesPaper Help offers a couple of extra features. See them below:Plagiarism report which is similar to Turnitin one. Use this feature if you have doubts regarding the originality of your paper.VIP customer service means that you will be getting SMS notifications about the order's updates.Advanced or TOP writer are obligatory for Ph.D. or Master assignments. Previous writer option might be useful if you don't want to upload a lot of materials to every single order.4. MyGoodAdmissionsEssay is a cheap application writing service that may help you with your resume, CV or any application. They are a standard academic writing service who narrowed their work to admission writings. At this point, they are quick, cheap and efficient but don't have much experience in this field. Basically, MyAdmissionEssays still have the regular essays, research papers options in their order form so some people prefer to use them as a standard academic advisor. Without experienced editors, their quality is average and reviews are mediocre. The support agents are quick and helpful. To get more detailed MyAdmissionEssay review see the full report of our investigation below.1.Service ReviewThis site is owned by a corporation Search Novations Inc., which is a huge company with plenty of academic writing services. They have the same writer database and same editors as PaperHelp and EssayTigers. Basically, there are a great many more services that they operate, but those are the most popular.The company based somewhere in Cyprus and somehow partially in the Marshall Islands. Still, you will never find another mention of their real location on the web.Overall, the quality of their papers is good in spite of some negative reviews.2.Pros and ConsPROS:Urgent deadlines are availableQuick support repliesLow pricesCONS:Average qualityHidden locationRather academic than an application service3.Online reputationMyadmissionessay reviews are not okay. There are plenty of them, and usually, they are mediocre. For example, MyAdmissionEssay Trustpilot:Here is another one for MyAdmissionEssay Sitejabber:Also, I searched for myadmissionsessay BBB or myadmissionsessay Reddit and got nothing so there are not many places where you can see their reviews, and they are not that good.4.GuaranteesThe refund terms for this corporation are all the same. Don't believe that beautiful picture.If you dig deeper, you will see that they actually have a detailed Money Back Guarantee:Note that after the revision, you will never get a refund as per their Policy! Is MyAdmissionEssay scam? I don't think so, but you have to read it very carefully before placing an order.5.Types of ServicesAs we said before, they are not only resume or CV-oriented company. They still do a lot of academic papers. Here is the full list.Admission EssayAnnotated BibliographyApplication LetterArgumentative EssayArticle ReviewBiographyBook ReviewBusiness PlanCase StudyCourse WorkCover LetterCreative WritingCritical ThinkingDissertationDissertation AbstractDissertation ChapterDissertation ConclusionDissertation HypothesisDissertation IntroductionDissertation MethodologyDissertation ResultsEssayLiterature ReviewMovie ReviewPersonal StatementPresentationReportResearch PaperResearch ProposalTerm PaperThesisThesis Proposal6.Ordering ProcessTo get an order, you go to MyGoodAdmissionsEssay and click that big blue button Order Now.Then we go to their order form. It's pretty easy, so you just type what you want and submit your request to their system.In this way, you send them all the information about your assignment. The next step will be checking the order details and the payment for the order.Once you pay for the order, you will find yourself on the order page with those details.Is MyAdmissionEssay legal? Yes, they are if you use them for your CV or resume. For other purposes, you have to use them only as a source.7. Prices and FeesThe prices for different types of papers are different. The admission and application papers are most expensive, but the prices are one of the lowest on the market.8.Paper QualityThe quality of their academic papers is good. However, they might be not the best option for an admission or application letter as they are academic guys.Anyway, you can try and provide us with your feedback for sure!9.Customer SupportCustomer Support is very quick in response but definitely are not native speakers of English. I got a call from them when I cancelled my order, and I could not get a thing from what they were saying.10.Offers and Extra ServicesThe extra features are on the last step in the order form.An official Plagiarism report is useless as they have to guarantee their paper originality as per their Terms. Even if the paper is plagiarized, do you believe that they will send you such a report?5. My experience with 1Essay was a fairly pleasant one. While I was a student, I had to use a couple of services, and this one was my favorite. The service has a good reputation and strong guarantees that they are following to. They seem to be capable of doing complex academic assignments. The prices are acceptable and affordable. Support agents were prompt and efficient with their responses. I was born and raised in the US, so my opinion is based on my understanding of English as a primary language, not as a second or class taught language. I received my papers in the amount of time I had requested, there were several revisions, and sometimes I asked for a new writer. But these