Appendix Ii - City University Of New York: Fill & Download for Free

You should read the Founders, the men who wrote and signed the American Constitution; they envisioned America a Biblically literate and moral people and nation.Patrick HenryREVOLUTIONARY GENERAL; LEGISLATOR; “THE VOICE OF LIBERTY”;RATIFIER OF THE U. S. CONSTITUTION; GOVERNOR OF VIRGINIABeing a Christian… is a character which I prize far above all this world has or can boast.48The Bible… is a book worth more than all the other books that were ever printed.49Righteousness alone can exalt [America] as a nation…Whoever thou art, remember this; and in thy sphere practice virtue thyself, and encourage it in others.50The great pillars of all government and of social life [are] virtue, morality, and religion. This is the armor, my friend, and this alone, that renders us invincible.51This is all the inheritance I can give to my dear family. The religion of Christ can give them one which will make them rich indeed.52John HancockSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE; PRESIDENT OF CONGRESS;REVOLUTIONARY GENERAL; GOVERNOR OF MASSACHUSETTSSensible of the importance of Christian piety and virtue to the order and happiness of a state, I cannot but earnestly commend to you every measure for their support and encouragement.37He called on the entire state to pray “that universal happiness may be established in the world [and] that all may bow to the scepter of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the whole earth be filled with His glory.”38He also called on the State of Massachusetts to pray . . .that all nations may bow to the scepter of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ and that the whole earth may be filled with his glory.39that the spiritual kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ may be continually increasing until the whole earth shall be filled with His glory.40to confess their sins and to implore forgiveness of God through the merits of the Savior of the World.41to cause the benign religion of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ to be known, understood, and practiced among all the inhabitants of the earth.42to confess their sins before God and implore His forgiveness through the merits and mediation of Jesus Christ, our Lord and Savior.43that He would finally overrule all events to the advancement of the Redeemer’s kingdom and the establishment of universal peace and good will among men.44that the kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ may be established in peace and righteousness among all the nations of the earth.45that with true contrition of heart we may confess our sins, resolve to forsake them, and implore the Divine forgiveness, through the merits and mediation of Jesus Christ, our Savior. . . . And finally to overrule all the commotions in the world to the spreading the true religion of our Lord Jesus Christ in its purity and power among all the people of the earth.46thus to lay a foundation for the offer of pardon and salvation to all mankind, so as all may be saved who are willing to accept the Gospel offer. . . . I believe a visible church to be a congregation of those who make a credible profession of their faith in Christ, and obedience to Him, joined by the bond of the covenant. . . . I believe that the sacraments of the New Testament are baptism and the Lord’s Supper. . . . I believe that the souls of believers are at their death made perfectly holy, and immediately taken to glory: that at the end of this world there will be a resurrection of the dead, and a final judgment of all mankind, when the righteous shall be publicly acquitted by Christ the Judge and admitted to everlasting life and glory, and the wicked be sentenced to everlasting punishment.106God commands all men everywhere to repent. He also commands them to believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and has assured us that all who do repent and believe shall be saved… [G]od… has absolutely promised to bestow them on all these who are willing to accept them on the terms of the Gospel – that is, in a way of free grace through the atonement. “Ask and ye shall receive [John 16:24]. Whosoever will, let him come and take of the waters of life freely [Revelation 22:17]. Him that cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out” [John 6:37].107[I]t is the duty of all to acknowledge that the Divine Law which requires us to love God with all our heart and our neighbor as ourselves, on pain of eternal damnation, is Holy, just, and good. . . . The revealed law of God is the rule of our duty.108True Christians are assured that no temptation (or trial) shall happen to them but what they shall be enabled to bear; and that the grace of Christ shall be sufficient for them.109“The volume which he consulted more than any other was the Bible. It was his custom, at the commencement of every session of Congress, to purchase a copy of the Scriptures, to peruse it daily, and to present it to one of his children on his return.”110Richard StocktonJUDGE; SIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE[A]s my children will have frequent occasion of perusing this instrument, and may probably be particularly impressed with the last words of their father, I think it proper here not only to subscribe to the entire belief of the great and leading doctrines of the Christian religion, such as the being of God; the universal defection and depravity of human nature; the Divinity of the person and the completeness of the redemption purchased by the blessed Savior; the necessity of the operations of the Divine Spirit; of Divine faith accompanied with an habitual virtuous life; and the universality of the Divine Providence: but also, in the bowels of a father’s affection, to exhort and charge [my children] that the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom, that the way of life held up in the Christian system is calculated for the most complete happiness that can be enjoyed in this mortal state, [and] that all occasions of vice and immorality is injurious either