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Individual Indo-European languages (of the modern time) differ a lot in the type and amount of inflection they have. If one means by ‘’inflection’’ the verbal inflection, there are languages or language groups that have more tenses, aspects, moods, verbal morphology (voice markers included) and agreement markers than others. I will give a few examples.In Danish:The present tense has one finite form of the verb, such as ‘er’ (to be) and for most verbs stem+(e)r, for all numbers, persons and genders. A lot of verbs can have the suffix -s behind the stem, which indicates the passive voice in the present. The past is for most verbs the stem + -(e)de or -te, other verbs have an irregular past (just like many other Germanic and Indo-European languages), for example to be in the past is ‘var’. The infinitve is at + the infinitive verb form (examples: at være, at vide, at se -to be, to know, to see-, so recognizable by the -e). The present participle ends in -ende, the past participle in -(e)t, such as løbende, løbet (running, run). The imperative is the infinitive without the -e, like løb! (run!) All other verbal constructions don’t have their own morphology and are formed with auxiliaries or other help words.In Russian:The Russian language has three persons in two numbers and two tenses (present/future and past), while the future and the subjunctive/conjunctive are formed with more than one morpheme or word, which is called ‘periphrastic’. There are imperative forms, and present and past participles, both for adjectival and adverbial usage. Verbal suffixes for the reflexive do also exist, -ся/-сь can be added to the (infinitive) verb or the participle.The present tense is formed from stem plus personal ending (both in singular and present): there are two (regular) conjugations, the first is for 1st, 2nd, 3rd person singular and plural: -у or -ю, -ешь, -ет, -ем, -ете, -ут or -ют. Depending on the consonant at the end of the stem, the vowels can alternate.The second is for 1st, 2nd, 3rd person singular and plural:-у or -ю, -ишь, -ит, -им, -ите, -ат or -ят.The future tense has two forms: the future simple, formed by the perfective verbs plus personal endings and the future compound by the imperfective verbs: a future simple form of быть (to be) plus the infinitive of the imperfective verb. An example of a future simple tense form: Она прочита́ет (meaning: She will read - literally: ‘’She will have read’’) and an example of a future compound tense form: Она бу́дет чита́ть (also meaning: She will read, but literally: ‘’She will have read’’).быть (to be) is rarely used in the present, only the 3rd person singular есть (is) is regularly used, mostly in a context where it roughly means ‘there is’. бежа́ть (run), бре́зжить (glimmer), хоте́ть (want), дать (give) and есть (eat) are the irregular verbs.The past tense is formed by four forms which are gender specific for every person: –л for masculine singular subjects, –ла for feminine singular subjects, –ло for neuter singular subjects, and –ли for plural subjects, that are all placed after the (present) verbal stem, with a few exceptions. A regular example: он де́лал - она́ де́лала - оно́ де́лало - они́ де́лали (he - she - it - they made) and an irregular example:нёс, несла́, несло́, несли́ (from the verb нести́ to carry/bear with present stem нес-).The infinitive ends in ть/-ти or -чь and as said, for the reflexive variant of the verb, ся/-сь can be added to it.Russian distinguishs three moods: indicative, conditional and imperative. The indicative is the basic form, like the present, future and past I showed above. The imperative is formed with the present stem plus -и (stem has stressed ending or ends in more than one consonant) -ь or -й (for stems with unstressed endings, the first for endings of one consonant, the seconds for endings in a vowels) in the second person singular and -те is added to the singular endings to form the second person plural imperative. An example: говори – говорите (imperative singular and plural for ‘to speak’). With the пусть particle and the present singular/plural 3rd person, one can express command: Пусть они замолчат! (Let them shut up!) The conditional mood is formed with adding the particle бы before or after the past tense, adding не will form the negative conditional. Example for the verb сказа́ть (to say): он бы (не) сказа́л - она́ бы (не) сказа́ла - оно́ бы (не) сказа́ло - они́ бы (не) сказа́ли (He - she - it - they would(n’t) say).There is a distinct class of verbs in Russian, like several other Slavic Languages, that express motion, which have different verb forms and infinitives for unidirectional and multidirectional motion (and have an unprefixed form that expresses the semantic information of direction of the movement and an prefixed form of a class of verbs where the prefix express the semantic information of the path/type of movement). Examples of the unprefixed forms are: е́хать - е́здить (to go by vehicile, ride; the first one is the unidirectional form, the second one the multidirectional form) and везти́ - вози́ть (to convey, transport; unidirectional - multidirectional), as you can see some of these verb also specify the manner of transport with which the motion is executed, examples of the prefixed forms are: девушка вошла (the girl entered, verb with prefix в- which means movement inwards, entering) and Пассажиры доехали до последней остановки (The passengers reached the last station, verb with prefix до- which means reaching a limit or destination). The prefixed forms are distinguished for spatial and temporal meanings -and occasionally resultative meanings-. Unidirectional unprefixed verbs describe motion in progress in one direction, multidirectional unprefixed verbs describe general motion, referring to ability or habitual motion, without reference to direction or destination or movement in various directions or repetition of completed trips or In the past tense, a single completed round trip.In Russian, adjectival participles can be active or passive, have perfective or imperfective mood and imperfective participles can have present or past tense, perfective participles can only have past tense. As adjectives, they are declined by case, number and gender. If adjectival participles are derived from reciprocal verbs, they have suffix -ся appended after the adjectival ending. In order to form the active present participle, the "т" of the 3rd person plural of the present tense is replaced by "щ" and add a necessary adjective ending: де́лать (to do, to make) – де́лают (they do/make) – де́лающий (doing, making), де́лающийся (being done/being made, as an example for a reflexive verb). The participle agrees in gender, case and number with the word it refers to:Я посвяща́ю э́ту пе́сню лю́дям, живу́щим в на́шем го́роде – I dedicate this song to the people living in our city.The active past participle is used in order to indicate actions that happened in the past. In order to form the active past participle the infinitive ending '-ть' is replaced by the suffix '-вш-' and add an adjective ending:де́лать (to do, to make) – де́лавшийДе́вушка, чита́вшая тут кни́гу, забы́ла свой телефо́н – The girl, that read this book here, forgot her phone,де́лавшийся – being done/being made (reflexive form)In order to form the passive present participle it is necessary to add an adjective ending to the 1st person plural of the present tense: оставля́ть (to leave) – оставля́ем (we leave) – оставля́емый (being left).masculine formоставля́емыйfeminine formоставля́емаяneuter formоставля́емоеplural formоставля́емыеPassive past participles are formed by means of the suffixes '-нн-' or '-т-' from the infinitive stem of perfective verbs. Besides that, this kind of participle can have short forms formed by means of the suffixes '-н-' or '-т-': написа́ть (to write) – напи́санный (written) / напи́сан (short form), уби́ть (to kill) – уби́тый (killed) / уби́т (short form).full formshort formmasculineнапи́санныйнапи́санfeminineнапи́саннаянапи́санаneuterнапи́санноенапи́саноpluralнапи́санныенапи́саныfull formshort formmasculineуби́тыйуби́тfeminineуби́таяуби́таneuterуби́тоеуби́тоpluralуби́тыеуби́тыRussian also has adverbial participles: Adverbial participles are not declined, quite like usual adverbs. They inherit the aspect of their verb; imperfective ones are usually present, while perfective ones can be only past (since they denote action performed by the subject, the tense corresponds to time of action denoted by verb). Present adverbial participles are formed by adding suffix -а/-я (sometimes -учи/-ючи which is usually deprecated) to present-tense stem. Few of past participles (mainly of intransitive verbs of motion) are formed in similar manner. Most past adverbial participles are formed with suffix -в (alternative form -вши, always used before -сь), some with stem ending with a consonant, with -ши. Reciprocal ones have suffix -сь at their very end.present adverbial participle (present ap)past adverbial participle (past ap)думать (to think, impf.)