were very complicated research papers, and considering I did not have a clue how to begin, I feel the final papers were very good. Is speedy paper safe? Yes, I would say that.1.Service Review1Essay is an academic custom writing service that offers different academic assignments for students and application papers for job-seekers. The company has samples at 1Essay which seem trustworthy to me. The clients of this service usually are high schoolers, undergraduate and master students. They also have options for Ph.D. students and holders for their articles and dissertations. The support agent whom I was talking to was named Nancy, and she seemed to be a native speaker of English. Speedy paper reviews are wonderful despite the low prices.2.Pros and ConsPROS:They DO NOT appear to be a SCAM company.Contact with support was easy.Support responded in a very timely manner.1st writer`s response was a little slow (best available), but the 2nd writers understanding of the instructions was much better (PRO writer).As with any writing service, you must pay in advance.If you place an order with the deadline of 14 days, they usually send the paper within 5-7 days so that you can read the preview and send it for revision.CONS:1st writer`s understanding of the instructions was less than expected.ALWAYS ask for a draft, it will cost extra, but it will give you an idea of how competent the writer that has been assigned to you is.Be aware, English writer does not necessarily mean they are American or even in the US. They can write in English, but the sentence structure is often just off enough that you have to redo several of the lines (this actually seems to be standard with all writing services). The first writer used British English which was very strange because it is a US-based company.3.Online reputationThe reputation of 1Essay Company is almost unsullied. Their Facebook page has more than 3,000 followers, which is unbelievable for academic writing service. The reason for it is SpeedyPaper promo actions that are always there.They appeared to be a legit paper writing service as they have a real address in their Trustpilot profile, which happens to be in Wilmington, Delaware. You can see it at speedy paper reviews page on Trustpilot.The speedy paper reddit channel doesn't exist yet. Also, there is no single thread devoted to discussion of 1Essay services, so speedy paper reddit reviews were of no help. I've found a couple of 1Essay reviews on YouTube. Guys seem to be thankful to this company for their services.4.GuaranteesThese guys do have their money-back guarantee that is not hidden. You may go to 1essay. org/moneyback-guarantee to check it. Hopefully, I did not have to ask for my money back, but support agents told me that it is not an issue. I can also add that they promise 100% original texts and on-time delivery, and if they provide a plagiarized paper or send it after the deadline, you can get a full refund.5.Types of ServicesActually, they can handle any assignment possible, including case study, coursework, editing, homework, thesis proposal, personal statement, lab report, dissertation chapters, essays, etc.6.Ordering ProcessBasically, you place an order at 1Essay and fill in the form with all details about your paper.After submitting the payment details, their Writer Department starts searching for a writer to work on your paper. After the paper is done, you will receive an email notification to log in to your personal account and check the preview. After approving the paper, you will get an editable word. doc version of your paper. If you need a revision, you can type a message to support agents in the messages section or click the revision button.7. Prices and FeesThe cheapest paper will be a one-page high school level within 14 days. The prices start at $9 per page. More details you can see at 1Essay. As you can see, the speedy paper prices are affordable. So, if you need to buy cheap essay online, this is a good start. More 1Essay coupons and promo codes you can get on this page by clicking a Discount button.8.Paper QualityI used this service a couple of times and always got a fine quality for all of my papers. They have plenty of writers to work on your papers. My papers had been written in accordance with my Master level rubric, and the friend of mine, who is a professor, accepted it from the first shot. Needless to say, it was a great experience. I can say that the 1Essay reviews are truly deserved. Their team of writers surely has proficient experts of Ph.D. and Master's levels.9.Customer SupportIt was my pleasure to know that they are available 24/7. They were extremely helpful every time I had to ask something. The responses were quick, so I did not have to wait. Some part of their team is located in Ukraine, but it is not a big issue as every modern company now has outsource branches.10.Offers and Extra ServicesThe following extra features are available: PRO, TOP writers updates, progressive delivery, plagiarism report. Support agents told me that they have three categories of writers.The best available one is a standard option. PRO is more experienced than Best available one and at least with a Master degree. The TOP is one of 10 best writers in their company, some of them are Ph.D. writers.Plagiarism report is an official report that shows the percentage of similarity in the paper. Progressive delivery means that the writer will send you drafts throughout the process. I would like to