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There have been many arguments both for and against the World Culture Festival 2016 being conducted on the Yamuna plains. The National Green Tribunal alleges that the event has destroyed the river and the environment.Let us go through a detailed analysis of the various important claims put out by the National Green Tribunal’s (to be referred as NGT hereafter) Expert Committee alleging damage to the Yamuna Floodplains post the World Culture Festival, 2016 conducted by the Art of Living Foundation.I would like to present before the readers a statistically unbiased and scientifically backed representation of this case which is currently sub-judice.Land Description:Before we go further, it is essential that we first geographically define the area over which the World Culture Festival was conducted (From 11th March –13th March 2016)The land parcel is a finite piece of land over the Yamuna floodplain bound by the DND Flyover to its South; Barapulla Drain to its North;River Yamuna to its East and Ring Road to its West.Area ~ 25 hectaresCan be located on WGS (World Geodetic System) 84 coordinates 24 deg 34’55’’N and 77 deg 16’43’’EHere is the detailed image categorically bifurcating the various land sites w.r.t it’s usage for the event(Source: Google Earth, 15th of March ,2016)2. It is very essential to draw the following conclusions from the above satellite images:3-Permanently ramps existed since 2008 (Having bituminous pavement,with potholes and degenerating bituminous overlay).7-Area marked by the purple region previously had mounts of construction waste (malba) solid waste,which has been cleared for the WCF 2016 event by the Art of Living foundation at its own expense.8-Unpaved earthen road running parallel to the Barapullah drain,which is in existence at least since the year 2000,used for vehicles and earth-movers engaged in drain cleaning and slit removal in this section of Barapullah drain.The temporary installations and the make-shift stage are also clearly visible from the satellite imagery.Fig 1:Permanent Ramp 1 having bituminous pavement existed at least since Jan 2008Fig 2:Permanent Ramp 2 having bituminous pavement existed at least since Jan 2008Now, let us go and categorically visit each claim made by the NGTClaim 1: No permission sought from the NGT by the Art of Living Foundation before the eventFacts:The entire site belongs to the Delhi Development Authority (DDA)Firstly,the NGT is a court,a tribunal and an autonomous institute, not a government agency to give permissions.Here is the official permission letter sought by the Art of Living (Vyakti Vikas Kendra India-Trust of the foundation) to use the land site for the event and it no where states that prior permission from the NGT needs to be sought.As you can see, the permission letter is approved by the Honorable L.G. of Delhi and duly signed by the Office of the Chief Engineer (E.P.)Mr.D.P.Singh of the DDA on 15th of December 2015.Apart from this, the Art of Living organization had taken permission from 20 various organizations and competent authorities (Government Bodies)The entire list of the government bodies is elucidated below:Central Public Works DepartmentDelhi Development AuthorityDelhi Fire ServiceDelhi Jal BoardDelhi PoliceDelhi Pollution Control CommitteeDelhi Traffic PoliceDepartment of Irrigation and Flood ControlDistrict Disaster Management AuthorityEast Delhi Municipal CorporationIndian ArmyIrrigation DepartmentMinistry of Environment and ForestsMinistry of External AffairsMinistry of Home AffairsNew Okhla Industrial Development AuthorityPublic Works Department-DelhiPublic Works Department-UPSouth Delhi Municipal CorporationUttar Pradesh Government2. Claim 2: Alleging the presence of wetlands on the eventFacts:To understand this point, we need to first comprehend the difference between a wetland and a floodplain.According to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands ,signed in 1971 (Iran) wetlands are defined as: "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres"(The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Number of Contracting Parties: 169)There are currently 26 Ramar sites in India which are enlisted below:Ashtamudi Wetland,KeralaBhoj Wetland,Madhya ParadeshChandertal Wetland,Himachal PradeshChilika Lake,OrissaDeepor Beel,AssamEast Calcutta Wetlands,West BengalHarike Lake,PunjabHokera Wetland,Jammu and KashmirKanjili,PunjabKeoladeo National Park,RajasthanKolleru Lake,Andhra PradeshLoktak Lake,ManipurNalsarovar,GujaratPoint Calimere Wildlife and Bird Santuary,Tamil NaduPong Dam Lake,Himachal PradeshRenuka Wetland,Himachal PradeshRopar,PunjabRudrasagar Lake,West Tripura DistrictSambhar Lake,RajasthanSasthamkotta Lake,KeralaSurinsar-Mansar Lake,Jammu and KashmirTsomoriri,Jammu and KashmirUpper Ganga River,Uttar PradeshVembanad-Kol Wetland,KeralaWular Lake,Jammu and KashmirBhitarkanika Mangroves,OrissaSo, according to the Ramsar sites (India being a signatory of the Ramsar convention) , the World Culture Festival venue does not come under the wetland category.Wetlands come under Ecologically Sensitive Zones are are protected areas by the government.Now,let us analyse the land area with respect to the Survey of India (The Survey of India is India's central engineering agency in charge of mapping and surveying) mapsHere is the Annexure -1B Portion of 1:25000 Scale Detailed Map of Delhi, published by the Survey of India in the year 1985,Under the direction of Major General Girish Chandra Aggarwal, Surveyor General of India; Titled-’Delhi Guide Map,Third Edition 1985′The map clearly depicts the WCF 2016 event site as an extremely flat “Point Bar” (floodplain deposit) without existence of any wetland or enclosed waterbody. The flatness of this land parcel is to the extent that contour indicating difference in height of the order of 100cm is also non-existent throughout the area.Another important point for record in this map is the existence of natural path of ‘Kushak River – Barapullah Drain’ prior to straightening of its channel traversing straight into River Yamuna and filling of its original channel. The map also depicts the situation prior to construction of Guide Bank and DND Flyway.Looking at the National Wetland Atlas (Published in March 2011 by the Space Application Centre,ISRO,Ahmedabad),it fails to indentify a single wetland on the event site.According to the National Geographic Society, floodplains are defined as “A flood plain (or floodplain) is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream. It stretches from the banks of the river to the outer edges of the valley”A Floodplain does not require jurisdictions of the environmental authorities that a wetland does.Floodplains have a rich history of interacting with the society for civilizations to flourish.The first great civilizations all grew up in river valleys. The oldest, 3300 to 2500 BCE, was along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East; the name given to that civilization, Mesopotamia, means "land between the rivers". The Nile valley in Egypt had been home to agricultural settlements as early as 5500 BCE, but the growth of Egypt as a civilization began around 3100 BCE. A third civilization grew up along the Indus River around 2600 BCE, in parts of what are now India and Pakistan. The fourth great river civilization emerged around 1700 BCE along the Yellow River in China, also known as the Huang-He River Civilization.Many towns have been built across floodplains because of easy access to fresh water,the fertility of floodplain land for farming,cheap transportation, via rivers and railroads, which often followed rivers and ease of development of flat land.Large cultural and religious gatherings taking place on various floodplains across India like the Kumbh Mela and the Maramon Convention.The World Culture Festival venue was thus a floodplain and not a wetland as claimed by the Expert Committee of the NGT.3. Claim 3: Destroying the natural flow of the river YamunaFacts:A comparison of river morphology has been conducted on satellite images for the period between 22nd of December 2000 till 10th of May 2016.Fluvial Geo-morphology of the river (i.e. land form related to the river) and its floodplain (over which the event was organized) indicates continuity of a pattern in channel dimension, sedimentation,bank deposition,bank erosion and flow of the river.On a careful examinations of images between 26th August 2015(month of monsoon in Delhi) to 10th May 2016(Pre-Monsoon Dry Summer Season) no abnormality in the pattern of flow;channel dimension;riverbed;or morphology of both the banks has been noticed.Further,examination by ground verification in a series of field studies found no scientific acceptance of the above mentioned claim by the NGTHere are the satellite images taken that show the continuity of pattern of the river flow:Pic 1: 26th August 2015 (Post-monsoon)Pic 2: 29th October 2015 (Post-monsoon)Pic 3: 23rd November 2015 (Post-monsoon)Pic 4: 15th of December 2015 (Post-monsoon)Pic 5: 27th of February 2016 (Preparation for the event in progress;stage scaffoldings under construction)Pic 6: 15th of March 2016 (Post WCF, Pre-Monsoon)Pic 7: 25th of May 2016 (Depicting the entire area utilized by the World Culture Festival 2016,now evacuated,cleared and all the temporary installations removed)And as I write this answer now (13 th of May 2017, 15:39 hr), I have taken the snapshots from Google Earth of the venue and it is as it was before the event.The above images tell us that there is no change whatsoever in the natural river course of the Yamuna. This again proves the Expert Committee’s claims as false and unscientific.Selection Bias by the Expert