думаю (present tense)думая - present ap(думав) - past apIn French:The French language is a good representative of the Romance languages. Finite forms depend on grammatical tense and person/number. There are eight simple tense–aspect–mood forms, categorized into the indicative, subjunctive and imperative moods, with the conditional mood sometimes viewed as an additional category. The eight simple forms can also be categorized into four tenses (future, present, past, and future-of-the-past), or into two aspects (perfective and imperfective). The three non-finite moods are the infinitive, past participle, and present participle. There are compound constructions that use more than one verb. These include one for each simple tense with the addition of avoir or être as an auxiliary verb. There is also a construction which is used to distinguish passive voice from active voice.There are two ‘’basic’’ groups of verb conjungation: the first with infinitive on -er and the second on -ir, that have a consistent verb stem and then a third group on -re (or other endings like -oire, including the irregular conjungations), that have less consistent verb stems. Examples: parler with the stem parl-, finir with the stem fin- and boire with the stems boi-, boiv-, bu- and buv-. avoir and être have their own conjungations and do not belong to a group. Verbal endings depend on tense, aspect, mood and the voice of the verb, as well as on the person and number of the subject.There are 7 moods )with a differing amount of possible tenses) in French: indicative -with present, present perfect, imperfect, pluperfect, simple past, past perfect, simple future and future perfect-, subjunctive -with present, past, imperfect and pluperfect-, imperative -with present and past-, conditional -with present and past- (also known as the future-of-the-past for the same form with non-conditional uses), infinitive -with present and past-, participle -with present and past- and gerund -with present- (present participle preceded by en).Avoir and être are auxilliary verbs in the compound tenses (transitive verbs always use avoir, intransitive verbs avoir or être and reflexive verbs or verbs in the passive voice use être). Compound tenses are conjugated with an auxiliary followed by the past participle, ex: j'ai fait (I did), je suis tombé (I fell). When être is used, the participle is inflected according to the gender and number of the subject. The participle is inflected with the use of the verb avoir according to the direct object, but only if the direct object precedes the participle, ex:il a marché, elle a marché, nous avons marché (he walked, she walked, we walked)il est tombé, elle est tombée, nous sommes tombés, elles sont tombées (he fell, she fell, we fell, they (fem.) fell)Il a acheté une voiture. Voilà la voiture qu'il a achetée. (He bought a car. Here is the car he bought)Beneath conjugations of a few different verbs from different groups (in four moods and a few tenses, sorted per person):Avoir "to have"Indicative (IND)Subjunctive (S)Conditional (C)Imperative (IMP)Present INDSimple Past INDImperfect INDFuture INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPj'ai /e/eus /y/avais /avɛ/aurai /oʁe/aie /ɛ/eusse /ys/aurais /oʁɛ/tuas /ɑ/auras /oʁɑ/aies /ɛ/eusses /ys/aie* /ɛ/il/elle/ona /a/eut /y/avait /avɛ/aura /oʁa/ait /ɛ/eût /y/aurait /oʁɛ/nousavons /avɔ̃/eûmes /ym/avions /avjɔ̃/aurons /oʁɔ̃/ayons /ɛjɔ̃/eussions /ysjɔ̃/aurions /oʁjɔ̃/ayons* /ɛjɔ̃/vousavez /ave/eûtes /yt/aviez /avje/aurez /oʁe/ayez /ɛje/eussiez /ysje/auriez /oʁje/ayez* /ɛje/ils/ellesont /ɔ̃/eurent /yʁ/avaient /avɛ/auront /oʁɔ̃/aient /ɛ/eussent /ys/auraient /oʁɛ/* Notice that the imperative form uses the subjunctive conjugation.Non-finite forms:Infinitive: avoir /avwaʁ/Present participle: ayant /ejɑ̃/Gerundive: en ayant /ɑ̃n‿ejɑ̃/Verbal adjective: ayant(s) /ejɑ̃/, ayante(s) /ejɑ̃t/Past participle: eu(e)(s) /y/Être "to be"Indicative (IND)Subjunctive (S)Conditional (C)Imperative (IMP)Present INDSimple past INDImperfect INDFuture INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPjesuis /sɥi/fus /fy/étais /etɛ/serai /səʁe/sois /swɑ/fusse /fys/serais /səʁɛ/tues /ɛ/seras /səʁɑ/fusses /fys/sois* /swa/il/elle/onest /ɛ/fut /fy/était /etɛ/sera /səʁa/soit /swa/fût /fy/serait /səʁɛ/noussommes /sɔm/fûmes /fym/étions /etjɔ̃/serons /səʁɔ̃/soyons /swajɔ̃/fussions /fysjɔ̃/serions /səʁjɔ̃/soyons* /swajɔ̃/vousêtes /ɛt/fûtes /fyt/étiez /etje/serez /səʁe/soyez /swaje/fussiez /fysje/seriez /səʁje/soyez* /swaje/ils/ellessont /sɔ̃/furent /fyʁ/étaient /etɛ/seront /səʁɔ̃/soient /swa/fussent /fys/seraient /səʁɛ/* The imperative form uses the subjunctive conjugation.The non-finite forms use the stem êt- /ɛt/ (before a consonant)/ét- /et/ (before a vowel):Infinitive: êtrePresent participle: étantGerundive: en étantVerbal adjective: étant(e)(s)Past participle: étéFirst group (in the same scheme as above):The verb parler "to speak", in French orthography and IPA transcriptionIndicativeSubjunctiveConditionalImperativePresent INDSimple past INDImperfect INDSimple future INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPjeparl-e/paʁl/parl-ai/paʁle/parl-ais/paʁlɛ/parl-erai/paʁləʁe/parl-e/paʁl/parl-asse/paʁlas/parl-erais/paʁləʁɛ/tuparl-es/paʁl/parl-as/paʁlɑ/parl-eras/paʁləʁɑ/parl-es/paʁl/parl-asses/paʁlas/parl-e/paʁl/il/elleparl-e/paʁl/parl-a/paʁla/parl-ait/paʁlɛ/parl-era/paʁləʁa/parl-e/paʁl/parl-ât/paʁlɑ/parl-erait/paʁləʁɛ/nousparl-ons/paʁlɔ̃/parl-âmes/paʁlɑm/parl-ions/paʁljɔ̃/parl-erons/paʁləʁɔ̃/parl-ions/paʁljɔ̃/parl-assions/paʁlasjɔ̃/parl-erions/paʁləʁjɔ̃/parl-ons/paʁlɔ̃/vousparl-ez/paʁle/parl-âtes/paʁlɑt/parl-iez/paʁlje/parl-erez/paʁləʁe/parl-iez/paʁlje/parl-assiez/paʁlasje/parl-eriez/paʁləʁje/parl-ez/paʁle/ils/ellesparl-ent/paʁl/parl-èrent/paʁlɛʁ/parl-aient/paʁlɛ/parl-eront/paʁləʁɔ̃/parl-ent/paʁl/parl-assent/paʁlas/parl-eraient/paʁləʁɛ/Non-finite forms:Infinitive: parl-er /paʁle/Present participle: parl-ant /paʁlɑ̃/Gerundive: en parl-ant /ɑ̃ paʁlɑ̃/Verbal adjective: parl-ant(s) /paʁlɑ̃/, parl-ante(s) /paʁlɑ̃t/Past participle: parl-é(e)(s) /paʁle/Second group (in the same scheme as above):The verb choisir "to choose", in French orthography and IPA transcriptionIndicativeSubjunctiveConditionalImperativePresent INDSimple Past INDImperfect INDSimple Future INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPjechois-is/ʃwazi/chois-issais/ʃwazisɛ/chois-irai/ʃwaziʁe/chois-isse/ʃwazis/chois-irais/ʃwaziʁɛ/tuchois-iras/ʃwaziʁa/chois-isses/ʃwazis/chois-is/ʃwazi/il/ellechois-it/ʃwazi/chois-issait/ʃwazisɛ/chois-ira/ʃwaziʁa/chois-isse/ʃwazis/chois-ît/ʃwazi/chois-irait/ʃwaziʁɛ/nouschois-issons/ʃwazisɔ̃/chois-îmes/ʃwazim/chois-issions/ʃwazisjɔ̃/chois-irons/ʃwaziʁɔ̃/chois-issions/ʃwazisjɔ̃/chois-irions/ʃwaziʁjɔ̃/chois-issons/ʃwazisɔ̃/vouschois-issez/ʃwazise/chois-îtes/ʃwazit/chois-issiez/ʃwazisje/chois-irez/ʃwaziʁe/chois-issiez/ʃwazisje/chois-iriez/ʃwaziʁje/chois-issez/ʃwazise/ils/elleschois-issent/ʃwazis/chois-irent/ʃwaziʁ/chois-issaient/ʃwazisɛ/chois-iront/ʃwaziʁɔ̃/chois-issent/ʃwazis/chois-iraient/ʃwaziʁɛ/Non-finite forms:Infinitive: chois-ir /ʃwaziʁ/Present participle: chois-issant /ʃwazisɑ̃/Gerundive: en chois-issant /ɑ̃ ʃwazisɑ̃/Verbal adjective: chois-issant(s) /ʃwazisɑ̃/, chois-issante(s) /ʃwazisɑ̃t/Past participle: chois-i(e)(s) /ʃwazi/Third group:First sub-conjugation: Verbs with seven principal partsMost irregular French verbs can be described with seven principal parts. In reality, few if any verbs have separate stems for all seven parts; instead, they tend to "inherit" the same stem as another part. Note that the endings for these verbs are basically the same as for regular -ir verbs; in fact, regular -ir verbs can be fit into this scheme by treating the -iss- variants as different principal parts.Principal partHow to get the stem"Inherited" (regular) value of steminfinitiveRemove ending -er, -ir, -oir, -re—First singular present indicativeRemove ending -s, -eInfinitive stemFirst plural present indicativeRemove ending -onsInfinitive stemThird plural present indicativeRemove ending -entFirst plural present stem(First singular) futureRemove ending -aiFull infinitive stem (minus any -e)(Masculine singular) past participleFull wordInfinitive stem, plus -i (plus -u if ends -re)(First singular) simple pastRemove ending -s, -aiPast participle (minus any -s or -t)Paradigm for most irregular verbs (7 principal parts)IndicativeSubjunctiveConditionalImperativePresent INDSimple past INDImperfect INDFuture INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPje1S+sPAST+s1P+aisFUT+ai3P+ePAST+sseFUT+aistuFUT+as3P+esPAST+sses(same as pres. indic. 3rd. sg. if ends with vowel, else 2nd. sg.)il/elle1S+tPAST+t1P+aitFUT+a3P+ePAST+ˆtFUT+aitnous1P+onsPAST+ˆmes1P+ionsFUT+ons1P+ionsPAST+ssionsFUT+ions(same as pres. indic. 1st pl.)vous1P+ezPAST+ˆtes1P+iezFUT+ez1P+iezPAST+ssiezFUT+iez(same as pres. indic. 2nd pl.)ils/elles3P+entPAST+rent1P+aientFUT+ont3P+entPAST+ssentFUT+aientNon-finite forms:Infinitive: (full infinitive, with suffix)Present participle: 1P-antGerundive: en 1P-antVerbal adjective: 1P-ant(e)(s)Past participle: PP(e)(s)Example verb:Recevoir "to receive"IndicativeSubjunctiveConditionalImperativePresentSimple PastImperfectFuturePresentImperfectPresentPresentjereçoi-s/ʁəswɑ/reçu-s/ʁəsy/recev-ais/ʁəsəvɛ/recevr-ai/ʁəsəvʁe/reçoiv-e/ʁəswav/reçu-sse/ʁəsys/recevr-ais/ʁəsəvʁɛ/turecevr-as/ʁəsəvʁɑ/reçoiv-es/ʁəswav/reçu-sses/ʁəsys/reçoi-s/ʁəswɑ/il/ellereçoi-t/ʁəswa/reçu-t/ʁəsy/recev-ait/ʁəsəvɛ/recevr-a/ʁəsəvʁa/reçoiv-e/ʁəswav/reçû-t/ʁəsy/recevr-ait/ʁəsəvʁɛ/nousrecev-ons/ʁəsəvɔ̃/reçû-mes/ʁəsym/recev-ions/ʁəsəvjɔ̃/recevr-ons/ʁəsəvʁɔ̃/recev-ions/ʁəsəvjɔ̃/reçu-ssions/ʁəsysjɔ̃/recevr-ions/ʁəsəvʁijɔ̃/recev-ons/ʁəsəvɔ̃/vousrecev-ez/ʁəsəve/reçû-tes/ʁəsyt/recev-iez/ʁəsəvje/recevr-ez/ʁəsəvʁe/recev-iez/ʁəsəvje/reçu-ssiez/ʁəsysje/recevr-iez/ʁəsəvʁije/recev-ez/ʁəsəve/ils/ellesreçoiv-ent/ʁəswav/reçu-rent/ʁəsyʁ/recev-aient/ʁəsəvɛ/recevr-ont/ʁəsəvʁɔ̃/reçoiv-ent/ʁəswav/reçu-ssent/ʁəsys/recevr-aient/ʁəsəvʁɛ/Non-finite forms:Infinitive: recevoirPresent participle: recevantGerundive: en recevantVerbal adjective: recevant(e)(s)Past participle: reçu(e)(s)Verbs with eleven principal partsNine verbs also have an irregular subjunctive stem, used at least for the singular and third plural of the present subjunctive. These verbs can be said to have 11 principal parts, because the subjunctive stem may or may not be used for the first and second plural present subjunctive, the imperative and/or the present participle, in ways that vary from verb to verb.The following table shows how the paradigm of an 11-principal-part irregular verb is constructed from its principal parts. Note that these verbs are generally the most irregular verbs in French, and many of them construct the present indicative (especially the singular) in an idiosyncratic fashion. The verb aller also constructs its past participle and simple past differently, according to the endings for -er verbs.Paradigm for the highly irregular verbs (11 principal parts)IndicativeSubjunctiveConditionalImperativePresent INDSimple past INDImperfect INDFuture INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPje1S+sPAST+s1P+aisFUT+aiSUBJ+ePAST+sseFUT+aistu1S+sPAST+s1P+aisFUT+asSUBJ+esPAST+ssesFUT+ais(same as pres. indic. 