add that progressive delivery saved helped me to check the writer's progress and help him to stay on the right track.6.7. Little known service which I discovered accidentally. Nice support and fair quality are what make stand this service out of that huge number of scammers out there.1.Service ReviewI’ve discovered SuperbPaper relatively recently when my friend asked my opinion on it and was surprised to find out that I’d never heard about it. Scientific curiosity got over me and I decided to write this SuperPapers review. SuperPapers positions themselves as a relatively smaller company than main players in the niche and prefers quality over quantity.2.Pros and ConsPROS:User-friendly websiteWide range of servicesTechnical writingThey are 100% not scammersCONS:There was no live chat option at the moment this article was being writtenNo profiles in social media3.Online reputationBefore reading reviews on Google, I decided to see what people say about SuperPapers on reddit but, unfortunately, the subreddit was empty. Then I searched on Google whether SuperPapers legit or scam. I found many reviews on fake review sites whose the only objective was to promote services of theirs. I read their reviews but they were all the same like “scams” or “stay away.” I have already written a checklist on how to tell apart real reviews from fake ones. After that, I turned to my proved method of going on Trustpilot and seeing what the word goes there about SuperPapers. All in all, they have a good reputation which is supported by many positive reviews.I’ve also found a couple of negative reviews which seem to be real. In this case, a company representative contacts the customer trying to resolve the situation.I think this is a good practice that the company tries to resolve the conflict openly, unlike many services which blackmail or bribe clients to delete their reviews. This proves that by doing so, the SuperPapers is obviously not a scam. Sitejabber shows that SuperPapers is quite a good service too.I decided to go the extra mile and searched for SuperPapers video reviews and found some on YouTube. So, if you have time you can watch it, according to video reviews, the clients are quite happy with the services the company offers.4.GuaranteesGuarantees are that in case they cannot find a suitable writer to work on your paper, 100% refund will be issued. If you don’t like the paper and want another writer to do the revision but a company is unable to provide you with such, you’re entitled to 15-50% refund, the certain amount will be defined by their manager depending on circumstances. If they deliver the paper after the deadline, you can expect a 15% compensation. If you don’t like the quality or provided poor instructions, the manager will decide what amount of money should be refunded to the customer. Before placing an order I do advise to get familiarized with their policies and guarantees more carefully.5.Types of ServicesEssay (any type)Admission essayAnnotated bibliographyArticle reviewBiographyBook/movie reviewBusiness planCase studyCourseworkCritical thinkingEditingFormattingMultiple choice questionsOtherParaphrasingPresentation or speechProblem solvingProofreadingResearch paperResearch proposalTerm paper6.Ordering ProcessIf you have ever ordered the paper on any custom writing site, this one is pretty much the same. First, you fill out paper details:Then the precise is calculated:In the last step, you have to provide personal details and proceed to the checkout.7. Prices and FeesPrices are affordable if you order the paper well in advance. The minimum price is $10 per page for High School level with a 14-day deadline. The same paper will cost you $34 per page if you need it in 8 hours. SuperPapers discount is 5% for new customers, so if you want to get it, you have to use special SuperPapers promo code “NEWCUSTOMER”8.Paper QualityI ordered a 5-page paper on Marketing. I chose a best available writer, undergraduate level and maximum deadline plus I added plag report to my order. This all cost me $80. The paper was delivered right on time. The were no formatting mistakes which was a good sign (90% of the paper I ordered had formatting mistakes). The grammar and vocabulary were simple but without mistakes as well. The writer used recent peer-reviewed articles and I saw that he actually read them, not just placed sources randomly as many writers like to do. The only drawback was a depth of discussion but if you’re looking for a kickstarter for your paper and can touch up it by yourself, this is a great option. I think the paper was worth its money.9.Customer SupportI don’t like calling and inquiring about the details but since they don’t have a live chat I was forced to. When the support picked up the phone the first thing I asked was “why don’t you have a live chat?” and the support agent explained that they used to, but had problems with it so now they are working on a better option. The support appeared to be nice and professional. They assisted me all the way down to the checkout.10.Offers and Extra ServicesThe paid options that they offer include “Plagiarism report” for $9.99, “Abstract page” costs $14.99 and if you want to be treated with special attention you can grab a “VIP Support” feature for $14.99.7. A high-quality essay writing service EssayProHelp is one of the writing services where you can assign your writer yourself. You can talk to the writer before the order is placed. You do not have