Committee members?In the report,the expert committee have replied upon a singular satellite image for the event as opposed to a larger sample size covering pre-monsoon and post monsoon images for 15–20 years despite its availability to the public on Google Earth.The Expert Committee compared the satellite images of the venue dated 5th of Sept 2015 (Peak monsoon season) with that of a mid summer picture of March 2016, post the event (Summer pre-monsoon)It doesn’t take an Einstein to realize that such a comparison cannot be done in the first place.The Expert Committee is basically trying to attribute the negative effect of the lack of rain to the World Culture Festival !4. Claim 4: Destroying the reeds,grasses,natural vegetation on the river bed and the venueFacts:High pollution in the River Yamuna has led to a situation where dissolved oxygen tends to zero (often less than 1), high load of suspended particulate matter, high turbidity almost blocks the sunlight penetration in the water within few centimeters of vertical depth etc.All of the above factors collectively create a situation where no macro flora could grow or anchored within the riverbed of the Yamuna.Reeds and grasses could only grow beyond the riverbed in the riparian zone of the floodplain.The images of the last 15 years,indicate that the floodplain around the venue had some strips and patches of reeds. Those patches have been compared with the images after the event and on a comparison of images, no change in area covered by reeds has been observed.Riparian reeds along the Barapullah drain and small patches behind and in front of the guide bank (near the bridge of DND flyway) are unaltered before , during and the period post the event.Also the number of trees before and after the event were counted using high risk satellite images and they were found to be the same.Pic 1: Regrowth of grasses on over the location where once the stage was raised (17th of April 2016)Pic 2: State of grasses on the event venue (17th of April 2016)Pic 3: Undisturbed riparian reeds along the abandoned channel in front of the Guide Bank (17th of April 2016)Pic 4: Undisturbed riparian reeds along the Barapullah Drain (17th of April 2016)Also, another important to note that the Expert Committee of the NGT accused the Art of Living Foundation for bringing in and dumping the malba (construction debris) and flattening the malba thereby destroying the flood plain.Firstly, as shown by the satellite images of the land parcel furnished earlier, the purple area indicates the unsolicited construction debris that existed since the year 2000.Trucks were seen emptying tonnes of malba on a daily basis when the Art of Living began preparation for the event (circa December 2015)Once the land was allotted to the foundation, the Art of Living sent out a letter the the DDA citing these concerns about the existing construction dump.To which, the DDA didn’t remove the debris whereas told the Art of Living Foundation to remove the malba at its own cost !Here, is the invoice of the contractor ,who was given the duty to remove the debris from the venue site ,under the instructions the Art of Living Foundation (Cost borne by the Art of Living Foundation !)This is how the site appeared before the event:So, why did the NGT falsely accuse the foundation wherein no cementing/foundation work of any sort was undertaken for the event?5. Claim 5: Disturbed the aquatic life of the riverFacts:The river Yamuna (Delhi stretch) is nearly devoid of fish species due to extremely low level ( ~0) dissolved oxygen in the river water.Let us analyze the water quality of the river Yamuna first.Referring to the “Water Quality Status of Yamuna River” report by the Central Pollution and Control Board (erstwhile Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of India),here is the longitudinal profile of the dissolved oxygen.(Report foreword by V. Rajagopalan, Chairman-CPCB)(Notice the graph points near Nizamuddin Bridge ,Agra Canal)The report goes out further to state that“ In Yamuna River low BOD and low DO was observed more oftenly may be due to consumption of oxygen by settled sludge in the riverbed.”(Ref 3.13, page No.42)Other key notations from the report are listed below:“The sources contributing pollution are both point & non-point type. Urban agglomeration at NCT – Delhi is the major contributor of pollution in the Yamuna River followed by Agra and Mathura. About 85% of the total pollution in the river is contributed by domestic sources. The condition of river deteriorate further due to abstraction of significant amount of river water, leaving almost no fresh water in the river, which is essential to maintain the assimilation capacity of the river.”“In the critically, polluted stretch of Yamuna river from Delhi to Chambal confluence, there was significant fluctuations in dissolved oxygen level from Nil to well above saturation level. This reflects presence of organic pollution load and persistence of eutrophic conditions in the river.”“Bacteriological contamination is significantly high in the entire Yamuna River stretch. Total Coliforms are generally well above the prescribed water quality standard even sometimes at Yamunotri also. The microbiological analysis confirms that the bacteriological contamination was predominantly contributed by human beings.”Here are the longitudinal profiles of the Total and Faecal Coliforms in Yamuna River :Not to forget the drains opening up in the Delhi stretch.“Najafgarh drain of NCT – Delhi is the biggest polluter of River Yamuna, which contributes about 26% (year 2001) to 33% 22 (year 2000) of total BOD load and 48% (year 2003) to 52% (year 2001) of total discharge that joins Yamuna river and canal at Delhi by various drains. There are 70 sub drains that join main Najafgarh Drain. The study indicated that the total BOD load received by Najafgarh Drain through sub-drains was 136 TPD, whereas the BOD load at the terminal end of the Najafgarh Drain was 83 TPD only. This reduction may be contributed by biodegradation, deposition of setllable material at the bottom and diversion of drain water for irrigation etc”.“ River Yamuna receives significantly high amount of organic matter, which is generally, originates from domestic sources. For biodegradation, this organic waste requires oxygen, causing significant depletion of dissolved oxygen in river water. The oxygen depletion not only affects biotic community of the river but also affects its self-purification capacity. This problem is critical in the river stretch between Delhi and confluences of river with Chambal. In Delhi stretch, the load of organic matter is so high that it consumes the entire dissolved oxygen available in river water.”Presenting another latest report by the Central Pollution Control Board titled “Water quality status of in Delhi stretch of Yamuna River”Exhibit 1: Water quality of river Yamuna river in terms of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)The above graph clearly shows that the standard DO should be~4–5 whereas near the Nizamuddin bridge and Okhla region it below 1.Exhibit 2: Water quality of river Yamuna in terms of Total ColiformThe report also throws light on the discharge of various drains in the river Yamuna.“There are twenty one major wastewater drains in NCT-Delhi, out of which 18 drains join Yamuna River and rest joins Agra/Gurgaon canal.All the drains join Yamuna River downstream of Wazirabad barrage.These drains are being monitored regularly on monthly basis.The range of total BOD Load of 18 drains join Yamuna river was 105 TPD (August, 2015) to 229 TPD (January, 2016).Total discharge of these drains was varied from 29 m3/s (May, 2016 to 43 m3/s (August, 2014).The collective average of these drains for the year 2015 and 2016 in terms of discharge was about 34.8 m3/s and 34.3 m3/s respectively whereas, BOD load average for these two years was 164 Tons/day (TPD) and 178 Tons/day respectively.Based on the Discharge and BOD load of 18 drains Najafgarh drain was the biggest polluter of Yamuna River followed by Shahdara drain. These two drains alone contributes about 74% of total Bod load and 82% of total discharge of the 18 major drains that join Yamuna river at Delhi.”Exhibit 3: Discharge of major drains joins Yamuna River at DelhiLastly, I wish to produce a report titled “ Restoration and Conservation of River Yamuna” authored by the NGT Expert Committee members itself in the year 2012–13(Authors Prof. C.R.Babu, Prof.A.K.Gosain, Prof.Brij Gopal-All being expert members of the NGT)The report categorically states that“the loss of life supporting potential of the river is the major concern to the public, the Government and the courts”“the flowing water, the river bed, the floodplain forest and grassland ecosystems are locally extinct”Here is a snapshot of the same :The report also states that:“The Delhi urban stretch of 22 km in the downstream of Wazirabad barrage upto Okhla barrage (Section III) is critically polluted and dry weather flow is almost the treated and untreated sewage from 22 drains and the fresh water flow from upstream or lateral connection and it is perhaps one of the most polluted river stretches in the country with zero DO and over 30 mg/l BOD levels”Whereas, the same committee members in its final report slamming the Art of Living state the following:How could the World Culture Festival destroy something that according to the same committee members didn’t even exist in the first place.Why is the Art of Living blamed selectively for the pollution of the river Yamuna over the past decades?Isn’t this nothing but sheer hypocrisy?From the above data, following points to be noted:Yamuna river (Delhi stretch)is a dead river with almost zero dissolved