2nd. sg.; but use 3rd. sg. if ends with vowel) or SUBJ+eil/elle1S+tPAST+t1P+aitFUT+aSUBJ+ePAST+ˆtFUT+aitnous1P+onsPAST+ˆmes1P+ionsFUT+onsSUBJ+ions or 1P+ionsPAST+ssionsFUT+ions(same as pres. indic. 1st pl.) or SUBJ+onsvous1P+ezPAST+ˆtes1P+iezFUT+ezSUBJ+iez or 1P+iezPAST+ssiezFUT+iez(same as pres. indic. 2nd pl.) or SUBJ+ezils/elles3P+entPAST+rent1P+aientFUT+ontSUBJ+entPAST+ssentFUT+aientNon-finite forms:Infinitive: (full infinitive, with suffix)Present participle: 1P-ant or SUBJ-antGerundive: en 1P-ant or en SUBJ-antVerbal adjective: 1P-ant(e)(s) or SUBJ-ant(e)(s)Past participle: PP(e)(s)Table of principal parts of the highly irregular French verbs (11 principal parts)INF: InfinitiveMeaningFUT: FuturePresent IndicativePresent SubjunctiveImperativePresent ParticiplePP: Past ParticiplePAST: Simple PastNotesSimilar verbs1S: 1st Sing (2nd Sing, 3rd Sing)1P: 1st Plur (2nd Plur)3P: 3rd PlurSUBJ:1st Sing1st Plurpouv-oir"to be able"pourr-aipeux/puis, peux, peutpouv-onspeuv-entpuiss-efollows subj. (puiss-ions)follows indic.follows 1P (pouv-ant)pupu-s (reg.)alternate 1st sing. puis required in questions, use elsewhere is mannered; note that old pres. part. puiss-ant is attested as an adjective "powerful"sav-oir"to know"saur-aisai-ssav-onssav-entsach-efollows subj. (sach-ions)follows subj. (sache, sachons, sachez)follows subj. (sach-ant)susu-svoul-oir"to want"voudr-aiveux, veutvoul-onsveul-entveuill-efollows indic. (voul-ions)follows subj. (veuille, veuillons, veuillez)follows 1P (voul-ant)vouluvoulu-sval-oir"to be worth"vaudr-aivaux, vautval-onsval-entvaill-efollows indic. (val-ions)follows indic. (vaux, valons, valez)follows 1P (val-ant)valuvalu-sfall-oir"to be necessary"faudr-afau-t(stem fall-)–faill-e–––fall-ufallu-tImpersonal (3rd-singular only)fai-re"to do"fer-aifai-sfais-ons, faitesfontfass-efollows subj. (fass-ions)follows indic.follows 1P (fais-ant)faitfi-s2nd pl. pres. indic. faites (also in imperative)défaire, refaire, satisfaireav-oir"to have"aur-aiai, as, aav-onsontai-e, ai-es, ai-t; ai-entay-ons, ay-ezfollows subj. (aie, ayons, ayez)follows subj. (ay-ant)eu /y/eu-sêt-re"to be"ser-aisuis, es, estsommes, êtes; stem ét-sontsoi-s, soi-s, soi-t; soi-entsoy-ons, soy-ezfollows subj. (sois, soyons, soyez)follows 1P (ét-ant)étéfu-sall-er"to go"ir-aivais/vas1, vas, vaall-onsvontaill-efollows indic. (all-ions)follows indic.follows 1P (all-ant)alléall-ai2nd. sg. imperat. va, but vas-y "go there"s'en aller "leave"Full conjugation of aller:Aller "to go"IndicativeSubjunctiveConditionalImperativePresent INDSimple past INDImperfect INDFuture INDPresent SImperfect SPresent CPresent IMPjevais, vas1/vɛ/, /vɑ/allai /ale/allais /alɛ/irai /iʁe/aille /aj/allasse /alas/irais /iʁɛ/tuvas /vɑ/allasallaisirasaillesallassesiraisvail/elle/onva /va/allaallaitiraailleallâtiraitnousallons /alɔ̃/allâmesallionsironsallionsallassionsirionsallonsvousallez /ale/allâtesalliezirezalliezallassieziriezallezils/ellesvont /vɔ̃/allèrentallaientirontaillentallassentiraientThe non-finite forms are all based on all- /al/:Infinitive: allerPresent participle: allantGerundive: en allantVerbal adjective: allant(e)(s)Past participle: allé(e)(s)The subjunctive in French is used almost wherever it would be in English, and in many other situations as well. It is used in que ("that") clauses to indicate emotion, doubt, possibility, necessity, desire, and so forth. For example, as in English one saysJ'aime mieux qu'il le fasse, "I prefer that he it do", "I prefer that he do it"But also, unlike in English, the subjunctive is used in, for example,Je veux qu'il le fasse "I want that he it do", "I want him to do it"Je crains qu'il ne parte "I fear that he (subjunctive particle) leave", "I am afraid that he will leave"Je cherche un homme qui sache la vérité "I seek a man who knows the truth", "I am looking for a man who knows the truth"Sometimes the subjunctive is used in the interrogative and the negative but not in the affirmative:Penses-tu qu'il soit sympa? (subjunctive) "Do you think that he is nice?"Oui, je pense qu'il est sympa. (indicative) "Yes, I think that he is nice."Non, je ne pense pas qu'il soit sympa. (subjunctive) "No, I do not think that he is nice."In addition to situations of doubt, negatives stated with certainty take the subjunctive:Il n'y a rien que nous puissions faire. "There is nothing that we can do."Superlatives also can optionally be accompanied by the subjunctive in a que clause, if the speaker feels doubt:C'est le meilleur livre que j'aie pu trouver. "That is the best book that I could find."Finally, as in English, counterfactual conditions in the past are expressed by backshifting the apparent time reference. In English this backshifted form is called the pluperfect subjunctive, and unless it is expressed in inverted form it is identical in form to the pluperfect indicative; it is called subjunctive because of the change in implied time of action. In French, however, there is a distinction in form between the seldom used pluperfect subjunctive and the pluperfect indicative, which is used in this situation. For example,Si on l'avait su (pluperfect indicative), on aurait pu (conditional perfect) l'empêcher. "Had we known (pluperfect subjunctive) it, we would have been able (conditional perfect) to prevent it.But I can also give you examples of the variation of the type and amount of nominal inflection (for case and definiteness) between (individual) Indo-European languages.In English:NounsMany common suffixes form nouns from other nouns or from other types of words, such as -age (as in shrinkage), -hood (as in sisterhood), and so on, although many nouns are base forms not containing any such suffix (such as cat, grass, France). Nouns are also often created by conversion of verbs or adjectives, as with the words talk and reading (a boring talk, the assigned reading).Countable nouns generally have singular and plural forms. In most cases the plural is formed from the singular by adding -[e]s (as in dogs, bushes), although there are also irregular forms (woman/women, foot/feet, etc.), including cases where the two forms are identical (sheep, series).English nouns are not marked for case as they are in some languages, but they have possessive forms, through the addition of -'s (as in John's, children's) or just an apostrophe (with no change in pronunciation) in the case of -[e]s plurals and sometimes other words ending with -s (the dogs' owners, Jesus' love). More generally, the ending can be applied to noun phrases (as in the man you saw yesterday's sister). The possessive form can be used either as a determiner (John's cat) or as a noun phrase (John's is the one next to Jane's). The possessive can be analysed, for instance as a clitic construction (an "enclitic postposition") or as an inflection of the last word of a phrase ("edge inflection").Noun phrases are phrases that function grammatically as nouns within sentences, for example as the subject or object of a verb.An English noun phrase typically takes the following form (not all elements need be present):Determiner+Pre-modifiers+NOUN+Postmodifiers/ComplementIn this structure:the determiner may be an article (the, a[n]) or other equivalent word, as described in the following section. In many contexts it is required for a noun phrase to include some determiner.pre-modifiers include adjectives and some adjective phrases (such as red, really lovely), and noun adjuncts (such as college in the phrase the college student). Adjectival modifiers usually come before noun adjuncts.a complement or postmodifier may be a prepositional phrase (... of London), a relative clause (like ...which we saw yesterday), certain adjective or participial phrases (... sitting on the beach), or a dependent clause or infinitive phrase appropriate to the noun (like ... that the world is round after a noun such as fact or statement, or ... to travel widely after a noun such as desire).DeterminersEnglish determiners constitute a relatively small class of words. They include the articles the, a[n], certain demonstrative and interrogative words such as this, that, and which, possessives such as my and whose (the role of determiner can also be played by noun possessive forms such as John's and the girl's), various quantifying words like all, some, many, various, and numerals (one, two, etc.). There are also many phrases (such as a couple of) that can play the role of determiners.PronounsThe personal pronouns of modern standard English, and the corresponding possessive forms, are as follows:NominativeObliqueReflexivePossessive determinerPossessive pronoun1st pers. sing.Imemyselfmymine2nd pers. sing./pl.youyouyourself/yourselvesyouryours3rd pers. sing.she, he, they, ither, him, them, itherself, himself, themself, itselfher, his, their, itshers, his, theirs, its1st pers. pl.weusourselvesourours3rd pers. pl.theythemthemselvestheirtheirsThe second-person forms such as you are used with both singular and plural reference. An archaic set of second-person pronouns used for singular reference is thou, thee, thyself, thy, thine. You can also be used as an indefinite pronoun, referring to a person in general (see generic you) compared to the more formal alternative, one (reflexive oneself, possessive one's). The third-person singular forms are differentiated according to the sex of the referent. The third-person plural forms such as they are sometimes used with singular reference, as a gender-neutral pronoun, as in each employee should ensure they tidy their desk.Demonstrative and interrogativeThe demonstrative pronouns of English are this (plural these), and that (plural those), as in these are good, I like that. Note that all four words can also be used as determiners (followed by a noun), as in those