to pay for the order until you get the final essay done. However, you need to put some money into your account prior to placing an assignment. The quality of their services is above average so you can give them a dissertation to write without any doubts. Please note that their Refund Policy is hidden and once you approve the order, you don’t have any right to get your money back. Support agents are always busy and not helpful at all. See the full essay pro review below.1. Service ReviewEssayPro is a paper writing company and seasoned veteran in the essay niche. They claim that they have been working since 1997. Certainly, it is a very big advantage, but is it true? In this essaypro review, we are going to find out it togetherAs you might suspect, it’s not so. There was no such site as EssayProHelp till 2003. Why did they say so remains unclear to me. Maybe they want to seem more reliable and trustworthy. But in the end what’s more important: the years of their operation or the quality of the services offered? I am sure many of you will agree with me that we as customers value quality, not the number of years the company has been in operation.The full review is below. Keep on reading and discover more interesting facts if essay pro legit is or scam.2.Pros and ConsPROS:Fair qualityShort deadlines availableYou can assign a writer yourselfDirect communication with the writerCheap pricesCONS:Inattentiveness to some detailsFake foundation date3.Online reputationTo discover whether essay pro is a reliable company or not I went online. The EssayPro has a good online rating. Reviews about them on sites like TrustPilot and SiteJabber are overly positive but, of course, not spotless.The essay pro reviews on SiteJabber are pretty much the same:As for dissatisfied customers, the main complaints included missed deadlines and not following instructions. I noticed that no matter how good the company is, there will always be someone who is dissatisfied. Unfortunately, I did not find any essay pro reddit channel or even a page. Perhaps, you will be the one who will create it. Basing on what I managed to find about this paper writing company, I think essay pro is safe and you can try their services.4.GuaranteesEssayPro Money Back Guarantee policy is no different than other companies’ policies. You’re entitled to essay pro refund in the following cases:No writer has been assigned.The writer has been confirmed, but the client canceled the order.Late delivery.Two payments were made.Please note the bad quality claims are discussed with the manager individually and based on that conversation/investigation the amount of the refund is determined. You can prove that EssayProHelp plagiarised your paper, they promise to provide a 100% refund.5.Types of ServicesThe types of services the company offers are wide and listed below.Custom Essay (any type)Business PlanLiterature ReviewResearch PaperAdmission EssayCase StudyMultiple Choice QuestionsResearch ProposalAnnotated BibliographyCourseworkPresentation or SpeechTerm PaperArticle ReviewCreative WritingReflective WritingThesis / DissertationBook / Movie ReviewCritical Thinking / ReviewReportEditing and proofreading6.Ordering ProcessTo get an order at EssayProHelp, you have to sign up with them. After that, you will see the order form where you have to put all the details of your assignment.After this action you will have a screen like this:The writers will send you their applications, and you can assign one of them in Assign a Writer tab. Be careful as some writer will be inadequate. This one deserves to be shown in my essaypro review.If you finally find the right writer you have to click accept the bid and Ok in a new window:Then it will forward you to your balance page where you have to put some money in your account first. Then you will be able to put your order in progress and assign the writer.Then you will see the order summary to confirm your order. If you add more details after this step, they will be considered as new information that was not included in the initial order. Of course, it will require more money. The next step will be the payment, and after its done, you will get a confirmation that the orders placed. You always can ask support agents to help you in this matter; they are very supportive.7. Prices and FeesThe EssayPro prices are low and you can get a lot of orders with them. They also have a lot of coupons and promo codes for their new customers. In particular, you can get up to 25% percent with them. They worked out a special discount program where based on how many orders you placed with them, the percent of discount will be recalculated.8.Paper QualityQuality of Essay Pro writing service is quite good. I ordered a 3-page essay with a 2-week deadline. With a discount applied, it cost me less than $30. I ordered some philosophy paper and I have to acknowledge that the writer did his best and come up with a decent paper. There was a deep discussion of the arguments and proper sources used. I heard many times that not EssayPro writers are native speakers, but I think even if they have ESL writers, they do a great job. Nothing to complain about.9.Customer SupportThere were some claims that EssayPro has slow support agents. So I decided to prove or debunk that myth. I wrote to them and got an answer like in a minute. At first, I thought they were automated answers but as I kept asking questions I saw the support was a human. They provided quick answers