oxygen, high amounts of pollutants and no fresh water. How can aquatic life survive under these chemically harsh conditions?The discharge of major drains in the Delhi stretch of the river along with industrial effluents and the pollution levels of Yamuna is alarming.Why does the NGT put the blame on the Art of Living Foundation which has done zero damage to the floodplains and the river?What has NGT done to curb the industrial and human pollution which are harming the river Yamuna?There is a strong judgmental bias in the current NGT report Vs the Art of Living and Others6. Claim 6: Alleging compaction and leveling of the floodplainFacts:Before going to analyse the charges of compaction, it is quintessential that we first define the nature of the land where the event was conducted.According to the report “Environmental flow for monsoon rivers in India-The Yamuna river as a case study”, the Yamuna floodplains has alluvial sandy soil (Reference: Rao, S.V.N., Kumar, S., Shekhar, S., Sinha, S.K. & Manju, S. 2007. Optimal pumping from Skimming Wells from the Yamuna river flood plain in north India. Hydrogeology Journal 15: 1157-1167)According to one of the Expert Committee member-Prof.A.K.Gosain’s earlier published research paper titled- “A new scheme for large-scale natural water storage in the floodplains: the Delhi Yamuna floodplains as a case study”, the author says “the river has been bringing sand from the mountains and depositing it along its basin, forming the floodplains. This accumulated sandy layer exists to an average of depth of 40 m”The report earlier furnished in claim 5 by the expert committee members itself (Can be found here) states that the floodplain near the river Yamuna has “sand and gravel”.Hence, it is a well established fact that the floodplain has sandy soil ! So, can sandy soil be compacted ?Now,given the above data, let us go through some scientific studies about sand compaction and verify the allegations by the NGT.For a confirmatory statement on the extent and exact reason of consolidation and/ or compaction in qualitative and quantitative terms, laboratory test of undisturbed soil samples from the land parcel will be required.By comparing the current soil density with the previous records of soil density over the land parcel,the difference could be worked out.But conducting such a test of unconfined sand/sandy soil appears almost impossible due to the established principles of soil mechanics.Referring to the established principles of soil mechanics and geo-technical engineering from the widely accepted and used textbook for soil mechanics by Prof.V.N.S.Murthy tiled “A Text Book of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering” let us go through the pressure-void ratio curves of sandIn the above curve, it is clearly evident that “ more than 90 % of the compression has taken place within a period of less than 2 minutes. The time lag is largely frictional. The compression is about the same whether the sand is dry or saturated”.“The amount of compression even under high load intensity is not quite significant as can be seen from the curves.”It is obvious that the natural consolidation of this land parcel would have taken place in the geological past immediately after the deposition with some movement of animals and humans over it.It appears from the final report that the expert committee didn’t conduct any geo-technical analysis and not a single report was attached as an annexure to their claim.Verbally saying that they went there and saw the top soil layer become a thick crust is not evidence. There are tests that are legally permitted in the courts of law which the expert committee doesn’t seem to have done.The WCF area occupied ~ 25 hectares of land out of the total 9300 hectares of the floodplain (Approximately 0.26 %)So to exert the high pressure for land compaction it would require numerous heavy weight rollers (which apparently weren’t used by the organizers).Furthermore, the curve for dense sand in ‘Void ratio v/s pressure in kg/sq.cm’ indicates that dense sand (as deposited by the Yamuna and Ganga) does not show noticeable changes with increase in pressure.It is an undeniable fact that this land parcel has been under agricultural practices since decades (if not centuries).Agricultural practices; tilling (harrowing); movement of farms equipment and agricultural machinery; movement of dumpers for unabated dumping of construction waste for years and then the movement for trucks and dumpers for removal of the same has already shaped the consolidation and /or compaction of this land parcel ages before the event of the World Culture Festival 2016 was organized.Moreover, it is important to note that the entire stage for the event was supported by a series of iron scaffolding with raft footing (shown in the figure below)An Engineering Marvel ?Nothing was anchored in the natural stratum to hold the stage, overall the stage had a floating foundation. Can’t believe? have a look at this :Pics: The stage was made of thousands of such scaffolding rods in lattice structure spread across 7.5 acre (stage area)Pic: Scaffolding structure (showing the highest level) used for construction of the stage ; photographed during the removal of the stage.Pic: Steel plate rod used for distribution of the load, without any anchorage in the ground; photographed during the removal of the stage.The stage had negligible impact on the ground. Overall the stage was a floating stage and the impact of a floating stage on sandy soil is insignificant. For the record, no cement foundation was done as can be seen from the pictures.Trivia: The physics behind this stage bears a strong visual analogy with a yogi sleeping on a bed of nails. As a matter of fact, this ancient technique used by hathayogis in India has been a source of inspiration for the design of this stage !Pic: The concept of “Yogi Nail Bed” used as an inspiration for the WCF stage is based on the principle of uniform distribution of weight over a large surface area, therefore the overall impact is extremely low or negligible.Finally, the only court permissible test to determine compaction of soil is the CBR Test (California Bearing Ratio Test). It involves taking soil samples before and after the event and then applying the test. Since the expert committee did not collect any soil samples before and after the event to come up with the alleged 13 cr damage,the Art of Living Foundation themselves requested the NGT to conduct the CBR test at the venue, and the application was duly rejected !Here is the permission letter made by the Art of Living Foundation to the NGT (which was disposed off by the NGT !)The Chairman of the Expert Committee of the NGT Mrs.Shashi Shekhar (IAS) (Ministry of Water Resouces, Govt. of India)even goes out to the extent of saying the compensation of 120 cr put forth on the Art of Living foundation as ad-hoc and unscientific and not based on any scientific assessments. The Chairman does not even endorse the compensation.Also, it is important to see whether the NGT conducted any scientific studies before quantifying the damage if any ?It would be very astounding for the reader to realize that no such thing was done. Only a mere “visual inspection” was conducted by the Expert Committee members of the NGT at the venue on the 6th of June 2016(Singular visit).And no scientific evidence and data samples have been provided by the NGT Expert Committee in the Court of Law.That’s like going to a doctor who after just glancing at your direction hands you a list of ailments he assesses that you suffer from and proceeds to slap you with a fat bill for your future treatments !It is surprising to believe that the Chairman of the Expert Committee Mr.Shashi Shekhar has distanced himself from the committee’s recommendations. The Chairman’s signature is also missing from the final report. And only 4 out the 7 Expert Committee members have signed the final report !7. Claim 7: Going from ecological “restoration” to ecological “rehabilitation” of the floodplainFacts:Throughout the first report, the Expert Committee members of the NGT have used the term “restoration” and in the final report they use the word “rehablitation”Why the sudden switch?Because, the NGT Expert Committee cannot prove any damage that was done to the floodplain and the environment by the event.In their final report this is what they state:It is not possible for the ‘Expert Committee’ to assess the ecological status of the site before and after the event? This was their primary job in the first place !Also, the committee points out that it is extremely difficult to assess the costs of environment damage and degradation accurately because“it requires substantial time, human and other resources to collect detailed quantitative information on the nature, extend and magnitude of various activities listed earlier for restoration”That’s a clever way of saying that they cannot prove the damage quantitatively and qualitatively and hence the question of restoration is redundant.They also go on to state that “estimation of the costs of restoration requires the preparation of a Detailed Project Report that may take several months to a year besides financial resources.”Who can buy that argument? Why was the Expert Panel commissioned in the first place?Moreover, the Expert Committee states that it has now decided to “REHABILITATE THE IMPACTED SITE”.The NGT’s proposed plan includes creating a bio diversity park, two large water bodies, three tier planting of vegetation,and establishing new sewage treatment plants,etcLet’s put things into perspective, firstly, the Committee says that it cannot prove any damage scientifically. Consequently they cannot assign costs to restore