cars. They can also form the alternative pronominal expressions this/that one, these/those ones.The interrogative pronouns are who, what, and which (all of them can take the suffix -ever for emphasis). The pronoun who refers to a person or people; it has an oblique form whom (though in informal contexts this is usually replaced by who), and a possessive form (pronoun or determiner) whose.RelativeThe main relative pronouns in English are who (with its derived forms whom and whose), which, and that."There"The word there is used as a pronoun in some sentences, playing the role of a dummy subject, normally of an intransitive verb. The "logical subject" of the verb then appears as a complement after the verb.This use of there occurs most commonly with forms of the verb be in existential clauses, to refer to the presence or existence of something. For example: There is a heaven; There are two cups on the table; There have been a lot of problems lately. It can also be used with other verbs: There exist two major variants; There occurred a very strange incident.OtherOther pronouns in English are often identical in form to determiners (especially quantifiers), such as many, a little, etc. Sometimes, the pronoun form is different, as with none (corresponding to the determiner no), nothing, everyone, somebody, etc. Many examples are listed as indefinite pronouns. Another indefinite (or impersonal) pronoun is one (with its reflexive form oneself and possessive one's), which is a more formal alternative to generic you.AdjectivesEnglish adjectives, as with other word classes, cannot in general be identified as such by their form, although many of them are formed from nouns or other words by the addition of a suffix, such as -al (habitual), -ful (blissful), -ic (atomic), -ish (impish, youngish), -ous (hazardous), etc.; or from other adjectives using a prefix: disloyal, irredeemable, unforeseen, overtired.Adjectives may be used attributively, as part of a noun phrase (nearly always preceding the noun they modify; for exceptions see postpositive adjective), as in the big house, or predicatively, as in the house is big.Many adjectives have comparative and superlative forms in -er and -est, such as faster and fastest (from the positive form fast). The adjectives good and bad have the irregular forms better, best and worse, worst; also far becomes farther, farthest or further, furthest. Many adjectives, however, particularly those that are longer and less common, do not have inflected comparative and superlative forms. Instead, they can be qualified with more and most, as in beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful (this construction is also sometimes used even for adjectives for which inflected forms do exist).An adjective phrase is a group of words that plays the role of an adjective in a sentence. It usually has a single adjective as its head, to which modifiers and complements may be added.Complements following the adjective may include:prepositional phrases: proud of him, angry at the screen, keen on breeding toads;infinitive phrases: anxious to solve the problem, easy to pick up;content clauses, i.e. that clauses and certain others: certain that he was right, unsure where they are;after comparatives, phrases or clauses with than: better than you, smaller than I had imagined.AdverbsAdverbs perform a wide range of functions. They typically modify verbs (or verb phrases), adjectives (or adjectival phrases), or other adverbs (or adverbial phrases).However, adverbs also sometimes qualify noun phrases (only the boss; quite a lovely place), pronouns and determiners (almost all), prepositional phrases (halfway through the movie), or whole sentences, to provide contextual comment or indicate an attitude (Frankly, I don't believe you). They can also indicate a relationship between clauses or sentences (He died, and consequently I inherited the estate).Many English adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the ending -ly, as in hopefully, widely, theoretically. Certain words can be used as both adjectives and adverbs, such as fast, straight, and hard; these are flat adverbs. he adverb corresponding to the adjective good is well.Some suffixes that are commonly used to form adverbs from nouns are -ward[s] (as in homeward[s]) and -wise (as in lengthwise).Most adverbs form comparatives and superlatives by modification with more and most: often, more often, most often; smoothly, more smoothly, most smoothly. However, a few adverbs retain irregular inflection for comparative and superlative forms: much, more, most; a little, less, least; well, better, best; badly, worse, worst; far, further (farther), furthest (farthest); or follow the regular adjectival inflection: fast, faster, fastest; soon, sooner, soonest..CaseAlthough English has largely lost its case system, personal pronouns still have three morphological cases that are simplified forms of the nominative, objective and genitive cases:The nominative case (subjective pronouns such as I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever), used for the subject of a finite verb and sometimes for the complement of a copula.The oblique case (object pronouns such as me, him, her, us, it, us, them, whom, whomever), used for the direct or indirect object of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, and sometimes for the complement of a copula.The genitive case (possessive pronouns such as my/mine, his, her(s), our(s), its, our(s), their, theirs, whose), used for a grammatical possessor. This is not always considered to be a caseDeclensionNouns have distinct singular and plural forms; that is, they decline to reflect their grammatical number; consider the difference between book and books. In addition, a few English pronouns have distinct nominative (also called subjective) and oblique (or objective) forms; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition, or case. Consider the difference between he (subjective) and him (objective), as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider who, which is subjective, and the objective whom.In Russian:I’ve shown you the verbal inflection of the Russian language, but Russian does also have a rich inventory of nominal inflection/morphology.NounsNominal declension involves six cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and prepositional – in two numbers (singular and plural), and absolutely obeying grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter). The most recognized additional cases are locative, partitive and vocative. Old Russian also had a third number, the dual, but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three, and four (e.g. два стула "two chairs"), where it is now reanalyzed as genitive singular.nominative: main subject;default case to use outside sentences (dictionary entries, signs, etc.);prepositions: за '(what) kind of?'; в: 'join the ranks of' (with pl. noun only);accusative: direct object;some time expressions;prepositions indicating motion: в 'in(wards)', на 'on (top of)', за 'behind', под 'under';other prepositions: про 'about', через 'over', сквозь 'through';genitive: possession – 'of' (genitive noun);numerals and quantifiers;negated verbs (which take direct objects in Accusative) to indicate total absence;some time expressions;prepositions: без 'without', вместо 'instead', возле 'near', вокруг 'around', впереди 'ahead of', для 'for', до 'before', из 'from', из-за 'from behind', от 'from', кроме 'except for', мимо 'past by', около 'near', после 'after', против 'against', среди 'among', у 'by', близ 'near', вдоль 'along', вне 'outside', внутри 'inside';verbs: бояться 'afraid of', ждать 'wait for', искать 'search for';adjectives: полный 'full of' (genitive noun);dative: indirect object – 'to' (dative noun);some time expressions;impersonal clauses: мне холодно – 'I am cold', lit. "to_me (is) cold";age statements: мне двадцать лет – 'I am 20 (years old)', lit. 'to_me (is) 20 years';prepositions: по 'on', к 'to(wards)', благодаря 'thanks to';auxiliaries: нужно or надо 'need/must (to)', можно 'allowed', нельзя 'forbidden';verbs: верить 'believe', помочь 'help', советовать 'advise', звонить 'call', удивить(ся) 'amaze (self)';instrumental: instrument used in the action or means by which action is carried out – 'by' (I. noun);logical subject of passive clause: письмо написано Иваном – 'the letter was written by Ivan';secondary direct object: его считают студентом – 'he is considered (to be) a student';durational time expressions;verbs: интересовать(ся) 'interest (to be interested in)', пользоваться 'use', занимать(ся) 'occupy (to be preoccupied with)';associates of connective verbs: быть 'be', стать 'became', остаться 'remain', казаться 'appear to be', оказаться 'turn out to be';prepositions of position: за 'behind', перед 'in front of', над 'above', под 'below', между 'between', (вместе) с '(together) with';adjective: довольный 'pleased by';prepositional: prepositions of place: в 'inside', на 'on (top of)';other prepositions: о 'about', при 'by/of/with'Definite and indefinite articles (corresponding to the, a, an in English) do not exist in the Russian language. The sense conveyed by such articles can be determined in Russian by context. However, Russian also utilizes other means of expressing whether a noun is definite or indefinite:The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: Я не ви́жу кни́ги ("I don't see a book" or "I don't see any books") and Я не ви́жу кни́гу ("I don't see the book").The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.: Почему́ ты так до́лго? – Да так, встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть ("Why did it take you so long?" – "Well, I met one [=a] friend and had to talk").Word order may also be used for this purpose; compare В ко́мнату вбежа́л ма́льчик ("Into the room rushed a boy") and Ма́льчик вбежа́л в ко́мнату ("The boy rushed into the room").The plural form may signify indefiniteness: Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́нах ("You can buy this in shops") vs. Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́не ("You can buy this in the shop").The category of animacy is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension. Specifically, the accusative has two possible forms in many paradigms, depending on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (persons and animals), the accusative form is generally identical to the genitive form. For inanimate referents, the accusative form is identical to the nominative form. This behavior is indicated by the abbreviation N or G in the row corresponding to the accusative case.Russian uses three declensions:The first declension is used for feminine nouns ending with -а/-я and some masculine nouns having the same form as those of feminine gender, such as па́па papa or дя́дя uncle; also, common-gender nouns like зади́ра tease are masculine or feminine depending on the person to which they refer.The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns.The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in ь.A group of irregular "different-declension nouns", consists of a few neuter nouns ending in -мя (e.g. время "time") and one masculine noun путь "way".First declensionFeminine nouns with a small set of masculine nounssingular (S)plural (P)nominative-а (S)-я, -ия (S)-ы (P)-и, -ии (P)accusative-у (S)-ю, -ию (S)N or G (P)genitive-ы (S)-и, -ии (S)∅ (P)-ь, -ий (P)dative-е (S)-е, -ии (S)-ам (P)-ям, -иям (P)instrumental-ой (S)-ей, -ией (S)-ами (P)-ями, -иями (P)prepositional-е (S)-е, -ии (S)-ах (P)-ях, -иях (P)Second declensionMasculine nounssingular (S)plural (P)nominative∅ (S)-ь, -й, -ий, +ин-∅ (S)-ы (P)-и, -и, -ии, -е (P)accusativeN or G (S), (P)genitive-а (S)-я, -я, -ия, +ин-а (S)-ов (P)-ей, -ев, -иев, -∅ (P)dative-у (S)-ю, -ю, -ию, +ин-у (S)-ам (P)-ям, -ям, -иям, -ам (P)instrumental-ом (S)-ем, -ем, -ием, +ин-ом (S)-ами (P)-ями, -ями, -иями, -ами (P)prepositional-е (S)-е, -е, -ии, +ин-е (S)-ах (P)-ях, -ях, -иях, -ах (P)Some singular nouns denoting groups of people may include -ин- suffix before ending.Neuter nounssingular (S)plural (P)nominative-о (S) + (accusative singular)-е (S) + (accusative singular)-а (P)-я (P)accusativeN or G (P)genitive-а (S)-я (S)∅ (P)-й, -ей (P)dative-у (S)-ю (S)-ам (P)-ям (P)instrumental-ом (S)-ем (S)-ами (P)-ями (P)prepositional-е (S)-е (S)-ах (P)-ях (P)Third declensionThe third declension is mostly for feminine nouns with some masculine and neuter.Feminine and some masculine nounssingular (S)plural (P)nominative-ь (S) + (accusative singular)-и (P)accusativeN or G (P)-и (P)genitive-и (S) + (dative singular)-ей (P)dative-ям (P)instrumental-ью (S)-ём (S)-ями (P)-я́ми (P)prepositional-и (S)-ах (P)A small set of neuter nounssingular (S)plural (P)nominative-я (S) + (accusative singular)-ена́ (P) + (accusative plural)-ёна (P) + (accusative plural)accusativegenitive-ени (S) + (dative singular)-ён (P)-ён (P)dative-ена́м (P)-ёнам (P)instrumental-енем (S)-ена́ми (P)-ёнами (P)prepositional-ени (S)-ена́х (P)-ёнах (P)Indeclinable nounsSome nouns (such as borrowings from other languages, abbreviations, etc.) are not modified when they change number and case. This occurs especially when the ending appears not to match any declension pattern in the appropriate gender. An example of an indeclinable noun is кофе ("coffee").Additional casesSome nouns use several additional cases. The most important of these are:Locative: the most common minor case, used after prepositions of location (на, в(о)). With most nouns the prepositional form is used in such instances. When there is a distinct locative, it may match the dative, or may take a unique form. For example, in во рту́ ("in the mouth"), the locative of рoт ("mouth") matches the dative form ртy (and thus differs from the prepositional ртe). In в лесу́ ("in the forest"), the locative of лес ("forest") differs from both the prepositional ле́се and the dative ле́сy (the dative and locative are spelt identically but pronounced differently).Partitive, or second genitive: sometimes used instead of the genitive: налить ча́ю (to pour tea) – not налить ча́я.Vocative: used in archaic expressions to call or identify a person: Бо́же мой! (My God!). The modern vocative (sometimes called neo-vocative) is used to produce a person's nickname by removing the vowel ending from the affectionate version of the name: Ива́н (general) — Ва́ня (short, affectionate) — Вань (neo-vocative); Мари́я — Ма́ша — Маш. The neo-vocative has no plural form and can only be applied to names frequently used in Russian; rare names (most of them are non-Slavic) do not have affectionate versions and therefore, nicknames.Caritive, used with the negation of verbs: не знать пра́вды (not know the truth) – знать пра́вду (know the truth). This case sometimes is identical to the genitive and sometimes to the accusative.AdjectivesA Russian adjective is usually placed before the noun it qualifies, and it agrees with the noun in case, gender, and number. With the exception of a few invariant forms borrowed from other languages, such as беж ('beige') or ха́ки ('khaki-colored'), most adjectives follow one of a small number of regular declension patterns (except for some that complicate the short form). In modern Russian, the short form appears only in the nominative and is used when the adjective is in a predicative role: нов, нова́, нóво, новы́ are short forms of но́вый ('new').Adjectives may be divided into three general groups:qualitative – denote a quality of the object; this is the only group that usually has degrees of comparison.relational – denote some sort of relationship; unlikely to act as a predicate or have a short form.possessive – denote belonging to a specific subject; have some declensional peculiarities.Adjectival declensionThe pattern described below holds true for full forms of most adjectives, except possessive ones. It is also used for substantivized adjectives as учёный ("scientist, scholar" as a noun substitute or "scientific, learned" as a general adjective) and for adjectival participles. Russian differentiates between hard-stem and soft-stem adjectives, shown before and after a slash sign.singular (masculine neuter feminine) - pluralnominative -ый/-ий -ое/-ее (neuter nominative-accusative) -ая/-яя -ые/-иеaccusative N or G-ую/-юю N or Ggenitive -ого/-его (masculine/neuter) -ой/-ей (feminine genitive-prepostional) -ых/-ихdative -ому/-ему (masculine/neuter) -ым/-имinstrumental -ым/-им (masculine/neuter) -ыми/-имиprepositional -ом/-ем (masculine/neuter) -ых/-ихshort form zero ending -о -а -ы/-иSome adjectives (e.g. большо́й "big", ру́сский "Russian") have no short forms.Comparison of adjectivesComparison forms are usual only for qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Comparative and superlative synthetic forms are not part of the paradigm of original adjective but are different lexical items, since not all qualitative adjectives have them. A few adjectives have irregular forms that are declined as usual adjectives: большо́й 'big' – бо́льший 'bigger', хоро́ший 'good' – лу́чший 'better'. Most synthetically-derived comparative forms are derived by adding the suffix -е́е or -е́й to the adjective stem: кра́сный 'red' – красне́е 'more red'; these forms are difficult to distinguish from adverbs, and probably they are adverbs. Superlative synthetic forms are derived by adding the suffix -е́йш- or -а́йш- and additionally sometimes the prefix наи-, or using a special comparative form with the prefix наи-: до́брый 'kind' – добре́йший 'the kindest', большо́й 'big' – наибо́льший 'the biggest'. An alternative is to add an adverb to the positive form of the adjective. The adverbs used for this are бо́лее 'more' / ме́нее 'less' and са́мый 'most' / наибо́лее 'most' / наиме́нее 'least': for example, до́брый 'kind' – бо́лее до́брый 'kinder' – са́мый до́брый 'the kindest'. This way is rarely used if special comparative forms exist.Possessive adjectivesPossessive adjectives are less frequently used in Russian than in most other Slavic languages, but are in use. They respond to the questions чей? чья? чьё? чьи? (whose?) and denote only animate possessors.PronounsPersonal pronounssingularpluralreflexive1st2nd3rd1st2nd3rdneuter (n)masculine (m)feminine (f)EnglishIyou (thou)ithesheweyouthey-self (refl)nominativeятыоно́ (n)он (m)она́ (f)мывыони́accusativeменя́тебя́его́ (n/m)её (f)насвасихсебя́ (refl)genitive (=accusative)dativeмнетебе́ему́ (n/m)ей (f)намвамимсебе́ (refl)instrumentalмной(мно́ю)тобо́й(тобо́ю)им (n/m)ей (f)(ею)на́мива́мии́мисобо́й (refl)(собо́ю)prepositionalмнетебе́нём (n/m)ней (f)насваснихсебе́ (refl)Demonstrative pronounsэтот ('this')masculineneuterfemininepluralnominativeэ́тотэ́то (neuter nominative-accusative)э́таэ́тиaccusativeN or Gэ́туN or Ggenitiveэ́того (m/n)э́той (feminine genitive-prepositional)э́тихdativeэ́тому (m/n)э́тимinstrumentalэ́тим (m/n)э́тимиprepositionalэ́том (m/n)э́тихтот ('that')masculine neuter feminine pluralnominative тот то (neuter nominative-accusative) та теaccusative N or G ту N or Ggenitive того́ (m/n) той (feminine genitive-prepositional) техdative тому́ (m/n) темinstrumental тем (m/n) те́миprepositional том (m/n) техPossessive adjectives and pronounsUnlike English, Russian uses the same form for a possessive adjective and the corresponding possessive pronoun.The following rules apply:Possessive pronouns agree with the noun of the possessed in case, gender, and number.The reflexive pronoun свой is used when the possessor is the subject of the clause, whatever the person, gender, and number of that subject.No non-reflexive exists for the third person: the genitive of the personal pronoun is instead, i.e. его for a masculine/neuter singular possessor, её for a feminine singular possessor and их for a plural possessor. But unlike other genitives used with a possessive meaning, in modern Russian these words are usually placed before the object of possession.Example of the difference between reflexive and non-reflexive pronouns:"Он лю́бит свою́ жену́ = He loves his (own) wife" while "Он лю́бит его́ жену́ = He loves his (someone else's) wife".Unlike Latin where a similar rule applies for the third person only, Russian accepts using reflexives for all persons:"Люблю́ свою́ жену́ = (I) love my wife""Люблю́ себя́ = (I) love myself"мой (my, mine)masculine neuter feminine pluralnominative мой моё (neuter nominative-accusative) моя́ мои́accusative N or G мою́ N or Ggenitive моего́ (m/n) мое́й (feminine genitive-prepositional) мои́хdative моему́ (m/n) мои́мinstrumental мои́м (m/n) мои́миprepositional моём (m/n) мои́хтвой (your, yours) for a singular possessormasculine neuter feminine pluralnominative твой твоё (neuter nominative-accusative) твоя́ твои́accusative N or G твою́ N or Ggenitive твоего́ (m/n) твое́й (feminine genitive-prepositional) твои́хdative твоему́ (m/n) твои́мinstrumental твои́м (m/n) твои́миprepositional твоём (m/n) твои́хсвой (one's own)masculine neuter feminine pluralnominative свой своё (neuter nominative-accusative) своя́ свои́accusative N or G свою́ N or Ggenitive своего́ (m/n) свое́й (feminine genitive-prepositional) свои́хdative своему́ (m/n) свои́мinstrumental свои́м (m/n) свои́миprepositional своём (m/n) свои́хнаш (our, ours)masculine neuter feminine pluralnominative наш на́ше (neuter nominative-accusative) на́ша на́шиaccusative N or G на́шу N or Ggenitive на́шего (m/n) на́шей (feminine genitive-prepositional) на́шихdative на́шему (m/n) на́шимinstrumental на́шим (m/n) на́шимиprepositional на́шем (m/n) на́шихваш (your, yours) for a plural possessormasculine neuter feminine pluralnominative ваш ва́ше (neuter nominative-accusative) ва́ша ва́шиaccusative N or G ва́шу N or Ggenitive ва́шего (m/n) ва́шей (feminine genitive-prepositional) ва́шихdative ва́шему (m/n) ва́шимinstrumenta lва́шим (m/n) ва́шимиprepositional ва́шем (m/n) ва́шихInterrogative pronounsкто ('who') and что ('what')кточтоnominativeкточто (read: што) (+accusative)accusativeкого́ (read: ково́) (+genitive)genitiveчего́ (read: чево́)dativeкому́чему́instrumentalкемчемprepositionalкомчёмThese interrogatives are used by scholars to denote "usual" questions for correspondent grammatical cases (prepositional is used with о): (кто?) Ма́ша лю́бит (кого?) Ва́сю – (who?) Masha [N.] loves (whom?) Vasya [G.].чей ('whose')masculineneuterfemininepluralnominativeчейчьё (neuter nominative-accusative)чьячьиaccusativeN or GчьюN or Ggenitiveчьего́ (m/n)чьей (feminine genitive-prepositional)чьихdativeчьему́ (m/n)чьимinstrumentalчьим (m/n)чьи́миprepositionalчьём (m/n)чьихNumeralsNouns are used in the nominative case after "one" (один рубль, 'one ruble'). After certain other numbers (following Grammatical number rules in Russian) nouns must be declined to genitive plural (десять рублей, 'ten rubles').Russian has several classes of numerals: cardinal, ordinal, collective, and also fractional constructions; also it has other types of words, relative to numbers: collective adverbial forms, multiplicative and counting-system adjectives, some numeric-pronominal and indefinite quantity words (сколько, много, несколько). Here are the numerals from 0 to 10:cardinal numbersordinal numbers (nominative case, masculine)collective numbers0ноль or нульнулево́й—1оди́н (m.), одна́ (f.), одно́ (n.), одни́ (pl.)(раз is used when counting)пе́рвый—2два (m., n.), две (f.)второ́йдво́е3тритре́тийтро́е4четы́речетвёртыйче́тверо5пятьпя́тыйпя́теро6шестьшесто́йше́стеро7семьседьмо́йсе́меро8во́семьвосьмо́й(во́сьмеро)9де́вятьдевя́тый(де́вятеро)10де́сятьдеся́тый(де́сятеро)In Lithuanian:Lithuanian has preserved many grammatical elements from the (hypothetical) Proto-Indo-European language.Nominal categories found in Lithuanian, are:Parts of speechNounAdjectiveVerbNumeralPronounAdverbMain casesnominativegenitivedativeaccusativeinstrumentalinessivevocativeLocative casesillativeallativeadessiveNumbersingularpluralDegrees of comparisonabsolutecomparativesuperlativeGendersmasculinefeminineGenderLithuanian nouns are classified into one of two genders:masculinefeminineLithuanian adjectives, numerals, pronouns and participles are classified into one of three genders:masculinefeminineneuterSince no noun can have a neutral gender, it is used with subjects of neutral or undefined gender:Ji (fem.) yra graži (fem.) – She is beautiful. Mokytojas (masc.) bus pasirengęs (masc.) – The teacher will be ready. Skaityti (undefined) buvo įdomu (neuter) – Reading was interesting.The gender of a pronoun kas – 'who? what?', personal pronouns aš / mes – 'I' / 'we', tu / jūs – 'you (singular) / you (plural)' and a reflexive pronoun savęs is indefinite, it means any of the genders. The word kas uses masculine inflections, the other pronouns have their own specific paradigm. The nouns of the indefinite gender have feminine form inflections. The masculine gender is also the indeterminate gender as in many other Indo-European languages. Note that there are many nouns that use masculine or feminine genders without any reason of biological gender, for instance, words that denote inanimate objects.nominativeEnglish meaninggenitivevilkaswolfvilkokalbalanguagekalbosprekėcommodityprekėspiliscastlepiliesviršustopviršausakmuostoneakmensgirdė́tas, girdė́ta, girdė́taheard; gender sequence: m, f, ngirdė́to, girdė́tosfrom girdė́ti – to hear (continuing, imperfective action)ìšgirstas, išgirstà, ìšgirstaheardìšgirsto, išgirstõsfrom išgir̃sti – to hear (one-time, perfective action)Grammatical numberThe Lithuanian language has two main numbers, singular and plural. It has also a dual, which is almost unused, except few words, that retain their dual forms (for example, du – two, abu – both), an indefinite number and super-plural wordsThe singular number indicates that the denoted thing is one or indivisible (as in méilė – love, smė̃lis – sand, píenas – milk). The plural number, when it can be in contrast with the singular, indicates that there are many of the things denoted by the word. But sometimes, when a word doesn't have the singular number, being a plurale tantum noun, the plural form doesn't indicate real singularity or plurality of the denoted object(s).Adjectives and numerals also have the singular - plural distinction. Their number depends on that of the noun they are attributed to.The dual number indicates a pair of things. During the last century, the dual was used more or less sporadically in Lithuanian, sometimes reaching the status of a full number for agreement purposes, meaning the dual of noun required dual agreement in its adjectives or the dual of the subject required the dual of the verb. But in many more cases the dual was reduced to a nominal category explicitly indicating a pair of things, but not requiring dual agreement of adjectives or verbs. Presently, the dual is mostly used as a declension paradigm for numbers du – two, abu – both (and a variant abudu – idem) and with personal pronouns aš – I, mùdu dual – we two (mẽs pl. – we) and tu sg. – you, jùdu dual – you two (jū̃s pl. – you).The indefinite number indicates that the same form of the word can be understood singular or plural, depending both on situation and on other words in the sentence. There are only few words that demonstrate indefinite number, and the indefinite number doesn't have its own forms in Lithuanian. These words are pronouns kas – 'who? what?', kažkas – 'something, somebody' and reflexive pronoun savęs. All of them use inflections of the singular.The super-plural words are a few numbers and pronouns that indicate a counting not of separate things, but of groups of things.keleri - 'several (groups of)'abeji - 'both (groups of)'(vieneri - 'one (group of)')dveji - 'two (groups of)'treji - 'three (groups of)'ketveri - 'four (groups of)'penkeri - 'five (groups of)'šešeri - 'six (groups of)'septyneri - 'seven (groups of)'aštuoneri - 'eight (groups of)'devyneri - 'nine (groups of)'Cases of declined wordsNominativeGenitive; it also functions similarly to the ablative case in other languages.DativeAccusativeInstrumentalLocative cases:Locative (inessive)Illative; dialectic, without clear status in the standard LithuanianAllative; obsolete, the singular is reduced to adverbsAdessive; extinctVocativeExamples of the locative cases:inessive is fully used locative case. An example: nãmas – a house, namè – in a house, vyruose - in men. It is also used for a temporal meaning in some words: vakarè [vɐkɐrʲˈɛ] – in the evening (vãkaras [ˈväːkɐrɐs̪] nom. 'an evening'). But more verbs are used in accusative for the latter meaning: vãsarą – in summer, rùdenį – in autumn, trẽčią vãlandą – in three o'clock. This accusative form also means duration: trečią dieną kepina [ˈtʲrʲæːt͡ʃʲæː ˈdʲiən̪äː ˈkʲæːpʲɪn̪ɐ] (kepina is idiomatic or slang in such meaning) – it is the third day when it (sun) sizzles (it's heat). Plural forms for temporal "locatives" are expressed by instrumental: vakaraĩs – in / by the evenings, vãsaromis – in / by summers.illative is used sparingly. Some terms are normal, for example, in law: patráukti baudžiamõjon atsakomýbėn – to prosecute; literally: to draw, pull, move to penal amenability (not į (to) baudžiamają atsakomybę acc., not (for) baudžiamajai atsakomybei dative). Other examples: singular káiman – to(wards) the village, miškañ – to(wards) a forest, and forms of the common language į káimą, į mìšką; plural káimuos-na, miškúos-na and common forms į káimus, į miškùs;allative. Examples: namop – up to the home. Today it is used only in a few idiomic expressions like vakaróp – about nightfall, velnióp – to hell with smth.; šuniop – down the drain (about dog, to a dog); galóp – ultimately; nuteisti myriop - to send to the scaffold;adessive. Examples: laukíe-p sg. – beside the field, at the field, namíe-p sg.. It is a historical or dialectal case, extinct in modern standard Lithuanian, but it is preserved in the adverbs: namie – at home, netoli(e) – not far, toli(e) – far, arti(e) – nearby, vienaip ar kitaip – anyway, savaip – in one's own fashion/way, tavaip – in your (sg.) fashion/way, visaip – diversely. etc.The later three locatives are adverb-forming