and straight to the point. I don't know who spreads such fake facts about this company, perhaps, EssayPro competitors. I advise not to believe every fake out there and test it yourself.10.Offers and Extra ServicesUnfortunately, EssayPro doesn’t offer any extra services that can be interesting or useful for students. Maybe, in the future, they’ll come up with something interesting.8. EssayFactory UKHaving 2 weeks left for my thesis to be done I understood that I needed professional help. While searching the Web, I finally decided to place an order on EssayFactory. It’s an academic writing agency with high-quality service that helped me improve my academic performance. I didn’t worry about the task, because I personally chose the writer.My writer (as the majority on Essayfactory) was a native English speaker from the United Kingdom, whom I could easily talk to. The company even has an option that allows you to request your writer’s credentials so you are 100% sure about his qualifications.I’ll give a quick overview of the company’s stats to give you an idea:delivered orders – 28 356delivered on time – 96.8 %active writers – 374average rating – 9,4/10QualityWhat I like about Essay factory is that they do a free plagiarism report. My thesis was 100% custom written.A big surprise was also that managers are able to find a suitable writer in less than one hour (!). TThe thesis I ordered was completely fine, but on the website, I found info about free revisions, which a customer can request within 10 days after paper delivery.For those who order a dissertation, thesis, etc. – writers know how to work with all academic referencing methods such as APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard. It was one more reason why I chose Essayfactory.Prices & DiscountsEssay writing prices depend on your academic level, deadline and the length of your paper. Essayfactory provides really good value for their prices.Here are the numbers, so you can compare them to others UK agencies:3 hours: £30 – 5324 hours: £21 – 377 days: £14 – 2515 days+:£11.50 – 22; (recently on their website I found the price £9.77 per page)Besides, if it’s your first order – you use a coupon for a 15% discount, as I did.GuarantiesEssayFactory is a division of the UK-registered MP Web Solutions LLC. All papers are written from scratch and they check them for plagiarism with several systems.Moreover, I can be confident as for my personal info. The company doesn’t share my name, phone or location with anybody. It’s very important.The service also has a Money Back Policy, just in case your paper was delivered late.Reviews and online reputationOn their website, I saw testimonials about great service and especially fantastically completed urgent tasks. Some clients have been ordering from Essay factory for more than 2 years, and it’s a good sign for me.Sitejabber says that it is a prompt, efficient provider, with writers who do a brilliant job. On YouTube, I also found few bloggers who tried to make an order there and were completely satisfied.DeadlinesAfter my paper was proofread it was sent to my email as well as to my personal order page on the website. They delivered my thesis even earlier than I expected. According to reviews and my own experience, I can say that they have a really strict adherence to deadlines.SupportYou can connect with the Support Team in the following ways:phoneemailLive ChatA manager will give your writer the necessary information about your order: title, referencing style, desired sources, formatting requirements, etc.By the way, after the first 3 pages were ready (800 words or so) the writer contacted me for more details to be clarified. They have an option: expert writes to you via the website and you immediately receive an email notification. Useful!Support works 24/7 which I think is perfect.UsabilityWith certainty, I can write the reasons why EssayFactory is a great option for users:plagiarism-free papersexcellent value for good pricewriters love their job thereUK-based native English speakersthey are strict about deadlinestheir service is catered specifically for UK studentsthe writers are proficient in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard formatting stylesPros / ConsI found the vital information very fast: pricing, placing an order, quick live chat on the website. For me everything is more than clear there. On the homepage, you see the special offers that they have. I like the quick order form: all that you must do is specify the type of paper you need.ConclusionThis service is the best writing and editing agency in the UK that I could find on the Web. That is because experienced professionals work there, and they actually understand what they are doing!Essayfactory can handle a variety of assignments, which I think is quite rare. I think it’s better to order your assignments from one source, rather than experimenting with different ones.In the fast-paced college world, many students just can’t keep up – it’s the reality of life. There has always been a pool of learners that have just had too many things to do, so it is no surprise that these students feel the burden for them to write the best quality essays in such a limited time. How can students make the impact that they know they can achieve, yet with such little time to do it? The world of the best essays coincides with the amount of time in which to write to them. When a college student is trying to juggle fifteen college