damage. Hence, they wish to switch the narrative from being a “restoration cost” to “rehabilitation cost”. And moreover, they wish to build a utopian biodiversity park for which the Art of Living should bear the cost ! (Slow claps !) Wait, I am not yet done !In order to build this dream park, the Expert Committee has submitted a ‘Budget’ for building this park. The budget lists ‘Salaries and Consultancies’ as a cost component to monitor and supervise the construction. This cost component totals up to 7 CRORE RUPEES ! Here is their estimations !That’s not all friends. The NGT Expert Committee even goes on record to state that “rehabilitation” will take a period of 10 years and the expert committee members have nominated themselves to undertake this project as “Consultants”(Indeed a very sly way of pocketing the 7 crore!)In the final analysis,the expert committee members in their final report state that they are unable to differentiate the activities required to restore the floodplain and the activities to undo the alleged damage due to the event. That is a very clever way of saying that they cannot differentiate the damage done to the floodplain before the event and the damage done by the event.As this article says,“The Art of Living case will go down as a test for environment activism in the country. The nation expects the NGT will gather enough courage to call the bluff of the committee and go by the merits of the case”.References:http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/55a9380047b2199a9155d5bdc775c0fb/Final_Report_NGT-Yamuna_Restoration%2B(11-4-2014).pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=-287594179https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1306/1306.2709.pdfhttp://www.cpcb.nic.in/newitems/11.pdfDelhi Development AuthorityTextbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation EngineeringGoogle Earth – Google EarthNational Green TribunalHomepage | Ramsarflood plainCentral Pollution Control Board :::https://www.artofliving.org/in-en/newsroom/press-statement/independent-environmentalist-statement-ngt-reporthttp://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/2edvol3d.pdfWill NGT call the Yamuna expert panel's bluff?Written by:Soham D’SouzaBachelors in Chemical Technology-Institute of Chemical Technology (former UDCT) , MumbaiMumbai

Must Visit and DosTaktshang Monastery, ParoA visit to the kingdom of Bhutan is never complete without a trip to Paro Takshang ( Tiger's Nest).Guru Ringpoche Brought Buddhism to Bhutan in 746 AD and flew to his monastery on the back of a winged tigress .A beautiful hike up to the Monastery delivers you to a jaw dropping view of this magnificent structure clinging onto a craggy cliff, 2500 feet above the valley base.Dochula Pass.Dochula Pass is located on the way to Punakha from Thimphu.the pass is a popular location among gree panoramic view of the Himalayan mountain range. the view is especially scenic on clear, winter days with snow-capped mountains forming a majestic backdrop to tranquility of the 108 chortens gracing the mountain pass.Tashichho Dzong.Tashichho Dzong has been the seat of the government since 1952 and presently houses the throne room and offices of the king,the secretariat and the ministries of home affairs and finance. other government departments are housed in building nearby. The Dzong is located close to Thimphu town, next to the bank of the Wangchhu River .it is an impressively large structure, surrounded by well-kept lawns and beautiful gardens. in 1641 Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel acquired it but finding it too small, he built another one,known as lower Dzong . The original Dzong was destroyed by fired in 1771 an everything was moved to the lower Dzong.The new building was later expanded several times over the years. it was damaged during an earthquake in 1897 and rebuild in 1902.Punakha DzongPunakha once served as the capital of Bhutan and still is the winter residence of His Holiness the Je khenpo(spiritual head of Bhutan). Built strategically at the junction of the Pho Chhu and Mo Chhu rivers in 1637 by Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal to serve as the religious and administrative center of the religion.Punakha Dzong has played an important role in Bhutan's history. Damaged by natural catastrophes, the Dzong was fully restored by His Majesty the Forth King. The Royal Wedding was also held in the Punakha Dzong back in 2011. The Dzong is open for visitors during the Punakha Festivals and in summer months when the monk body moves to Thimphu .Mountain Biking.Mountain biking in Bhutan is a whole new sport that is steadily gaining popularity amongst Bhutanese and visitors alike. The country's topography, especially in the western, central and eastern regions, are not the most cycle-friendly but that is precisely why mountain biking is gaining momentum amongst more and more visitors. The mode of transport itself calls for a certain intimacy seldom experienced in other forms of mobile transports. with better roads replacing the old and the increasing number of off-road roads, biking is now becoming a very unique and original way of seeing and interning with the country, people and the Bhutanese environment. Biking and motor biking are picking up as major touristic interests. we traverse through different scenic Valleys and ascend mountain passes they are least 3000meters above the sea level.Outrageous Trekking ExperiencesHop off your tourist bus and take a hike through some of Bhutan’s most beautiful hiking trails. Trekking in Bhutan can be physically demanding but worth the journey. Reaching high altitudes these high-mountain treks will take you to some of the most remote and breathtaking landscapes of the country. Navigating through the rugged terrain, negotiating shakey suspension bridges,will leave you exhilarated and anxious for more.A typical trekking trip in Bhutan takes us to altitudes above 4,000m amid beautiful lakes, mountain views, and the high altitude flora and fauna. Among the most popular is the trek to the base of Mount Jumol¬hari, 7,314m/23,997ft, revered as the abode of the mythical female deity “Jomo”. We also traverse stunning forests, glacial streams, hot springs, high mountain passes and see amazing views of Mt Jichu Drake (6,989m) and Mt Tsher¬ing Gang Khang (6,789m). The Snowman Trek, widely considered the most difficult and chal¬lenging in the world, takes us till the base of Gangkhar Puensum (7,570 meters), the world’s highest unclimbed mountain.High Altitude Alpine TrekkingAltitude range: 2300 – 5800mDuration: 10 to 16 nightsRoutes:Gangkhar Puensum Base Camp Trek: Bumthang – Bumthang (highlight: world’s highest unclimbed mountain)Jumolhari Trek: Paro – ThimphuJumolhari Trek: Paro – Jumolhari – Yaktsa – ParoLaya – Lingshi Trek: Paro – Jumolhari – Lingshi – GasaMedium Altitude TrekkingAltitude range: 2300 – 4500mDuration: 5 to 7 nightsRoutes:Masagang Base Camp Trek: Gasa – Masagang – Laya – GasaHaa –Paro Trek: Tsagala – Ningula – Chelela – ParoDruk Path Trek: Thimphu – Paro (vice versa)Dagala Thousand Lake Trek: South Thimphu – Dagala – ThimphuAlpine Mythical Lake TrekAltitude range: 2600 – 4800mDuration: 6 nightsRoute: Haa – Haa (highlight: visit to Sacred Lake Tsonapatra)Bird WatchingBhutan is a home to a surprising variety of birds given its relatively small size. Births in Bhutan can be found from the glacial alpine regions of the north to the sweltering tropics of the south. The geography and altitude is also the most diverse of birth habitats ever found in a single country. Endangered black necked cranes winter in the temperate Phobjikha valley highland marshes while Rufus-necked hornbill hides in the lush tropical rain forests of the south. The sheer diversity of Bhutan’s bird species, and the ease of spotting them, should quicken the pulse of any birding enthusiast. TheWhite-bellied Heron is critically endangered and so rare, in fact, that from the estimated global population of 50 to 200, 32 are believed to be in Bhutan. Bhutan’s has close to 800 bird species of which 26 species are considered globally threatened including the Himalayan Monal, Ward’s Trogon, Beautiful Nuthatch, Blyth’s Tragopan, Pallas’s Fish Eagle, Chestnut-breasted Partridge, Wood Snipe, Rufus-necked Hornbill, Yellow-rumped Honeyguide, and Blyth’s Kingfisher.Flora & FaunaBhutan has the largest proportion of land designation proportion of land designation as protected areas in the world. the rich forest cover includes a range of varying habitats and an amazing diversity of plants and animals. from spotting troupes of golden languors to the woolly yaks in the cold mountains and the endangered black necked cranes in the broad valleys, the wild life in Bhutan is haven for wild life sightseeing.The Constitution of Bhutan mandates keeping 60% of the country’s total area under forest cover for all times. Bhutan is also the only country that has declared to the world that it will remain a net carbon sink in perpetuity. Indeed, the country is blessed with rich bounties of nature: over 800 known species of butterflies, 800-plus species of birds, more than 5,00 species of orchids, and 50 species of rhododendron alone. Additionally, it has more than 200 species of mammals not to mention other plants and animals that are yet to be discovered.Tshechu FestivalTshechu, or the Mask Dance Festival, is the most important religious festival in Bhutan. It is held annually in various monasteries, dzongs of Bhutan to honor the Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava being his human form), the "Lotus-Born Teacher'', who brought Tantric Buddhism to Bhutan in the 8th century. For locals,Tshechu is a time to socialize, to entertain, to receive