cases.NounsLithuanian grammar makes a distinction between proper and common nouns. Only proper nouns are capitalized. Some nouns, for example sun and moon, can be both proper and common. There are no articles in Lithuanian.The genders of nouns are masculine and feminine. A rough rule of thumb is that almost all masculine nouns in nominative case end in -s and most feminine – in -(i)a or -ė. There is no neuter gender ("it gender"), but there are a few words that can be applied to both genders equally. They mostly describe people, have negative connotations, and end in -a, for example vė́pla – dummy, el̃geta – beggar, naktìbalda – night-lumberer, a person who does not sleep at night, but mėmė̃ – gawk.NumberMost nouns have singular and plural numbers. There are some words that have only singular (e.g., pienas – milk, auksas – gold, gripas – flu, laimė – happiness) or only plural (e.g., lubos – ceiling, miltai – flour, kelnės – trousers) forms.Noun modification by numeralIn Lithuanian, unlike in Romance / Germanic languages, and like Slavic languages but in a different way, the form of a count noun depends on final digits of the number.Number ends withFormExample1 (excluding 11)Singular31 litas2–9 (excluding 12–19)Plural25 litai0 or 11–19Special case:Singular + nounin plural genitive110 litų, 111 litųDeclensionNouns in Lithuanian language have 12 declension paradigms, in scholar grammar corresponding to five declensions which are defined by the inflection in singular nominative and genitive cases. Only few borrowed words, like taksì – taxi, kupė – compartment (in a train), coupe, are not subject to declension rules.(Inflection in singular cases:)NominativeGenitive(Examples:)NominativeGenitiveMeaningNotesI-as, -is, -ys-ovýrasmẽdistraukinỹskẽliasvýromẽdžiotráukiniokẽlioman, male; husbandtreetrainroadMain pattern for masculine nounsII-a, -i, -ė-os, -ėsžmonàšviesàvárnapradžiàsáulėžmonõsšviesõsvárnospradžiõssáulėswifelightcrowbeginningsunMain pattern for feminine nouns; few masculine exceptionsIII-is-iesmóteris fpilìs favìs fdantìs mmóteriespiliẽsaviẽsdantiẽswoman, femalecastlesheeptoothRarer, feminine nouns, fewer masculineIV-us-ausžmogùssūnùsmedùsskaĩčiusžmogaũssūnaũsmedaũsskaĩčiausman (human being)sonhoneynumberRare, masculine nounsV-uo, -ė-en-s, -er-s fvanduõakmuõskaitmuõsesuõduktė̃vandeñsakmeñsskaitmeñsseser̃sdukter̃swaterstonedigitsisterdaughterRare, masculine nouns, four feminine; suffixed by -en- m and -er- f.TypologyThe first declension, -as, -is, -ys, -ias.Names of -as type have vocative -ai instead of -e of common nouns: Jõnas - Jõnai, Tòmas - Tòmai. Common nouns sometimes have this ending, it is usual for a word tė́vas: tė́vai and tė́ve.Words having -j- before the ending -as (vė́jas – wind, naudótojas – user) have two differences of declensional cases from other -as words; -j- is soft sound and the locative for these words is like in soft -is / -ys / -ias type (mẽdyje, kepsnyjè, kelyjè), but with a vowel changed where needed for an easier pronunciation: vė́jyje, but naudótojuje. Vocative is also different: vėjau, naudótojau (naudotoje would sound the same to naudótoja, which is feminine (nominative and vocative) form of the same word. The vocative is similar for -as m and -ė f words: ą́žuolas – oak : ą́žuole and ẽglė – spruce : ẽgle). This form is sometimes present in other cases: nom. brólis : voc. bróli and brolaũ, vélnias : vélniau. Many of these -j- words are made with an actors (personal, not for things) suffix -ėjas m, -ėja f, -t-ojas m, -t-oja f: veĩkti 'to act, affect; operate' – veikė́jas 'actor, character'; naudóti 'to use' – naudótojas 'user'.There are only a few -ias words, they are declined like -ys words, except some cases: nominative for kẽlias, nominative and vocative for elnias - elni, and vélnias - vélniau.-is and -ys words differ in that, that -is words (with the short i sound) are stressed on the stem (I, II accentuation patterns) and -ys words (with the same, but long sound) are stressed on the ending (III, IV accentuation patterns). In -is type almost half of the nouns has consonants t, d in the ending of a stem (these consonants change when palatalized: mẽdis nom. - mẽdžio gen. etc.; in -as type paradigm, for example, there are no cases with palatalization: vardas - vardo etc.). In -ys type about 12% of nouns have t, d ending stem.The second, -a (-ia), -ė (gen. sg. -ės)a type; twelve nouns are of masculine gender: viršilà 2 – warrant-officer, sergeant, barzdylà 2 – bearded one (person) (gen. barzdỹlos; it can also be heard barzdýla 1, barzdýlos; this is either a mistake and outcome of nivelation of accents or a type of word formation without changing an accent, compare adjectives, for example, ausýlas m, -a f 'sharp-eard'), vaivadà – voivode (historical office) (it is attributed to be of the 2 accentuation type in vocabularies, but it is of 3 or 1 if used in language: vaivadà 3, dat. vaĩvadai or vaĩvada 1), maršálka 1 – historical office: mareschalus, marshal. 265 - of common gender: mušeikà 2 (1) – scrapper, bruiser, personà 2 – personage, nebrendilà 2 – immaturely behaving person (in language can also be heard nebrendýla 1, nebrendylà 2), nekláužada 1 – tinker (kid), namìsėda 1 – home-keeping, who sits at home. Two words have -i ending: martì 4 – daughter-in-law, patì 4 – wife (more like older).ė type; four nouns are masculine: dė̃dė 2 – uncle, tė̃tė 2 (more used or equal variant is tė̃tis 2) – dad, dailìdė 2 – carpenter, woodworker and ciùcė 2 – doggy (in kid speech). 19 words are of common gender: garsenýbė 1 – renowned (person, thing), tauškalỹnė 2 – wind-bag, gasser, mėmė̃ 4 – gawk, spiegėlė̃ 3b – who shrieks too much (the latter word, for example, is not very likely to be heard, a word spieglỹs, -ė̃ 4 would probably occur).The third, -isThere were 245 feminine and 24 masculine nouns in this class. 6 nouns have common gender: (the first three can also be attributed to masculine gender[2]) palikuõnis 2, 34b 'progeny, offspring', grobuõnis 2, 3a 'predator', žiniuõnis 2, 4 'knower; witchdoctor', delsuonìs 3b 'who is dallying', giežuonìs 3b 'tiresome, sour (person)', vagìs 4 'thief'. Some other -uonis words are attributed to a masculine gender, for example, geluonìs 3b (2) – sting, deguõnis 2 (3b) (here in the table given as 3b, while 2 accentuation pattern is probably more used) – oxygen. A word vinìs f, c 4 'nail, spike' is also sometimes understood as of common gender. The singular dative is -iui for the common gender, like in masculine nouns. The biggest part of these words have -t- stem. The second accentuation pattern is the rarest, among its examples are: durys pl. 2 'door', slistis 2 (4) 'simulation', gaištis 2, 4 'dallying' (the two latter can also be accentuated in the fourth paradigm), masculine: pirmuõnys pl. – protozoa, deguõnis (3b) – oxygen. Words with a suffix -m-en-, for example, ãšmenys pl. 3b – blade, sė́dmenys pl. 3a – buttocks, nates, nẽšmenys pl. 3b – silts, sediments carried by a water stream, are attributed to the third declensional pattern here, but they are of the fifth: the singular (can be used for all, but is not usual for all) nom. is -uo: sėdmuõ – buttock. The singular instrumental is -imi, like in the third declension, while for masculine words of the fifth declension the proper ending is given to be -iu; but -imi can also be and is chosen for the words of the fifth declension.The fourth, -us, -iusThere are only 19 words with a non-palatalized ending, and more -j-us, and -ius words.The fifth, -uo, -ė (gen. sg. -ers)The number of words of this class is small. The words are of the third accentuation pattern; one word, šuõ – dog, is of the fourth and has sg. inst. -imì. One, or maybe even some more, word is of the first accentuation pattern, rė́muo – waterbrash (it can also be accentuated in the third pattern).Table of noun declension endingsfirst declension (first)second declension (second)third d. (third)fourth d. (fourth)fifth d. (fifth)adjectives (adj) - first declensionmasculine (first)feminine (second)f (third)m (third)m (fourth)m (fifth)f (fifth)I-m (adj)I-f (adj)-ǎ- (first)-i- (first)-o- (second)-ė- (second)-i- (third)-u- (fourth)-i- (fifth)-ǎ- (adj)-o- (adj)sg.Nom.first:-as-is-ys-iassecond:-a-ia-ėthird:-isfourth:-us-iusfifth:-uoadj:-as-aGen.first:-o-iosecond:-os-ios-ėsthird:-iesfourth:-aus-iausfifth:-en-s-er-sadj:-o-osDat.first:-ui-iuisecond:-ai-iai-eithird:-iai-iuifourth:-ui-iuififth:-en-iui-er-iaiadj:-am-aiAcc.first:-ą-į-iąsecond:-ą-ią-ęthird:-įfourth:-ų-iųfifth:-en-į-er-įadj:-ą-ąIns.first:-u-iusecond:-a-ia-ethird:-imifourth:-umi-iumififth:-en-iu-er-imiadj:-u-aLoc.first:-e-yjesecond:-oje-ioje-ėjethird:-yjefourth:-uje-iujefifth:-en-yje-er-yjeadj:-ame-ojeVoc.first:-e-ai-i-y-ysecond:-a-ia-ethird:-iefourth:-au-iaufifth:-en-ie-er-ieadj:-as-apl.Nom.first:-ai-iaisecond:-os-ios-ėsthird:-ysfourth:-ūs-iaififth:-en-ys-er-ysadj:-i-osGen.first:-ų-iųsecond:-ų-ių-iųthird:-iųfourth:-ų-iųfifth:-en-ų-er-ųadj:-ų-ųDat.first:-ams-iamssecond:-oms-ioms-ėmsthird:-imsfourth:-ums-iamsfifth:-en-ims-er-imsadj:-iems-omsAcc.first:-us-iussecond:-as-ias-esthird:-isfourth:-us-iusfifth:-en-is-er-isadj:-us-asIns.first:-ais-iaissecond:-omis-iomis-ėmisthird:-imisfourth:-umis-iaisfifth:-en-imis-er-imisadj:-ais-omisLoc.first:-uose-iuosesecond:-ose-iose-ėsethird:-ysefourth:-uose-iuosefifth:-en-yse-er-yseadj:-uose-oseVoc.first:-ai-iaisecond:-os-ios-ėsthird:-ysfourth:-ūs-iaififth:-en-ys-er-ysadj:-i-osAdjectivesIn Lithuanian language adjectives have three declensions determined by the singular and plural nominative case inflections. Adjectives are matched with nouns in terms of number, gender, and case. Unlike nouns, which have two genders – masculine and feminine – adjectives have three (except -is, -ė adjectives), but the neuter adjectives (the third example in the table) have only one uninflected form.Declension(Singular nom. inflection:)MasculineFeminine(Plural nom. inflection:)MasculineFeminineExamplesI-(i)as-(i)a-i-(i)osšáltas, šaltà, (šálta) – cold; šlápias, šlapià, (šlápia) – wet, soppy;II-us-i-ūs-iosgražùs, gražì, (gražù) – pretty, beautiful; malonùs, malonì, (malonù) – pleasant;III-is-ė-iai-ėsvarìnis, varìnė – copper; laukìnis, laukìnė – wild;-is-ė-i-ėsdìdelis, dìdelė – big; dešinỹs, dešinė̃ – right; kairỹs, kairė̃ – left.Table of adjective declension endingsI-mII-mIII-mI-fII-fIII-f-ǎ- (I-m)palat. (I-m)-u- (II-m)-i- (III-m)-ā- (I-f)palat. (I-f)-i- (II-f)-ē- (III-f)singularNom.