papers with a part-time job to support the whole experience, it’s no surprise that many will say “I hate writing essays”.Of course, students know their university success is dependent on the academic output; however, it is usually not an ideal world. For a number of different reasons, students may not have the capability of writing every part of each essay on their own. Fortunately, study aids are at hand. Many essay writer websites have popped up over the years in order to provide a helping hand to students all over the world. A lot of these sites have received a positive ranking by students, so you know that learners are using them. If you’re in doubt, you can utilize one of the essay writing services too.Preparing a good college project always requires a lot from an average student. It takes all your efforts and diligence and makes you stay focused from the first to the very last word. On the way to an A-grade assignment, your task is to deal with a range of nuances that are to be counted:Formulate a relevant topicDevote your time to a researchPrepare reasonable grounds for the assignmentMake up an outline and follow it step by stepBe aware of the major requirements and standardsApply analytical and critical thinking skillsMeet the deadlinesThus, every college project is a challenge a student has to accept and deal with thoroughly. To do so, you'd better keep in mind a particular stage that shouldn't be omitted, and that is editing and proofreading.Many students neglect to proofread. That is understandable - when the last full stop is put, your fondest wish is to get that several-days-of-nightmare assignment right off your shoulders and successfully forget about it. You don't want to waste several more hours to check whether the writing is perfect, and all the trifles like spaces or commas don't really matter. Here, the mistake lies.In this article, we would like to explain why we need to revise our assignments and emphasize the issue of how the proofreading helps us come up with a perfect project and get the best grade.Why Proofread Your Paper?Proofreading is a profound process during which you can look at your writing with a fresh eye. Here, you have to pay attention to the following aspects of your paper.Format and styleGrammatical appropriatenessProper language and punctuationTypographical particularitiesBut, don't mistake it for an editing stage! When you edit, your task is to ensure logic and coherence for your writing, add smooth transitions for each paragraph, fix misspelled words, and - the most importantly - meet the purpose of the paper. This way, after the editing, you have to get a well-expressed text with clearly described and reasonable ideas in it.As for proofreading, it consists of the final touches aimed to refine your assignment. That is like a general cleaning that you have while waiting for important visitors to come. Your apartment can shine with cleanliness, but you won't rest until the last speck of dust is wiped out. In a case with writings, at this stage, you have to perceive the text as a whole. Consider its layout and think about how to improve it, if necessary. For that, you need to read the paper attentively word by word, assess it honestly, and ensure that your assignment doesn't contain any unnoticed errors.Pitfalls to Be Aware OfIn this section, we would like to turn your attention to the most common mistakes a student should fix while proofreading.Consistency.Grammar.Stylistics.Modality.Attention.There are more than these mistakes and proofreading aspects, but we hope it will help the editor (you) catch the primary purpose of the task at this stage.Tips That Should Be RememberedThere are two ways of proofreading: you can check your own writing or be asked to deal with someone else's one. Both options have their own challenges and particularities. This way, while proofreading something written by yourself, you know the context and are aware of the main ideas. But here is a problem - it can be rather tricky to recognize your own mistakes.In a case with working on somebody's paper, everything is the other way round. You can easily spot the errors and rewrite a certain sentence for it to sound better, but you can affect the context badly since the lack of knowledge about the author's primary intentions. But, that is not a big deal because you can find a "partner in proofreading" who will help you notice tricky errors or provide you with a reasonable evaluation for your writing.If you're going to proofread your own paper, look through our recommendations and a simple step-by-step strategy that we have prepared for you to refine the writing easily.Firstly, don't embark on proofreading as soon as the last word has been written. Give yourself some time to distract from the text - thus, you will clear your thoughts and take a break. It can be one hour or even a whole day (if it is possible considering the deadlines). Then, take these three steps.Read the entire text without hurry. Does a central idea make sense to you as a reader? Also, check how well each part of the writing is interconnected with another and whether there is something you've missed during the editing.Read the text again to fix the mistakes. We suggest you work with it using several approaches to focus on different types of errors separately.To avoid typos, you can read the text from its end to the beginning. This way, you will be able to distract from the context and pay attention to the last