blessings and wash away their sins. For us, it's a great opportunity to take in the unique, colorful and exciting displays of Bhutanese traditional culture.Cham DancesThe highlight of the festival is the sacred Cham dances which are performed by both laity and monks dressed in ornate costumes, with evocative titles like ''Dance of the Lords of Cremation Grounds'', "Dance of the Terrifying Deities", and "Dance of the Noblemen and the Ladies", etc. The dances re-enact the events that took place during the life of Padmasambhava, mostly depicting goodness triumphs over evil. The Bhutanese believe, by observing the dances, they're blessed, enlightened and purified as they are so sacred. The dances are accompanied by folk songs and music (cymbal, drum, flute, yak-horn). Dancers usually wear wooden masks that represent animals, fearsome deities, and various manifestations of Guru Rinpoche . According to legends, Guru Rinpoche has eight manifestations, each with a different name and appearance. The most distinctive mask represents the wrathful manifestation of Guru Rinpoche which he transformed to tame harmful deities. .Atsaras (Clowns)They are hidden in red wooden masks with a hawkish nose, a permanent naughty grin and a big phallus on top, they can be witty, eccentric and even bothersome, but without them, a Tshechu would be too tame. They are called ''Atsaras'', clown figures who explain the meaning of mask dances to spectators, who joke around the crowd and liven up the festival with their witty behaviors and exaggerated movements. But the Atsaras are more than just clowns. The term Atsara is derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya (holy teacher of India) and is called Dubthop in Bhutanese (Dzongkha). One explanation for their burlesque appearances is that, they're reminding us that we could reappear in any possible form in the future. .The Unfurling of ThangkaThe final act of any Tshechu festival is the unfurling of a huge Thongdrol/ thangka (scroll painting) down the side of a Dzong. It takes place in the early hours of the morning! Devotees from corners of Bhutan come together to receive blessings from the world's largest Thongdrol, which depicts Guru Rinpoche, his various manifestations, consorts and religious masters. For many, to witness the unfurling of Thangka is to accumulate merits and receiving blessings. For Bhutanese, attending this religious festival is an important part of the spiritual devotion for Buddhism. They will wear their finest cloths to attend it. They believe, through festival attendance one can accumulate spiritual merits and move forward to enlightenment, the ultimate goal of Buddhists. .When & where is Tshechu Festival celebrated in Bhutan?A Tshechu typically lasts for four or five days. It is celebrated on tenth day of a month of Tibetan lunar calendar corresponding to the birthday of Guru Rimpoche. However the exact month of the Tshechu varies at different dzongs and also from year to year. The most popular Tshechu for tourists take place in Paro during spring, Thimphu and Bumthang in autumn. For Tshechu Schedule, festival datesDiscover SpiritualityVisiting Bhutan is a unique and Mystical adventure. While you are catching up with your itinerary list, take some time to discovery your true self thought a spiritual journey in Bhutan. Nesting in the Himalayan Mountains with countless monasteries and prayer flags, you will find yourself immersed spiritually in this mystical environment. Take time and try meditating in the many temples that you will visit as part of your sightseeing tours. Adding this spiritual dimension in your life will make your trip to the Buddhist Kingdom an unforgettable experienceCultureBhutan's unique cultural and traditional values, highly valued in themselves by all the population, are the essential embodiments of the nation's identity. For a small country located between two most populated countries of the world, India and China, the preservation and promotion of its distinct cultural identity is seen as an important means for its survival as an independent and sovereign Kingdom. It was this identity that has protected and sustained Bhutan and also provided the foundation for its major policies.Natural HeritageFor centuries, Bhutanese have treasured the natural environment and have looked upon it as the source of all life. This traditional reverence for nature has delivered Bhutan into the 20th century with an environment still richly intact. The country wishes to continue living in harmony with nature and to pass on this rich heritage to its future Welcome to generations.in 1998, Bhutan was identified by Norman Myers as one of the ten bio-diversity hot spots in the world. It has been identified as the centre of 221 global endemic bird areas. The country signed the Convention on Biological Diversity and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. These conventions were ratified in 1995 at the 73rd session of the National Assembly. The Royal Government of Bhutan has also made a national commitment to uphold its obligation to future generations by charting a path of development called the 'Middle Path' this is the development which upholds both environmental and cultural preservation as an integral part of the development process.GeographyThe princely Kingdom of Bhutan is a landlocked country, about 300 km long and 150 km wide encompassing an area of 46,500 square kilometers. Located between longitude 88045' and 92010' East and latitudes 26040' and 28015' North in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bounded by India in South and South-West and Tibetan autonomous region of China in the North and North-West respectively. Virtually the entire country is mountainous, and ranges in elevation from 100m along the Indian border to the 7,554m Kulha Gangri peak on the Tibetan border. These two extremes frame a landscape which stretches from sub-tropical to arctic like conditions. The maximum East-West stretch of the country is approximately 300 km and north-South about 150 km.ArchitectureThe architecture of ordinary houses varies according to location and elevation. In the southern lower altitudes, thatched bamboo houses are common; buildings progress to simple stone structures in higher altitudes. Two-storied buildings resembling but smaller than the lordly mansions are common throughout western Bhutan. Like mansions, upper floors are often reserved for chapels, which double as guest quarters. Attics, insulated with bamboo mats and hay, often serve for drying animal skins and chilies.Arts & CraftsThe arts and crafts of Bhutan that represents the exclusive "spirit and identity of the Himalayan kingdom" is defined as the art of Zorig Chosum, which means the “thirteen arts and crafts of Bhutan”; the thirteen crafts are carpentry, painting, paper making, blacksmithery, weaving, sculpting and many other crafts. The Institute of Zorig Chosum in Thimphu is the premier institution of traditional arts and crafts set up by the Government of Bhutan with the sole objective of preserving the rich culture and tradition of Bhutan and training students in all traditional art forms; there is another similar institution in eastern Bhutan known as Trashi Yangtse. Bhutanese rural life is also displayed in the Folk Heritage Museum in Thimphu. There is also a Voluntary Artists Studio in Thimphu .

The Slavs comprise the largest and most expansive group of Indo-European speaking peoples, and inhabit vast and diverse territories spanning across the majority of Central, Eastern and South Eastern Europe. It is for this reason, that it is difficult to apply general classifications to early Slavs, who probably had little sense of unity other than speaking closely related languages. What also complicates matters, is that the earliest definite recorded accounts describing Slavic communities, traditions and lifestyles are from the 6th century AD. While there is no doubt that Slavs are indigenous Europeans with a long presence in Central and Eastern Europe, we have far less information concerning them than we do for Celtic and Germanic peoples, who were in frequent contact with classical civilizations since before the birth of Christ. Nevertheless, the written primary sources that have been passed down to us can now be better understood with the help of modern archaeological and genetic studies that provide further insight into the antiquity of North Central Europe and the complexity of the migration period.While the earliest definite accounts of Slavic peoples originate from the writings of Eastern Roman Chroniclers during the 6th century AD, likely references to the ancestors of Slavic peoples goes back much further. It is possible that the 5th century BC scholar Herodotus described the ancestors of proto-Balto-Slavs in his chapter on the Scythians, especially when he refers to the sedentary Scythian farmers and the mysterious Neuri, who probably inhabited what are now parts of Belarus and North Western Ukraine. A more likely reference to the early Slavs comes from the Roman historian Tacitus (1st century AD), in his work, Germania. As he describes the tribes east of the river Vistula, Tacitus expresses uncertainty regarding their ethnic classification. One such tribe, the Venedi, who are placed in what is now Eastern Poland and Ukraine, appear to represent a fusion of Germanic and Sarmatian elements.