immediately or consequentially – even in this life.111Thomas StoneSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE;SELECTED AS A DELEGATE TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONShun all giddy, loose, and wicked company; they will corrupt and lead you into vice and bring you to ruin. Seek the company of sober, virtuous and good people… which will lead [you] to solid happiness.112Joseph StoryU. S. CONGRESSMAN; “FATHER OF AMERICAN JURISPRUDENCE”;U. S. SUPREME COURT JUSTICE APPOINTED BY PRESIDENT JAMES MADISONOne of the beautiful boasts of our municipal jurisprudence is that Christianity is a part of the Common Law. There never has been a period in which the Common Law did not recognize Christianity as lying at its foundations.113I verily believe that Christianity is necessary to support a civil society and shall ever attend to its institutions and acknowledge its precepts as the pure and natural sources of private and social happiness.114Caleb StrongDELEGATE AT THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION TO FRAME THE U. S. CONSTITUTION;RATIFIER OF THE CONSTITUTION; U. S. SENATOR; GOVERNOR OF MASSACHUSETTSHe called on the State of Massachusetts to pray that . . .all nations may know and be obedient to that grace and truth which came by Jesus Christ.115Zephaniah SwiftU. S. CONGRESSMAN; DIPLOMAT; JUDGE; AUTHOR OF AMERICA’S FIRST LEGAL TEXT (1795)Jesus Christ has in the clearest manner inculcated those duties which are productive of the highest moral felicity and consistent with all the innocent enjoyments, to which we are impelled by the dictates of nature. Religion, when fairly considered in its genuine simplicity and uncorrupted state, is the source of endless rapture and delight.116Charles ThomsonSECRETARY OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS;DESIGNER OF THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES; ALONG WITH JOHN HANCOCK,THOMSON WAS ONE OF ONLY TWO FOUNDERS TO SIGN THE INITIAL DRAFT OFTHE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE APPROVED BY CONGRESSI am a Christian. I believe only in the Scriptures, and in Jesus Christ my Savior.117Jonathan TrumbullJUDGE; LEGISLATOR; GOVERNOR OF CONNECTICUT;CONFIDANT OF GEORGE WASHINGTON AND CALLED “BROTHER JONATHAN” BY HIMThe examples of holy men teach us that we should seek Him with fasting and prayer, with penitent confession of our sins, and hope in His mercy through Jesus Christ the Great Redeemer.118Principally and first of all, I bequeath my soul to God the Creator and giver thereof, and my body to the earth to be buried in a decent Christian burial, in firm belief that I shall receive the same again at the general resurrection through the power of Almighty God, and hope of eternal life and happiness through the merits of my dear Redeemer Jesus Christ.119He called on the State of Connecticut to pray that . . .God would graciously pour out His Spirit upon us and make the blessed Gospel in His hand effectual to a thorough reformation and general revival of the holy and peaceful religion of Jesus Christ.120George WashingtonJUDGE; MEMBER OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS;COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE CONTINENTAL ARMY;PRESIDENT OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION;FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES; “FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY”You do well to wish to learn our arts and ways of life, and above all, the religion of Jesus Christ. These will make you a greater and happier people than you are.121While we are zealously performing the duties of good citizens and soldiers, we certainly ought not to be inattentive to the higher duties of religion. To the distinguished character of Patriot, it should be our highest glory to add the more distinguished character of Christian.122The blessing and protection of Heaven are at all times necessary but especially so in times of public distress and danger. The General hopes and trusts that every officer and man will endeavor to live and act as becomes a Christian soldier, defending the dearest rights and liberties of his country.123I now make it my earnest prayer that God would… most graciously be pleased to dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper of the mind which were the characteristics of the Divine Author of our blessed religion.124Daniel WebsterU. S. SENATOR; SECRETARY OF STATE; “DEFENDER OF THE CONSTITUTION”[T]he Christian religion – its general principles – must ever be regarded among us as the foundation of civil society.125Whatever makes men good Christians, makes them good citizens.126[T]o the free and universal reading of the Bible… men [are] much indebted for right views of civil liberty.127The Bible is a book… which teaches man his own individual responsibility, his own dignity, and his equality with his fellow man.128Noah WebsterREVOLUTIONARY SOLDIER; JUDGE; LEGISLATOR; EDUCATOR; “SCHOOLMASTER TO AMERICA”[T]he religion which has introduced civil liberty is the religion of Christ and His apostles… This is genuine Christianity and to this we owe our free constitutions of government.129The moral principles and precepts found in the Scriptures ought to form the basis of all our civil constitutions and laws.130All the… evils which men suffer from vice, crime, ambition, injustice, oppression, slavery and war, proceed from their despising or neglecting the precepts contained in the Bible.131[O]ur citizens should early understand that the genuine source of correct republican principles is the Bible, particularly the New Testament, or the Christian religion.132[T]he Christian religion is the most important and one of the first things in which all children under a free government ought to be instructed. No truth is more evident than that the Christian religion must be the basis of any government intended to secure the rights and privileges of a free people.133The Bible is the chief moral cause of all that is good and the best corrector of all that is evil in human society – the best book for regulating the temporal