errors in the writing.Now, you can be confident that your assignment is absolutely refined - submit it and breathe a sigh of relief!Writing Scholarship Essay Tips, Brainstorming1. Brainstorming <= you are here2. Selecting an essay topic3. Writing the essayStep One: BrainstormingTo begin brainstorming a subject idea consider the following points. From brainstorming, you may find a subject you had not considered at first.1. What are your major accomplishments, and why do you consider them accomplishments? Do not limit yourself to accomplishments you have been formally recognized for since the most interesting essays often are based on accomplishments that may have been trite at the time but become crucial when placed in the context of your life.2. Does any attribute, quality, or skill distinguish you from everyone else? How did you develop this attribute?3. Consider your favorite books, movies, works of art, etc. Have these influenced your life in a meaningful way? Why are they your favorites?4. What was the most difficult time in your life, and why? How did your perspective on life change as a result of the difficulty?5. Have you ever struggled mightily for something and succeeded? What made you successful?6. Have you ever struggled mightily for something and failed? How did you respond?7. Of everything in the world, what would you most like to be doing right now? Where would you most like to be? Who, of everyone living and dead, would you most like to be with? These questions should help you realize what you love most.8. Have you experienced a moment of epiphany, as if your eyes were opened to something you were previously blind to?9. What is your strongest, most unwavering personality trait? Do you maintain strong beliefs or adhere to a philosophy? How would your friends characterize you? What would they write about if they were writing your admissions essay for you?10. What have you done outside of the classroom that demonstrates qualities sought after by universities? Of these, which means the most to you?11. What are your most important extracurricular or community activities? What made you join these activities? What made you continue to contribute to them?12. What are your dreams of the future? When you look back on your life in thirty years, what would it take for you to consider your life successful? What people, things, and accomplishments do you need? How does this particular university fit into your plans for the future?If these questions cannot cure your writer's block, consider the following exercises:1. Ask for Help from Parents, Friends, Colleagues, etc.If you cannot characterize yourself and your personality traits do not automatically leap to mind, ask your friends to write a list of your five most salient personality traits. Ask your friends why they chose the ones they did. If an image of your personality begins to emerge, consider life experiences that could illustrate the particular traits.2. Consider your ChildhoodWhile admissions officers are not interested in reading about your childhood and are more interested in the last 2-4 years of your life, you might consider events of your childhood that inspired the interests you have today. Interests that began in childhood may be the most defining parts of your life, even if you recently lost interest. For instance, if you were interested in math since an early age and now want to study medicine, you might incorporate this into your medical school admissions essay. Analyze the reasons for your interests and how they were shaped from your upbringing.3. Consider your Role ModelsMany applicants do not have role models and were never greatly influenced by just one or two people. However, for those of you who have role models and actually aspire to become like certain people, you may want to incorporate a discussion of that person and the traits you admired into your application essay.4. Goal DeterminationLife is short. Why do you want spend 2-6 years of your life at a particular college, graduate school, or professional school? How is the degree necessary to the fulfillment of your goals? When considering goals, think broadly. Few people would be satisfied with just a career. How else will your education fit your needs and lead you to a fulfilling life?If after reading this entire page you do not have an idea for your essay, do not be surprised. Coming up with an idea is difficult and requires time. Actually consider the questions and exercises above. Without a topic you feel passionate about, without one that brings out the defining aspects of you personality, you risk falling into the trap of sounding like the 90 percent of applicants who will write boring admissions essays. The only way to write a unique essay is to have experiences that support whatever topic you come up with. Whatever you do, don't let the essay stress you out. Have fun with the brainstorming process. You might discover something about yourself you never consciously realized.At one point or other, the academic essay manages to intimidate most student writers. Sometimes, we may even experience what is commonly called writer's block—that awful experience of staring at an assignment, reading it over and over, yet being unable to proceed, to find a way into it. But the process of writing the academic essay involves a series of manageable steps. Keeping this in mind can help you work through the anxiety you may at first feel. If you find yourself "clueless" about