-as-ias-us-is-a-ia-i-ėGen.-o-io-aus-io-os-ios-ėsDat.-am-iam-ai-iai-eiAcc.-ą-ią-ų-į-ą-ią-ęIns.-u-iu-a-ia-eLoc.-ame-iame-oje-ioje-ėjepluralNom.-i-ūs-iai-i-os-ios-ėsGen.-ų-ių-ų-iųDat.-iems-iams-iems-oms-ioms-ėmsAcc.-us-ius-as-ias-esIns.-ais-iais-omis-iomis-ėmisLoc.-uose-iuose-ose-iose-ėsePronominal, or definite, form of an adjective is formed by merging adjectives with third person personal pronouns: mažas 'small' + jis (is) 'he' = mažasis, maža + ji 'she' = mažoji. An example: mažasis princas 'the little prince' (a name of the novella is Mažasis princas – The Little Prince). And a normal form: mažas princas 'a little prince'.Pronominal formsI-mII-mIII-mI-fII-fIII-f-ǎ- (I-m)palat. (I-m)-u- (II-m)-i- (III-m)-ā- (I-f)palat. (I-f)-i- (II-f)-ē- (III-f)singularNom.-as-is-ias-is-us-is-ys-is-o-ji-io-jiGen.-o-jo-io-jo-os-ios-ios-iosDat.-a-jam-ia-jam-a-jai-ia-jaiAcc.-ą-jį-ią-jį-ų-jį-į-jį-ą-ją-ią-jąIns.-uo-ju-iuo-ju-ą-ja-ią-jaLoc.-a-jame-ia-jame-o-joje-io-jojepluralNom.-ie-ji-os-ios-ios-siosGen.-ų-jų-ių-jų-ų-jų-ių-jųDat.-ies-iems-os-ioms-ios-iomsAcc.-uos-ius-iuos-ius-as-ias-ias-iasIns.-ais-iais-iais-iais-os-iomis-ios-iomisLoc.-uos-iuose-iuos-iuose-os-iose-ios-ioseIn the following examples of noun and adjective matching, gatvė – street and kelias – road are matched with tiesus – straight:Tiesi gatvė vs. tiesios gatvės (singular vs. plural)Tiesi gatvė vs. tiesus kelias (feminine vs. masculine)Tiesi gatvė vs. tiesią gatvę (nominative vs. accusative case)This does not apply in case of the neuter gender adjectives because nouns do not have neuter gender. Such adjectives are used in combination with other parts of speech having no gender (infinitive, some pronouns) or in zero subject sentences and tend to describe a general environment. For example, rūsyje buvo vėsu (zero subject sentence) – it was cool in the cellar; gera tave matyti (the gender neutral infinitive (matyti) is the subject) – it's good to see you. Moreover, adjectives in neuter can be used as an object (and in some cases – as a subject) as well (a rough equivalent of English "that what is" + adjective): jis matė šilta ir šalta – he saw [that what is] cold and hot (he went through fire and water). Adjectives that end in -is do not have the neuter gender. Most of the time neuter gender adjectives are written just like feminine adjectives. However, vocally, neuter gender is distinct by different stressing. Also neuter gender does not have any numbers or cases, and it is mostly used for predicatives. Usage in the role of object (like in "jis matė šilta ir šalta") is rare.Degrees of comparisonThe Lithuanian language has five degrees of comparison. The three main degrees are the same as in English language. Note that there are no irregular adjectives and all adjectives have the same suffixes. All such adjectives still need to match the nouns in terms of case, number, and gender. Neuter gender comparative degree is the same as adjective comparative degree.LanguageGenderabsolutecomparative (2 forms)superlative (2 forms)LithuanianMasculineGẽrasGerėlèsnisGerèsnisGeriáusiasPàts/visų̃ geriáusiasFeminineGeràGerėlèsnėGerèsnėGeriáusiaPatì/visų̃ geriáusiaNeuterGẽraGerėliaũGeriaũGeriáusiaVisų̃ geriáusiaEnglishGoodA tiny bit betterBetterBestThe very bestLithuanianMasculineGražùsGražėlèsnisGražèsnisGražiáusiasPats/visų gražiáusiasFeminineGražìGražėlèsnėGražèsnėGražiáusiaPatì/visų̃ gražiáusiaNeuterGražùGražėliaũGražiaũGražiáusiaVisų̃ gražiáusiaEnglishBeautifulA tiny bit more beautifulMore beautifulMost beautifulThe most beautifulAdjectives of different degrees can also have their pronominal forms:LanguageGenderabsolutecomparativesuperlativeLithuanianMasculineGeràsisGeresnỹsisGeriáusiasisFeminineGerójiGeresniójiGeriáusiojiNeuter–––EnglishThe goodThe betterThe very bestLithuanianMasculineGražùsisGražesnỹsisGražiáusiasisFeminineGražiójiGražesniójiGražiáusiojiNeuter–––EnglishThe beautifulThe more beautifulThe most beautifulPronounsLithuanian has no grammatical category of animacy. Pronouns (including personal ones jis, ji, jie, jos (he, she, they)) replace any noun, regardless if it is not animate (people, animals, objects etc.). Whom did you see? and What did you see? both translate as Ką tu matei?; Something is there and Somebody is there both translate as Ten kažkas yra.The personal pronouns aš (I), tu (you) jis (he, it), ji (she, it) and the reflexive pronoun savęs are declined as follows:NominativeGenitiveDativeAccusativeInstrumentalLocativeSingular1st personašmanęsmanmanemanimimanyje2nd persontutavęstautavetavimitavyje3rd personMasculinejisjojamjįjuojameFemininejijosjaijąjajojeReflexive pronoun–savęssausavesavimisavyjePlural1st personmesmūsųmumsmusmumismumyse2nd personjūsjūsųjumsjusjumisjumyse3rd personMasculinejiejųjiemsjuosjaisjuoseFemininejosjųjomsjasjomisjoseNote that the table contains only the objective genitive of pronouns aš, tu, savęs. The possessive genitives of these words are mano, tavo and savo respectively. Compare jis manęs laukia – 'he waits for me' and mano draugas – 'my friend' ('friend' is in masculine), but in jis mūsų laukia – 'he waits for us' and mūsų draugas – 'our friend', the two genitives coincide as in almost any word.Dual:Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Instrumental Locative1st personMasculine mudu mudviejų (+f) mudviem (+f) mudu mudviem (+f) mudviese (+f)Feminine mudvi mudvi2nd personMasculine judu judviejų (+f) judviem (+f) judu judviem (+f) judviese (+f)Feminine judvi judvi3rdMasculine juodu or jiedu jųdviejų jiedviem juodu jiedviem juodvieseFeminine jiedvi jųdviejų jodviem jiedvi jodviem jiedvieseReflexive pronounThe reflexive pronoun savęs is declined like tu (savęs - sau - save ...), but it does not have the singular nominative and plural cases.Irregular declensionDuktė – daughter, and sesuo – sister, are the only two feminine words of the fifth declension, they have the suffix -er- in the other cases. One word, moteris – woman, female, is both of the fifth and the third declensions, because it has variant genitive singular, both variants of which (-s and -ies) are equally apt, and it has a gen. pl. -ų. Two more words, dieveris m (older) – brother-in-law, and obelis f – apple tree, are the same case as moteris. The word dieveris, -ies (-ers) m, having more close meaning to a proper one, possibly has the fifth-type-like masculine singular instrumental (dieveriu), which is taken from the first declension, while the words of the third declension have -imi (dantimi, vagimi), without a gender distinction. But -imi is normal as well for the masculine nouns of the fifth declension, for example – akmenimi / akmeniu.A word šuo – dog, differs from the other -uo words in that, that its stem is mixed with the suffix -uo and it consequently does not have the suffix -en- in the other cases (š-uo, akm-uo; šu-n-į, akm-en-į), its singular instrumental normal ending is of the third type (šunimi; that can be understood as a part of a meaning: more like an indefinite gender) and its accentuation paradigm is fourth, the sole case for the -uo words.Mėnuo – month, moon, is of the first declension -is type, the only fifth type form is one of the two equal variants of singular nominative: mėnuo (other is mėnesis); genitive is mėnesio etc.The word žmogus – man, human, historically had the nominative singular žmuo (compare Latin homō). Today žmogus is declined in the fourth paradigm in singular (žmogus, žmogaus etc.) and in the third -ė paradigm in plural (žmonės, žmonių etc.).The words pats m, pati f – one/my/him/her/itself (also noun meanings: husband and wife) have also peculiarities. The ending -i (f., sg. nom.) is present only in two words: pati and marti – daughter-in-law. Pats (< patis) is of the third adjectival declensional type, but the singular nominative is different (-s < -is), plural nominative is -ys and the singular genitive -ies, like in nouns of the third declension. Its sg. gen. is also often said pačio.The words of the third declension (-is, -ies) have either -ių or -ų in the genitive plural. The dative singular, similarly to the fifth declensional type, differs depending on the gender (-iai f, -iui m), the instrumental singular, differently from the fifth type, is the same for the both genders. One noun of the third type, petys, peties, has the sg. nom. ending with a long i: -ys. Some of the words having the suffix -uonis (there are few of such words) have parallel forms in the other declensions: palikuonis, -ies (common gender) and palikuonis, -io m, palikuonė, -ės f. Such change can happen after the change of an accent place: if the word is accented on the ending -is, then the change of declension (-is, -ies > -is, -io) does not occur in speech, and if the accent moves from the ending to the stem in singular nominative, then the change of declension sometimes occurs. For most of -uonis words, declining in the first declension is considered to be a mistake.Conclusion:As you can see, by giving examples of verbal and nominal inflection for a few Indo-European languages, I’ve shown you the possible variation of types and amount of inflection. I can’t say if Indo-European languages have ‘’so much’’ inflection, because I haven’t compared them with Basque, Mandarin/Chino-Tibetan languages, Semitic/Afro-Asiatic languages and so forth. But the ‘why’ in Indo-European languages is because they retained the inflection of their ancestor language(s) -Proto Indo-European, Latin, Ancient Greek, Old Church Slavonic, Old German, Sanskrit and some other languages- , all to a varying degree.P.S. I’ve copied a lot from Wikipedia, so if you look for more information on the grammars of (individual) Indo-European languages, you can find it there.