concerns of men.134[T]he Christian religion… is the basis, or rather the source, of all genuine freedom in government… I am persuaded that no civil government of a republican form can exist and be durable in which the principles of Christianity have not a controlling influence.135John WitherspoonSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE; RATIFIER OF THE U. S. CONSTITUTION; PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON[C]hrist Jesus – the promise of old made unto the fathers, the hope of Israel [Acts 28:20], the light of the world [John 8:12], and the end of the law for righteousness to every one that believeth [Romans 10:4] – is the only Savior of sinners, in opposition to all false religions and every uninstituted rite; as He Himself says (John 14:6): “I am the way, and the truth, and the life: no man cometh unto the Father but by Me.”136[N]o man, whatever be his character or whatever be his hope, shall enter into rest unless he be reconciled to God though Jesus Christ.137[T]here is no salvation in any other than in Jesus Christ of Nazareth.138I shall now conclude my discourse by preaching this Savior to all who hear me, and entreating you in the most earnest manner to believe in Jesus Christ; for “there is no salvation in any other” [Acts 4:12].139It is very evident that both the prophets in the Old Testament and the apostles in the New are at great pains to give us a view of the glory and dignity of the person of Christ. With what magnificent titles is He adorned! What glorious attributes are ascribed to him!… All these conspire to teach us that He is truly and properly God – God over all, blessed forever!140[I]f you are not rec¬onciled to God through Jesus Christ – if you are not clothed with the spotless robe of His righteousness – you must forever perish.141[H]e is the best friend to American liberty who is the most sincere and active in promoting true and undefiled religion, and who sets himself with the greatest firmness to bear down profanity and immorality of every kind. Whoever is an avowed enemy of God, I scruple not to call him an enemy to his country.142Oliver WolcottSIGNER OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE; MILITARY GENERAL;GOVERNOR OF CONNECTICUTThrough various scenes of life, God has sustained me. May He ever be my unfailing friend; may His love cherish my soul; may my heart with gratitude acknowledge His goodness; and may my desires be to Him and to the remembrance of His name….May we then turn our eyes to the bright objects above, and may God give us strength to travel the upward road. May the Divine Redeemer conduct us to that seat of bliss which He himself has prepared for His friends; at the approach of which every sorrow shall vanish from the human heart and endless scenes of glory open upon the enraptured eye. There our love to God and each other will grow stronger, and our pleasures never be dampened by the fear of future separation. How indifferent will it then be to us whether we obtained felicity by travailing the thorny or the agreeable paths of life – whether we arrived at our rest by passing through the envied and unfragrant road of greatness or sustained hardship and unmerited reproach in our journey. God’s Providence and support through the perilous perplexing labyrinths of human life will then forever excite our astonishment and love. May a happiness be granted to those I most tenderly love, which shall continue and increase through an endless existence. Your cares and burdens must be many and great, but put your trust in that God Who has hitherto supported you and me; He will not fail to take care of those who put their trust in http://Him….It is most evident that this land is under the protection of the Almighty, and that we shall be saved not by our wisdom nor by our might, but by the Lord of Host Who is wonderful in counsel and Almighty in all His operations.143Endnotes1.Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Washington D. C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. XIII, p. 292-294. In a letter from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson on June 28, 1813.2. John Adams, The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States, Charles Francis Adams, editor (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1856), Vol. X, p. 254, to Thomas Jefferson on April 19, 1817.3. John Adams, Works, Vol. III, p. 421, diary entry for July 26, 1796.4. John Adams, Works, Vol. II, pp. 6-7, diary entry for February 22, 1756.5. John Adams, Works, Vol. X, p. 85, to Thomas Jefferson on December 25, 1813.6. John Adams and John Quincy Adams, The Selected Writings of John and John Quincy Adams, Adrienne Koch and William Peden, editors (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946), p. 292, John Quincy Adams to John Adams, January 3, 1817.7. Life of John Quincy Adams, W. H. Seward, editor (Auburn, NY: Derby, Miller & Company, 1849), p. 248.8. John Quincy Adams, An Oration Delivered Before the Inhabitants of the Town of Newburyport at Their Request on the Sixty-First Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1837 (Newburyport: Charles Whipple, 1837), pp. 5-6.9. From the Last Will & Testament of Samuel Adams, attested December 29, 1790; see also Samuel Adams, Life & Public Services of Samuel Adams, William V. Wells, editor (Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1865), Vol. III, p. 379, Last Will and Testament of Samuel Adams.10. Letters of Delegates to Congress: August 16, 1776-December 31, 1776, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1979), Vol. 5, pp. 669-670, Samuel Adams to Elizabeth Adams on December 26, 1776.11. From a Fast Day Proclamation issued by Governor Samuel Adams, Massachusetts, March 20, 1797, in our possession; see also Samuel Adams, The Writings of Samuel Adams, Harry Alonzo Cushing, editor (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908), Vol. IV, p. 407, from his proclamation of March 20, 1797.12. Samuel Adams, A Proclamation For a Day of Public Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer, given as the Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, from an original broadside in our possession; see also, Samuel Adams, The Writings of Samuel Adams, Harry Alonzo Cushing, editor (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908), Vol. IV, p. 385, October 14, 1795.13. Samuel Adams, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 10, 1793.14. Samuel Adams, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 15, 1796.15. Josiah Bartlett, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 17, 1792.16. Gunning Bedford, Funeral Oration Upon the Death of General George Washington (Wilmington: James Wilson, 1800), p. 18, Evans #36922.17. Elias Boudinot, The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot, J. J. Boudinot, editor (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1896), Vol. I, pp. 19, 21, speech in the First Provincial Congress of New Jersey.18. Elias Boudinot, The Age of Revelation (Philadelphia: Asbury Dickins, 1801), pp. xii-xiv, from the prefatory remarks to his daughter, Susan, on October 30, 1782; see also Letters of the Delegates to Congress: 1774-1789, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington, D. C.: Library of Congress, 1992), Vol. XIX, p. 325, from a letter of Elias Boudinot to his daughter, Susan Boudinot, on October 30, 1782; see also, Elias Boudinot, The Life Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot (Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, and Company, 1896), Vol. I, p. 260-262.19. Elias Boudinot, The Age of Revelation, or the Age of Reason Shewn to be An Age of Infidelity (Philadelphia: Asbury Dickins, 1801), p. xv, from his “Dedication: Letter to his daughter Susan Bradford.”20. Jacob Broom to his son, James, on February 24, 1794, written from Wilmington, Delaware, from an original letter in our possession.21. From an autograph letter in our possession written by Charles Carroll to Charles W. Wharton, Esq., September 27, 1825.22. Lewis A. Leonard, Life of Charles Carroll of Carrollton (New York: Moffit, Yard & Co, 1918), pp. 256-257.23. Kate Mason Rowland, Life of Charles Carroll of Carrollton (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1890), Vol. II, pp. 373-374, will of Charles Carroll, Dec. 1, 1718 (later replaced by a subsequent will not containing this phrase, although he reexpressed this sentiment on several subsequent occasions, including repeatedly in the latter years of his life).24. Journal of the House of the Representatives of the United States of America (Washington, DC: Cornelius Wendell, 1855), 34th Cong., 1st Sess., p. 354, January 23, 1856; see also: Lorenzo D. Johnson, Chaplains of the General Government With Objections to their Employment Considered (New York: Sheldon, Blakeman & Co., 1856), p. 35, quoting from the House Journal, Wednesday, January 23, 1856, and B. F. Morris, The Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States (Philadelphia: George W. Childs, 1864), p. 328.25. Reports of Committees of the House of Representatives Made During the First Session of the Thirty-Third Congress (Washington: A. O. P. Nicholson, 1854), pp. 6-9.26. From the Last Will & Testament of John Dickinson, attested March 25, 1808.27. John Dickinson, The Political Writings of John Dickinson (Wilmington: Bonsal and Niles, 1801), Vol. I, pp. 111-112.28. From his last will and testament, attested on September 21, 1840.29. Benjamin Franklin, Works of Benjamin Franklin, John Bigelow, editor (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904), p. 185, to Ezra Stiles, March 9, 1790.30. Benjamin Franklin, Works of the Late Doctor Benjamin Franklin (Dublin: P. Wogan, P. Byrne, J. More, and W. Janes, 1793), p. 149.31. Elbridge Gerry, Proclamation for a Day of Thanksgiving and Praise, October 24, 1810, from a proclamation in our possession, EAI #20675.32. Elbridge Gerry, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 13, 1811, from a proclamation in our possession, Shaw #23317.33. Elbridge Gerry, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 6, 1812, from a proclamation in our possession, Shaw #26003.34. John M. Mason, A Collection of the Facts and Documents Relative to the Death of Major General Alexander Hamilton (New York: Hopkins and Seymour, 1804), p. 53.35. John M. Mason, A Collection of the Facts and Documents Relative to the Death of Major General Alexander Hamilton (New York: Hopkins and Seymour, 1804), pp. 48-50.36. Alexander Hamilton, The Works of Alexander Hamilton, John C. Hamilton, editor (New York: John F. Trow, 1851), Vol. VI, p. 542, to James A. Bayard, April, 1802; see also, Alexander Hamilton, The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Harold C. Syrett, editor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), Vol. XXV, p. 606, to James A. Bayard, April 16, 1802.37. Independent Chronicle (Boston), November 2, 1780, last page; see also Abram English Brown, John Hancock, His Book (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1898), p. 269.38. John Hancock, A Proclamation For a Day of Public Thanksgiving 1791, given as Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, from an original broadside in our possession.39. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 28, 1784, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #18593.40. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 29, 1788, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #21237.41. John Hancock, Proclamation For a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 16, 1789, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #21946.42. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Thanksgiving and Praise, September 16, 1790, from an original broadside in our possession.43. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, February 11, 1791, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #23549.44. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting, Prayer and Humiliation, February 24, 1792, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #24519.45. John Hancock, Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 25, 1792, from an original broadside in our possession.46. John Hancock, Proclamation for Day of Public Fasting, Humiliation and Prayer, March 4, 1793, from a broadside in our possession.47. From his last will and testament, attested April 16, 1779.48. A. G. Arnold, The Life of Patrick Henry of Virginia (Auburn and Buffalo: Miller, Orton and Mulligan, 1854), p. 250.49. William Wirt, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry (Philadelphia: James Webster, 1818), p. 402; see also George Morgan, Patrick Henry (Philadelphia & London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1929), p. 403.50. Patrick Henry, Patrick Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches, William Wirt Henry, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. II, p. 632, addendum to his resolutions against the Stamp Act, May 29, 1765.51. Patrick Henry, Patrick Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches, William Wirt Henry, editor (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1891), Vol. II, p. 592, to Archibald Blair on January 8, 1799.52. Will of Patrick Henry, attested November 20, 1798.53. Samuel Huntington, A Proclamation for a Day of Fasting, Prayer and Humiliation, March 9, 1791, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #23284.54. James Iredell, The Papers of James Iredell, Don Higginbotham, editor (Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History, 1976), Vol. I, p. 11 from his 1768 essay on religion.55. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J & J Harper, 1833), Vol. I p. 518, Appendix V, from a prayer found among Mr. Jay’s papers and in his handwriting.56. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. I, pp. 519-520, from his Last Will & Testament.57. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J & J Harper, 1833), Vol. II, p. 386, to John Murray, April 15, 1818.58. John Jay, The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay, 1794-1826, Henry P. Johnston, editor (New York: Burt Franklin, 1890), Vol. IV, pp. 494, 498, from his “Address at the Annual Meeting of the American Bible Society,” May 13, 1824.59. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. I, pp. 457-458, to the Committee of the Corporation of the City of New York on June 29, 1826.60. John Jay, John Jay: The Winning of the Peace. Unpublished Papers 1780-1784, Richard B. Morris, editor (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1980), Vol. II, p. 709, to Peter Augustus Jay on April 8, 1784.61. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. II, p. 266, to the Rev. Uzal Ogden on February 14, 1796.62. William Jay, The Life of John Jay (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), Vol. II, p. 376, to John Murray Jr. on October 12, 1816.63. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Albert Bergh, editor (Washington, D. C.: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Assoc., 1904), Vol. XV, p. 383, to Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse on June 26, 1822.64. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Alberty Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington D.C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. XII, p. 315, to James Fishback, September 27, 1809.65. Thomas Jefferson, Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies from the Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson Randolph, editor (Boston: Grey & Bowen, 1830), Vol. III, p. 506, to Benjamin Rush, April 21, 1803.66. Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Albert Ellery Bergh, editor (Washington, D.C.: The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1904), Vol. XIV, p. 385, to Charles Thomson on January 9, 1816.67. Edwards Beardsley, Life and Times of William Samuel Johnson (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1886), p. 184.68. E. Edwards Beardsley, Life and Times of William Samuel Johnson (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1886), pp. 141-145.69. William Kent, Memoirs and Letters of James Kent, (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1898), pp. 276-277.70. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. II, p. 104, from Francis Scott Key to John Randolph.71. James Madison, Letters and Other Writings of James Madison (New York: R. Worthington, 1884), Vol. I, pp. 5-6, to William Bradford on November 9, 1772.72. James Madison, The Papers of James Madison, William T. Hutchinson, editor (Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1962), Vol. I, p. 96, to William Bradford on September 25, 1773.73. Letters of Delegates to Congress: November 7, 1785-November 5, 1786, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1995), Vol. 23, p. 337, James Manning to Robert Carter on June 7, 1786.74. Letters of Delegates to Congress: May 1, 1777 – September 18, 1777, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1981), Vol. 7, pp. 645-646, Henry Marchant to Sarah Marchant on September 9, 1777.75. Kate Mason Rowland, Life of George Mason (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892), Vol. I, p. 373, Will of Colonel George Mason, June 29, 1715 (this will was later replaced by the will below.)76. Will of George Mason, attested March 20, 1773.77. Bernard C. Steiner, One Hundred and Ten Years of Bible Society Work in Maryland, 1810-1920 (Maryland Bible Society, 1921), p. 14.78. Bernard C. Steiner, One Hundred and Ten Years of Bible Society Work in Maryland, 1810-1920 (Maryland Bible Society, 1921), p. 14.79. A. J. Dallas, Reports of Cases Ruled and Adjudged in the Courts of Pennsylvania (Phila¬delphia: P. Byrne, 1806), p. 39, Respublica v. John Roberts, Pa. Sup. Ct. 1778.80. William B. Reed, Life and Correspondence of Joseph Reed (Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1847), Vol. II, pp. 36-37.81. Collections of the New York Historical Society for the Year 1821 (New York: E. Bliss and E. White, 1821), pp. 32, 34, from “An Inaugural Discourse Delivered Before the New York Historical Society by the Honorable Gouverneur Morris, (President,) 4th September, 1816.”82. Letters of Delegates to Congress: February 1, 1778-May 31, 1778, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1982), Vol. 9, pp. 729-730, Gouverneur Morris to General Anthony Wayne on May 21, 1778.83. Jedidiah Morse, A Sermon, Exhibiting the Present Dangers and Consequent Duties of the Citizens of the United States of America, Delivered at Charlestown, April 25, 1799, The Day of the National Fast (MA: Printed by Samuel Etheridge, 1799), p. 9.84. From his last will and testament, attested January 28, 1777.85. James Otis, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (London: J. Williams and J. Almon, 1766), pp. 11, 98.86. Robert Treat Paine, The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, Stephen T. Riley and Edward W. Hanson, editors (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1992), Vol. I, p. 48, Robert Treat Paine’s Confession of Faith, 1749.87. From the Last Will & Testament of Robert Treat Paine, attested May 11, 1814.88. Robert Treat Paine, The Papers of Robert Treat Paine, Stephen T. Riley and Edward W. Hanson, editors (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1992), Vol. I, p. 49, Robert Treat Paine’s Confession of Faith, 1749.89. United States Oracle (Portsmouth, NH), May 24, 1800.90. Charles W. Upham, The Life of Timothy Pickering (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1873), Vol. IV, p. 390, from his prayer of November 30, 1828.91. Mary Orne Pickering, Life of John Pickering (Boston: 1887), p. 79, letter from Thomas Pickering to his son John Pickering, May 12, 1796.92. From his last will and testament, attested October 8, 1807.93. Collected Letters of John Randolph of Roanoke to Dr. John Brockenbrough, Kenneth Shorey, editor (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1988), p. 17, to John Brockenbrough, August 25, 1818.94. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. II, p. 99, to Francis Scott Key on September 7, 1818.95. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. 1I, p. 374.96. Hugh A. Garland, The Life of John Randolph of Roanoke (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1853), Vol. II, p. 106, to Francis Scott Key, May 3, 1819.97. Benjamin Rush, The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush, George W. Corner, editor (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1948), pp. 165-166.98. Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, L. H. Butterfield, editor (Princeton, New Jersey: American Philosophical Society, 1951), Vol. I, p. 475, to Elias Boudinot on July 9, 1788.99. Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, L. H. Butterfield, editor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), Vol. II, p. 936, to John Adams, January 23, 1807.100. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral and Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas and William Bradford, 1806), p. 84, Thoughts upon Female Education.”101. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), p. 112, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book.”102. Benjamin Rush, Letters of Benjamin Rush, L. H. Butterfield, editor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1951), Vol. I, p. 521, to Jeremy Belknap on July 13, 1789.103. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), p. 93, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book.” See also Rush, Letters, Vol. I, p. 578, to Jeremy Belknap on March 2, 1791.104. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), p. 93, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book;” see also Rush, Letters, Vol. I, p. 578, to Jeremy Belknap on March 2, 1791.105. Benjamin Rush, Essays, Literary, Moral & Philosophical (Philadelphia: Thomas & Samuel F. Bradford, 1798), pp. 94, 100, “A Defence of the Use of the Bible as a School Book.”106. Lewis Henry Boutell, The Life of Roger Sherman (Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Company, 1896), pp. 271-273.107. Correspondence Between Roger Sherman and Samuel Hopkins (Worcester, MA: Charles Hamilton, 1889), p. 9, from Roger Sherman to Samuel Hopkins, June 28, 1790.108. Correspondence Between Roger Sherman and Samuel Hopkins (Worcester, MA: Charles Hamilton, 1889), p. 10, from Roger Sherman to Samuel Hopkins, June 28, 1790.109. Correspondence Between Roger Sherman and Samuel Hopkins (Worcester, MA: Charles Hamilton, 1889), p. 26, from Roger Sherman to Samuel Hopkins, October, 1790.110. The Globe (Washington DC newspaper), August 15, 1837, p. 1.111. Will of Richard Stockton, dated May 20, 1780.112. John Sanderson, Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia: R. W. Pomeroy, 1824), Vol. IX, p. 333, Thomas Stone to his son, October 1787.113. Joseph Story, Life and Letters of Joseph Story, William W. Story, editor (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), Vol. II, p. 8.114. Joseph Story, Life and Letters of Joseph Story, William W. Story, editor (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), Vol. I, p. 92, March 24, 1801.115. Caleb Strong, Governor of Massachusetts, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting, Prayer and Humiliation, February 13, 1813, from a proclamation in our possession, Shaw #29090.116. Zephaniah Swift, The Correspondent (Windham: John Byrne, 1793), p. 135.117. The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush; His “Travels Through Life” together with his Commonplace Book for 1789-1813, George W. Carter, editor (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1948), p. 294, October 2, 1810.118. Jonathan Trumbull, Proclamation for a Day of Fasting and Prayer, March 9, 1774, from a proclamation in our possession, Evans #13210.119. Last will and testament of Jonathan Trumbull, Sr., attested on January 29, 1785.120. Jonathan Trumbull, Governor of Connecticut, A Proclamation for a Day of Public Thanksgiving, October 12, 1770, from a proclamation in our possession.121. George Washington, The Writings of Washington, John C. Fitzpatrick, editor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), Vol. XV, p. 55, from his speech to the Delaware Indian Chiefs on May 12, 1779.122. George