“The Veneti have borrowed largely from Sarmatian ways; their plundering forays take them over all the wooded and mountainous country that rises between the Peucini and the Fenni. Nevertheless, they are to be classed as Germani, for they have settled houses, carry shields and are fond of traveling fast on foot; in all these respects they differ from the Sarmatians who live in wagons or on horseback.”The 6th century Gothic chronicler Jordanes credits the Veneti of Tacitus as being the progenitors of the Sclavenes and Antes, which were the two major groups of Slavic peoples that raided and settled the Danube frontier of the Eastern Roman Empire. Jordanes writes that,Near their left ridge, which inclines toward the north, and beginning at the source of the Vistula, the populous race of the Venethi dwell, occupying a great expanse of land. Though their names are now dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called Sclaveni and Antes. (35) The abode of the Sclaveni extends from the city of Noviodunum and the lake called Mursianus to the Danaster, and northward as far as the Vistula. They have swamps and forests for their cities. The Antes, who are the bravest of these peoples dwelling in the curve of the sea of Pontus, spread from the Danaster to the Danaper, rivers that are many days' journey apart.The association between the Veneti and the early Slavs seems to be ever more likely in the light of modern genetic research, which has uncovered that modern Slavs trace their roots in Central and Eastern Europe as far back as the Bronze age, with strong signs of genetic continuity. Proto-Slavic societies were probably already established in western Ukraine and eastern Poland by the birth of Christ, only remaining unrecognized because they lived far from the Roman frontier and were seen in relation to more familiar Germanic and Iranic tribes. Because of this, proto Slavs may have been falsely labeled as belonging to Germanic groups by Roman writers like Tacitus.The History of Slavs Inferred from Complete Mitochondrial Genome SequencesGenetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal DataThe Tollense Valley battlefield: the North European 'Trojan war' that hints to western Balto-Slavic origins - Indo-European.euSince proto-Slavs (or the ancestors of Slavic peoples) were distributed across large swaths of Central and North Eastern Europe, they most likely lived alongside and even under the subjugation of neighboring peoples, such as the Germanic Goths and Iranic Sarmatians. While it would be improper to suggest that these peoples (ex: Goths) were Slavic, it would be unwise to assume that Slavs did not interact and even contribute to these peoples. As the Huns invaded Europe and expelled the Goths from modern Ukraine in the 4th century, the social and political structures of Northern Europe would be totally overturned, creating a vacuum allowing for the expansion of the Slavs across Central, Eastern and South Eastern Europe. The epicenter of this expansion probably extended from the Vistula to the west to the river Dniester in the east.Despite popular misconceptions, Central and Eastern Europe did not experience a complete depopulation during the migration period. Modern historians are increasingly of the view that while westward Slavic migrations did occur, they did not result in a mass depopulation of the Slavic homeland, and were also not facilitated by a mass depopulation of former Germanic territory. In the book “The Early Slavs”, archaeologist PM Barford questions commonly held assumptions regarding the migration period. Speaking of the Slavic expansion, Barford writes that,“The rate of reproduction involved to fill the new territories with descendants of a small original population, no matter how the figures are calculated, is biologically impossible. It may be also stated that there is no evidence that there was a wholescale depopulation of any of the territories claimed as the homeland of the Slavs in this period to reflect large scale folk movements. The settlement of new lands by the Slavs should not perhaps be thought of as the result of a powerful wave of people which flooded into new territories. It was probably a long-term process taking place over many decades. The concept of mass migration should be supplemented by notions of small scale movements of ‘the wave of advance’ model…It is not clear precisely to what extent the archaeologically visible decline of identifiable material marking the collapse of the Germanic type material culture in the 5th century in the northern areas of central Europe represents near-total depopulation. Perhaps there were people who were living in the central European forest zone who are extremely difficult to detect archaeologically? If so, who were they? It is possible that a certain degree of depopulation could lead to social and economic collapse which in turn disrupts social organization, and limits the production and acquisition pf objects such as craftsmen made pottery, fine metal work and the use of (for example) typical Germanic halls. The disappearance of these traits need not mean the disappearance of the original population from this area, simply that the material culture has changed and was no longing being used to express ‘German-ness’. It is equally possible the Germanic elite left the area, and that, for one reason or the other, the population left behind preferred not to use cultural markers of Germanic type. Perhaps we are seeing an expression of a changed world outlook on the collapse of the old social order, in which the Germanic-style zone with its extensive use of prestige goods and competitiveness was replaced by a styleless and more egalitarian culture.”Barford’s comments perfectly illustrate the complexity of the Slavic expansion and how we are to perceive the early societies of the Slavs. If the Slavs did not resettle totally abandoned landscapes with dominant numbers, then how were they able to so thoroughly assert themselves in former Germanic lands? Is it possible that while the ruling elites and warriors of Gothic, Vandalic and other Germanic tribes left with the cores of their tribes, the majority of the indigenous population stood put, later willingly assimilating into the culture of Slavic migrants from the lands east of the Vistula? Moreover, it may be possible that proto- Slavic peoples were already widely distributed across Central Europe since the Bronze Age before Christ, and that the collapse of the Germanic ruling elite caused the locals to adopt a specific material culture that was more egalitarian and less stratified in nature.Medievalist and specialist of late antiquity Peter Heather also expressed a nuanced view of the Slavic expansion, writing that,“That said, because of the uncertainties of the linguistic evidence, it is perfectly likely that Slavic-speakers were more widely dispersed north of the Carpathians and east of the Vistula in the later fifth century, with the Korchak Podolians being no more than one subgroup among them. It is also entirely likely, that this broader Slavic-speaking population, if it existed, would have later become involved in the broader Slavicization of areas such as Poland.”Indeed, the theory that Slavs were spread throughout Central and Eastern Europe earlier and throughout a far wider range than previously thought could explain the rapid Slavicization of vaste geographical areas. The dominant culture representing the Slavic expansion through Ukraine, southern Poland, Czechia, Slovakia and the Balkans, spread from the region of Podolia (modern Ukraine) and is characterized by its simplistic wares, simple agricultural implements, and sunken floor huts with clay stoves occupying the corners. Initial settlements appear to have been comprised of family groups and small clans, number between several dozen to several hundred individuals. Unlike earlier Germanic societies, these early Slavic societies of the Korchak type did not display rigid social stratification or autocracy. Many historians believe that this egalitarian society was attractive to the inhabitants of lands where Slavs expanded, encouraging many non-Slavic (and possibly other Slavic related groups) to willingly assimilate.(Expansion of the Korchak type culture across Central and Eastern Europe. This material culture is associated with Slavic expansion)The egalitarian, decentralized Slavic settlements uncovered by archaeologists throughout North Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans perfectly square with East Roman/Byzantine primary sources that describe the Sclavenes and Antes who settled the lands north of the Danube and raided into Thrace and Moesia in the 6th century. The 6th century Roman Chronicler and soldier Procopius gives us many valuable details on the early Slavic societies, which support the thesis that they were remarkable for their democratic nature. In addition, he gives valuable information regarding the warfare, religion and appearance of the Slavs. Procopius writes that,“ For these nations, the Sclaveni and the Antae, are not ruled by one man, but they have lived from of old under a democracy, and consequently everything which involves their welfare, whether for good or ill, is referred to the people. It is also true that in all other matters, practically speaking, these two barbarian peoples have had from ancient times the same institutions and customs. For they believe that one god, the maker of the lightning, is alone lord of all things, and they sacrifice to him cattle and all other victims; but as for fate, they neither know it nor do they in any wise [i.e., ways] admit that it has any power among men, but whenever death stands close before them, either stricken with sickness or beginning a war, the make a promise that, if they escape they will straightway make a sacrifice to the god in return for their life; and if they escape, they sacrifice just what they have promised, and consider that their safety has been bought with the same sacrifice. They reverence, however, both rivers and nymphs and some other