beginning an essay, it may be because you have skipped an important step. You may be trying to come up with a thesis before finding and narrowing your topic.Entering the ConversationTry to approach the writing of an academic essay as a genuine opportunity to connect with the material, to think in a concentrated and stimulating way about the texts you've chosen, to articulate your own ideas. In short, think of the essay as a chance to challenge yourself and to contribute to the on-going conversation among scholars about the subject under discussion. What's at stake is your own intellectual development.Writing is not playing someone else's game. Successful writing involves the creation and framing of your own questions about the sources you've chosen. You want to attend to the assignment at the same time that you locate and articulate your own, particular interest in it.Primary and Secondary SourcesIf you were a lawyer and had to present a case for your client, the worst thing you could do would be to face a jury and spout out random beliefs and opinions. ("Trust me. This guy's really honorable. He'd never do what he's accused of.") Instead, you would want to look for evidence and clues about the situation, investigate suspects, maybe head for the library to check out books on investment fraud or lock-picking. Whatever the circumstance, you would need to do the appropriate research in order to avoid looking foolish in the courtroom. Even if you knew what you had to argue—that your client was not guilty—you still would need to figure out how you were going to persuade the jury of it. You would need various sources to bolster your case. Writing an academic essay is similar, because essays are arguments that make use of primary and secondary sources.Primary academic sources are sources that have not yet been analyzed by someone else. These include but are not limited to novels, poems, autobiographies, transcripts of court cases, and data sources such as the census, diaries, and Congressional records.Books or essays that analyze another text are secondary sources. They are useful in supporting your argument and bringing up counterarguments which, in an academic essay, it is your responsibility to acknowledge and refute.These are the basic rules that determine whether a source is primary or secondary, but there is some ambiguity. For instance, an essay that advances an original argument may serve as your primary source if what you're doing is analyzing that essays argument. But if the essay cites statistics that you decide to quote in support of your argument about a different text, then its function is as a secondary source. Therefore, always keep in mind that the academic essay advances an original argument—your argument, not the argument of the author of your secondary source. While secondary sources are helpful, you should focus your essay on one or more primary sources.Subjects to TopicsIn the courtroom, the topic is never a huge abstraction like "jurisprudence" or "the legal system" or even "capital punishment" or "guilt and innocence." All of those are subjects. A topic is particular: The Case of So-and-So v. So-and-So. Academic arguments, too, have topics. But if you tried to write an essay using "The Case of So-and-So v. So-and-So" as a topic, you wouldn't know what to put in and what to leave out. You'd wind up reproducing the court's own record of the case.Narrowing the TopicThe topic of an academic essay must be sufficiently focused and specific in order for a coherent argument to be made about it. For instance, "The Role of Such-and-Such in the Case of So-and-So v. So-and-So" is a topic that is somewhat narrowed. But if "Such-and-Such" is extremely general, it too will require further narrowing. "The Role of Societal Pressures in the Case of Jones v. Smith" is an example—it's too general. "Alleged Jury Tampering in the Case of Jones v. Smith" narrows those societal pressures, and begins to suggest a persuasive argument. (Of course, even this topic could be further narrowed.)Going through the following steps will help you focus your subject, find a topic, and narrow it.Carefully read your primary source(s) and then, with the assignment in mind, go through them again, searching for passages that relate directly to the assignment and to your own curiosities and interests. When you find a passage that interests you, write down the reason for its significance. If you don't, you might forget its importance later.Annotate some of the most intriguing passages—write down your ideas, opinions and notes about particular words, phrases, sentences. Don't censor your thoughts! Just write, even if you think that what you're writing doesn't add up to much. For now, get your impressions on paper; later, you'll begin to order and unify them.Group passages and ideas into categories. Try to eliminate ideas that don't fit anywhere. Ask yourself if any of the emerging categories relate to any others. Do any of the categories connect, contradict, echo, prove, disprove, any others? The category with the most connections to others is probably your topic.Look at some relevant secondary sources—at what other scholars have said—in order to get a sense of potential counterarguments to your developing topic. Remember: While taking notes, make sure to cite all information fully. This is a lot easier than having to go back later and figure out where you got a particular quote, or, worse, being unable to find it.