Washington, The Writings of Washington, John C. Fitzpatrick, editor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), Vol. XI, pp. 342-343, General Orders of May 2, 1778.123. George Washington, The Writings of George Washington, John C. Fitzpatrick, editor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932), Vol. 5, p. 245, July 9, 1776 Order.124. George Washington, The Last Official Address of His Excellency George Washington to the Legislature of the United States(Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1783), p. 12; see also The New Annual Register or General Repository of History, Politics, and Literature, for the Year 1783 (London: G. Robinson, 1784), p. 150.125. Daniel Webster, Mr. Webster’s Speech in Defence of the Christian Ministry and in Favor of the Religious Instruction of the Young. Delivered in the Supreme Court of the United States, February 10, 1844, in the Case of Stephen Girard’s Will (Washington: Printed by Gales and Seaton, 1844), p. 41.126. Daniel Webster, The Works of Daniel Webster (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1853), Vol. I, p. 44, A Discourse Delivered at Plymouth, on December 22, 1820.127. Daniel Webster, Address Delivered at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1843, on the Completion of the Monument (Boston: T. R. Marvin, 1843), p. 31; see also W. P. Strickland, History of the American Bible Society from its Organization to the Present Time (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1849), p.128. Daniel Webster, Address Delivered at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1843, on the Completion of the Monument (Boston: T. R. Marvin, 1843), p. 31; see also W. P. Strickland, History of the American Bible Society from its Organization to the Present Time (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1849), p.129. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie and Peck, 1832), p. 300, ¶ 578.130. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1832), p. 339, “Advice to the Young,” ¶ 53.131. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1832), p. 339, “Advice to the Young,” ¶ 53.132. Noah Webster, History of the United States (New Haven: Durrie and Peck, 1832), p. 6.133. Noah Webster, A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects (New York: Webster and Clark, 1843), p. 291, from his “Reply to a Letter of David McClure on the Subject of the Proper Course of Study in the Girard College, Philadelphia. New Haven, October 25, 1836.”134. Noah Webster, The Holy Bible . . . With Amendments of the Language (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1833), p. v.135. K. Alan Snyder, Defining Noah Webster: Mind and Morals in the Early Republic (New York: University Press of America, 1990), p. 253, to James Madison on October 16, 1829.136. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 255, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.137. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 245, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.138. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 248, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.139. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 276, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ’ January 2, 1758.140. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 267, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.141. John Witherspoon, The Works of John Witherspoon (Edinburgh: J. Ogle, 1815), Vol. V, p. 278, Sermon 15, “The Absolute Necessity of Salvation Through Christ,” January 2, 1758.142. John Witherspoon, The Works of the Reverend John Witherspoon (Philadelphia: William W. Woodward, 1802), Vol. III, p. 42.143. Letters of Delegates to Congress: January 1, 1776-May 15, 1776, Paul H. Smith, editor (Washington DC: Library of Congress, 1978), Vol. 3, pp. 502-503, Oliver Wolcott to Laura Wolcott on April 10, 1776.printShare on FacebookShare on TwitterBy WallBuilders|December 29th, 2016|Categories: Issues and Articles|0 CommentsShare This Story!FacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditGoogle+TumblrPinterestVkEmailRelated PostsSigners of the Declaration Resource Page GallerySigners of the Declaration Resource PageJuly 18th, 2019Ten Facts About George Washington GalleryTen Facts About George WashingtonMay 9th, 2019Defending Thomas Jefferson – John Birch Society v. Jefferson GalleryDefending Thomas Jefferson – John Birch Society v. 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Personally I do not care which was the best battle or the most crowded, or the most impressive, but the most glorious. In such a way and without further delay, friends, we have to talk about Agincourt.This relevant and noble victory of the British over the French took place on European soil. In the vicinity of a very tiny French village located in the department of Pas de Calais, in northern France. Over the French on the Hundred Years’ War in 1413 the new king of England, took the opportunity of a power struggle inside France to renew English claims to the French throne and invade.His victory against a much larger French army repeated the successes at the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, enabling him to dominate northern France. In 1396, England and France signed the thirty years of the Paris Truce to end the long Hundred Years' War. Nevertheless, the French continued supporting the enemies of England in Scotland and Wales and in 1403 they raided several ports of the Canal.Within France, the intermittent madness of King Charles VI provoked a power struggle between the rival dukes of Orléans and Burgundy, with both sides appealing for English help.In 1413 young Henry V came to the English throne. He formed an alliance with Jean, Duke of Burgundy: the duke promised to remain neutral in exchange for gaining land as Henry's vassal, but was betrayed by the Duke.With one side of the French conflict neutralized, Henry prepared for war. In August 1415 he sailed for Normandy with an army of 12,000 men. After a six-week siege he captured Harfleur, with the loss of half his army from casualties and disease.English siege of Harfleur in 1415. Author Graham Turner. Source paintings, prints and cards by Michael Turner and Graham TurnerHenry then marched overland toward English-held Calais but found his way blocked by a far larger French army led by Charles d’Albret, Constable of France. Henry drew up his army where the road to Calais passed through thick woods. It had been raining hard for several days and the fields on either side were newly plowed. Placing his archers on either flank, with more archers and dismounted knights in the center, he hammered rows of pointed stakes into the road.