spirits, and they sacrifice to all these also, and they make their divinations in connection with these sacrifices. They live in pitiful hovels which they set up far apart from one another, but, as a general thing, every man is constantly changing his place of abode. When they enter battle, the majority of them go against their enemy on foot carrying little shields and javelins in their hands, but they never wear corselets. Indeed, some of them do not wear even a shirt or a cloak, but gathering their trews up as far as to their private parts they enter into battle with their opponents. And both the two peoples [i.e., Antes & Slavs] have also the same language, an utterly barbarous tongue. Nay further, they do not differ at all from one another in appearance. For they are all exceptionally tall and stalwart men, while their bodies and hair are neither very fair or blonde, nor indeed do they incline entirely to the dark type, but they are all slightly ruddy in color. And they live a hard life, giving no heed to bodily comforts, just as the Massagetae do, and like them, they are continually and at all times covered with filth; however, they are in no respect base or evil doers, but they preserve the Hunnic character in all its simplicity. In fact, the Sclaveni and the Antae actually had a single name in the remote past; for they were both called Spori in olden times, because, I suppose, living apart one man from another, they inhabit their country in a sporadic fashion. And in consequence of this very fact they hold a great amount of land; for they alone inhabit the greatest part of the northern bank of the Ister. So much then may be said regarding these peoples.“Another valuable source of information concerning the early Slavic peoples north of the Danube as far north as the river Dniester is the Strategikon of the Eastern Roman Emperor Maurice, who campaigned extensively against the Slavs and even raided deeply into their territories. Maurice provides engaging military advice on Slavic tactics and how to counter them effectively, and also provides insight into the Slavic social structure and tribal relations.“The nations of the Sclavenes and Antes live in the same way and have the same customs. They are both independent, absolutely refusing to be enslaved or governed, least of all in their own land. They are populous and hardy, bearing heat, cold, rain, nakedness and scarcity of provisions.They are kind and hospitable to travelers in their country and conduct them safely from one place to another, wherever they wish. If the stranger should suffer from harm because of his hosts negligence, the one who first commended him will wage war against the host, regarding vengeance for the stranger as a religious duty. They do not keep those who are in captivity among them in perpetual slavery, as do other nations. But they set a definite period of time for them and then give them the choice either, if they so desire, to return to their own homes with a small recompense or to remain there as free man and friends….Their women are more sensitive than any others in the world. When, for example, their husband dies, many look upon it as their own death and freely smother themselves, not wanting to continue their lives as widows.”Maurice gives us a strong indication of the democratic, independent and tolerant nature of early Slavic communities. The free inclusion of foreigners into their tribes also implies that many indigenous Balkan peoples, such as Dacians, Illyrians and Thracians, as well as Greeks and Romans, willingly joined Slavic societies. In fact, Maurice warns future military commanders campaigning against the Slavs that they should be wary of desertions among their ranks, as it was not infrequent that Romans would go over to the Slavs. The fact that he felt he had to mention this, means that is was a problem worthy of his attention.“Even some Romans have given into the times, forget their own people, and prefer to gain the good will of the enemy. Those who remain loyal ought to be rewarded, the evildoers punished.”Maurice also gives detailed descriptions of Slavic settlements, lifestyle, warfare and politics. Since he campaigned extensively and was writing a military manual, his writings are based from his own experiences fighting Slavs north of the Danube possibly as far as the Dniester river.“They live among nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes, and have made the exits from their settlements branch out in many directions because of the dangers they might face. They bury their most valuable possessions in secret places, keeping nothing unnecessary in sight. They live like bandits and love to carry attacks against their enemies in densely wooded, narrow, and steep places. They make effective use of ambushes, sudden attacks, and raids, devising many different methods by day and night. Their experience in crossing rivers surpasses that of all other men, and they are extremely good at spending a lot of time in the water. Often enough when they are in their own country and are caught by surprise and in a tight spot, they dive to the bottom of a body of water. There they take long, hollow reeds they have prepared for such a situation and hold them in their mouths, the reeds extending to the surface of the water. Lying on their backs on the bottom they breathe through them and hold out for many hours without anyone expecting where they are…They are armed with short javelins, two to each man. Some also have nice looking but unwieldy shields. In addition, they use wooden bows with short arrows smeared with a poisonous drug which is very effective…Owing to their lack of government and their ill feeling toward one another, they are not acquainted with an order of battle. They are also not prepared to fight a battle standing in close order, or to present themselves on open and level ground. If they do get up enough courage when the time comes to attack, they shout altogether and move forward a short distance. If their opponents begin to give way to the noise, they attack violently; if not, they themselves turn around, not being anxious to experience the strength of the enemy close range. They then run to the woods, where they have a great advantage because of their skill in fighting in such cramped quarters. Often too when they are carrying booty they will abandon it in a feigned panic and run for the woods. When their assailants disperse after the plunder, they calmly come back and cause them injury. They are ready to do this sort of thing to bait their adversaries eagerly and in a variety of ways.They are completely faithless and have no regard for treaties, which they agree to more out of fear than by gifts. When a difference of opinion prevails among them, either they come to no agreement at all or when some of them do come to an agreement, the others go quickly against what was decided. They are always at odds with each other, and nobody is willing to yield to each other.Accurate depiction of a Slavic warrior based off of Eastern Roman accounts from the 6th century AD.As mentioned before, Archaeological excavations across southern Poland, western Ukraine, Czechia, Slovakia, Moldova and the Danubian Basin show that the Korchak style culture dominated all these lands during the 5th and 6th centuries. The most characteristic element of Korchak culture was a distinctive type of sunken hut, built partly underground, with a clay stove in the corner. This buildings are simpler and hardier than earlier Germanic buildings in Central Europe, reflecting the spartan lifestyle of early Slavs.Early Slavic dwelling found across Eastern and Central EuropeThe religion of the early Slavs was probably very diverse, with local cults dominating various regions. In the earliest times of Slavic expansion however, Slavs did not build great temples and idols for their Gods like the Scandinavians. Rather Slavs worshipped in open groves, under holy trees, and by sacred bodies of water. Procopius writes that while the Slavs believed in one god, they revered many spirits and demons. Most likely this is an understanding of the ancient Slavic belief in an original, supreme deity (Rod) who was the progenitor not only of the universe but also the other gods and godesses, such as Perun, Veles, Svarog, Sviatovid and Mokosh. In a way, Rod may be compared to the Germanic All-Father. Slavic beliefs are Indo-European and relate closely with Baltic and Germanic mythology.The Consolidation of Slavic States- 7th to 10th Centuries ADExtent of Slavic expansion and the formation of powerful tribal groupsThe initial period of Slavic expansion in the 6th and early 7th centuries was followed by a gradual process of consolidation and the formation of tribes. Across Eastern and Central Europe as well as the Balkans, Slavic societies transformed into tribal confederations and chiefdoms. Social stratification increased, military technology and tactics expanded, and chiefs began seeking unification with the aim of consolidating manpower and territorial control.In the Balkans, the Slavic invaders had settled amongst the local people, establishing their language as dominant, yet absorbing large amounts of culture and influence from previous Balkan and Greek inhabitants. Tribal groups soon transformed into powerful states that could challenge the Eastern Empire to greater effect. In Bulgaria, Turkic tribes established their dominance over several Slavic groups, soon becoming Slavicized themselves. Bulgaria would become one of the first Slavic kingdoms, and would also be the main exporter of the Cyrillic alphabet.In Western Slavic lands of Central Europe, the local Slavs soon developed a sophisticated network of hillfort settlements, implying that during the 8th and 9th centuries the Slavs were undergoing political centralization and increased internal and external conflict. The first Slavic states emerged in Central Europe, such as Carnantania (7th century) and Great Moravia (9th century). Metalworking, currency, advanced fortifications, and organized armies led by princes defined the existence of these advanced Slavic kingdoms. The wealth of early Medieval Bohemia, with its center being the city of Prauge, is testified to by the 10th century Jewish traveler and slave trader Ibrahim Ibn Yaqub, who writes…“Bohemia; this is the land of king Boyslavits, the distance from the city of Prauge to that of Krakow is three weeks journey and its frontier is lengthwise with that of the Turks (Magyars). The city of Prauge is built of stone and chalk and is the richest in trade of all these lands. The Russians and the Slavs bring goods here from Krakow; Muslims, Jews and Turks from the land of the Turks also bring goods and market weights; and they carry away slaves, tin, and various kinds of furs. Their country is the best of all those northern peoples and the richest in provender. For one small coin, enough flour is sold there to suffice a man for a month, and for the same sum enough barely to fodder an animal for forty nights;…”Great MoraviaTo the north of Bohemia and Moravia in what is modern day Poland, a variety of tribes were established, the most powerful being the Polans, Vistulans, Lendians, Goplans and Pomeranians. By the 8th century the Slavs of Poland were building strong hillforts across the landscape. Settlements were scattered across wide tracts of wilderness, and the Lechitic tribes maintained a very democratic and regional character. By the 9th century the Polans were rapidly rising in prominence, with the next most powerful Polish tribe, the Vistulans, conquered by Great Moravia and forcibly Christianized under the Slavic rite.In the lands of the Polans under the Piast dynasty, the Polish state was rapidly taking shape. The Piast princes were able to muster large bodies of soldiers, both footmen and cavalry. This period also characterized the centralization of Slavic societies and the standardization of Slavic militaries. Slavs began using combined armed tactics, smelted iron weapons, and made the use of scale armor and byrnies. Across Central and Eastern Europe elite Slavic warriors wore large conical helmets. Evidence exists that Scandinavians and other non-Slavs served in West Slavic Druzhina’s and the existence of elite warriors in Slavic societies suggests further social stratification. In Poland and Moravia, the building of hillforts suggests a highly militarized society, and evidence points to extensive inter tribal conflict as well as frequent raiding from neighboring Franks, Magyars, Pechenegs and Norsemen.In Pomerania and Eastern Germany up to the river Elbe, Slavic tribes displayed a high level of militarization, and frequently competed with the Franks, who were conquering lands east of the Elbe. On the southern Baltic coasts Slavs interacted and mixed with Scandinavian traders and raiders, and many Slavs took up the Viking trade for themselves. In the island of Wolin, the Jomsvikings established a mixed brotherhood of Norse and Slavic warriors. Slavic tribes raided Denmark, and even Norway. The great Cnut the Great was half Slavic, and recruited many Polish and Wendish warriors in his conquest of England.Slavic Viking reconstruction in PolandTo the east of Poland, the eastern Slavs spread from Ukraine into Belarus and western Russia, absorbing large amounts of Baltic and Finno Ugric peoples. In western Russia, fierce conflict was waged between indigenous Finnic populations and Slavic settlers from the south. These Slavic and also Baltic and Finnic peoples would consolidate into many waring tribes. Between the 9th and 10th centuries they absorbed Scandinavian traders and warriors, who would become a sort of ruling class over the Slavic principalities. These Vikings and their Slavic subjects would be known as the Rus, and were famous for launching great raiding expeditions to Constantinople, Asia Minor, and even across the Caspian sea. While the Norse character of the Rus is often touted, it is forgotten that the majority of their warriors and population were Slavic, and that the Rus quickly absorbed Slavic customs and even took Slavic names. In competition with each other as well as Pechenegs, Magyars, Khazars and other steppe tribes, the Rus would thrive, founding proud kingdoms and gathering great wealth and prestige, especially in the grand city of Kiev.The Rus principalities extended across Ukraine, Belarus, western Russia and even parts of eastern Poland.The famous Rus prince, Oleg of NovgorodDuring this time of consolidation, Slavic religion became more organized. In Rus, written records speak of large idols commemorating the Slavic gods, such as Perun, Svarog, and Veles. Many Slavic idols have been overcovered in Poland, especially on the Baltic coastline. Christian chronicles mention that on the island of Rugen in eastern Germany, the local Slavs had erected a great temple for their gods. A common idol was the Svatovid, a large totem pole with four heads. This design reflected the nature of Svatovid, who is often regarded to be synthesis of several Slavic deities. A perfectly preserved Slavic idol was uncovered in Zbruch, modern western Ukraine, and is currently exhibited in Krakow, Poland.Detailed illustration of the Zbruch idolChristianization is what propelled the Slavic tribes to consolidate their territories, allowing them to emerge as respected European nations and kingdoms. In Poland, Christianization was a major step in ensuring not only the expansion and unity of the state, but also its survival in the face of eastward Frankish expansion. The processes of Christianization also established the boundaries existing between Slavs to this (example: Catholic west Slavs and Orthodox east Slavs). Christianity would become a major aspect within the identity of many Slavic peoples, without eradicating all of the old customs and beliefs. In Russia and other east Slavic lands most of the peasant population remained semi-pagan until the 15th century. In Poland Christianiziation was more widespread, but pagan practices lasted until the 16th century. Nevertheless, it was the transition from pagan chiefs to Christian kings, that propelled Slavs to full integration within European affairs, laying down the foundations for future epochs of glory and strength in Europe.Writing in memory of the early 11th century ruler and first king of Poland Boleslaw the Brave, the Medieval chronicler and Christian monk Gallus Anonynmous would write how the wealth and prestige of Boleslaw, during the commemoration of a Christian martyr, would impress the Holy Emperor to grant Poland’s status as a respected kingdom.“ Boleslaw received him with such honor and magnificence as befitted a king, a Roman Emperor, and a distinguished guest. For the arrival of the Emperor he prepared a wonderful sight; he placed many companies of knights of every sort, and then his dignitaries, in ranks, every different company set apart by the colors of its clothes. And this was no cheap spangle or any old stuff, but the most costly things that could be found anywhere on earth. For in Boleslaw’s day every knight and every lady of the court wore not linen or woolen cloth, but coats of costly weave, while furs, even if they were very expensive and quite new, were not worn at his court unless lined with fine stuff and trimmed with gold tassels… Seeing his glory, his power and his riches, the Roman Emperor cried out in admiration: “By the crown of my Empire! What I see hear far exceeds what I have heard!” And taking counsel with his magnates, he added, to all those present: ‘It is not fit that such a man should be titled a prince or count, as though he were just a great lord, but he should be elevated with all pomp to a throne and crowned with a crown.’ Taking the imperial diadem from his own brow, he placed it on the head of Boleslaw as a sign of union and friendship, and for an ensign of state he gave him a nail from the Holy Cross and the lance of St. Maurice, in return for which Boleslaw gave him the arm of St. Adalbertus. And they felt such love on that day that the Emperor named him brother and associate of the Empire, and called him a friend and an ally of the Roman nation…”If it was centralization and Christianization that propelled the Slavs to glory and prestige, it was the ancient traits of toughness, independence and resilience that allowed the Slavs to prevail in the face of innumerable invasions and subjugations. Gallus Anonymous, this time writing about the nature of the Slavic people in general, perfectly describes these traits. I believe one can find some of these traits amongst modern Slavs to this day. Speaking of the “Slavonian” land, the chronicler writes..“Although this land is thickly forested, yet it has ample resources of gold and silver, bread and meat, fish and honey; but in one respect it is especially preferred by others, for despite of being surrounded by all the many aforementioned peoples, Christian and pagan alike, and frequently attacked by all and sundry, it (Slavonia) has never been completely subjugated by anyone. A land where the air is healthy, the fields fertile, the woods full of honey, the water abounding in fish, the warriors warlike, the peasants hardworking, the horses hardy, the oxen strong at plowing, the cows give abundant milk and the sheep abundant wool.”I think the parallels are easy to see, especially for Slavs themselves!Peace, and Happy Resurrection Sunday!!! :)(Depiction of the baptism of the Polanie, 966)