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1.415. Movements prior to battle. Osprey FountainConfronted by this narrow battlefield, the French formed up into three battles or divisions, one behind the other, the first two consisting of dismounted men with some crossbowmen, the third mostly mounted men. At first the two armies faced each other down the road, probably about 1 mile apart.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1.415. View of the battlefield and initial deploymentThe French knew of Henry’s youthful enthusiasm and hoped he might attack them first. Henry, however, decided to force a French attack and moved his army forward a short distance.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1.415. I exercise English. Author Giuseppe Rava Giuseppe Rava dipinti originali storici militari ad olio e a tempera, eseguiti dall'artista , pittore e scultore, Giuseppe Rava.The trick worked, for, unable to control his eager men, the French Constable ordered an attack. As the first French battle advanced, mounted knights from either flank galloped past them toward the English lines. Under intense fire from the English archers and hampered by the weight of their armor, the muddy ground, and the rows of stakes, they were soon in trouble.Batalla de Azincourt o Agincourt 1415. Ejercito francés. Autor Giuseppe Rava Giuseppe Rava dipinti originali storici militari ad olio e a tempera, eseguiti dall'artista , pittore e scultore, Giuseppe Rava.This initial cavalry attack had been completely repulsed before the first battle arrived on foot. Fighting their way through to the English line, they were then attacked by the English archers wielding axes, swords, and daggers in close combat. Within minutes, the entire first battle had been killed or captured.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1,415. Deploy troopsThe second French battle then surged forward but fell back with heavy losses. At this point Henry received reports that his camp a mile to the rear was under attack. In reality, this was just a group of peasants out for plunder but, knowing that his small army could not fight on two fronts and guard the many prisoners, Henry ordered all French prisoners to be killed.At this point I am going to stop because it is one of the most striking elements of Agincourt is the massacre of French prisoners ordered by Henry V in full battle. After the attack and defeat of the warriors on foot of the French army, the English accepted the surrender in the field of the most outstanding knights - in the medieval battles you could get rich if you captured the appropriate nobleman. Taken behind the lines, these fighters, perhaps about two thousand, were an obvious danger if things went badly in the next phase of the battle and they re-armed themselves (in theory you had given your word not to fight, but some French knight that day he got to surrender up to ten times!).This was what the English king thought when he observed that the French were preparing a new attack of cavalry which the exhausted English men-at-arms could hardly face, while the archers had run out of arrows.That alarming situation also coincided with an attack on English baggage in the unarmed rearguard rows. English knights were outraged by the order, which was executed by a group of archers who took charge of slaughtering the prisoners without major problems of conscience.For some authors ~ Anglo-Saxons especially ~ is a stick that your great Shakespearean king does something more typical of the SS in the Ardennes, and relativize the number of prisoners killed to barely a hundred and say that it was a psychological gesture very typical of the form of war of the Middle Ages.It is true that the reputation in the Christianity of Enrique V was not harmed by the initiative, which seemed very understandable to most of the contemporaries.The French themselves did not complain too much, after all they had deployed the oriflame at the beginning of the battle, the standard that indicated ordering to be charged with slaughter - that they would not take prisoners.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. Load of Clignet de Brevante that commanded the right wing of the first French line.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. load of Luis deVandôme, who commanded the left wing of the first French line. Author Giuseppe Rava Giuseppe Rava dipinti originali storici militari ad olio e a tempera, eseguiti dall'artista , pittore e scultore, Giuseppe Rava.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. Charge of the French knights. Author Briam Palmer. Source Cranston Fine Arts .comBattle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. English archers firing point-blank at French knights. Author Graham TurnerWhen the third and final French battle assault was thrown back, Henry ordered his few mounted men to charge the French lines. The result was a rout, with more than a hundred French noblemen, all supporters of the Orléans faction, dead and many more captured.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. Attack of the second line, French men of arms advancing disassembled, crossbowmen support them. Author Peter DennisBattle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. Second line of dismounted French knights attacking the English lines. Author Peter DennisBattle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1.415. English archers leave the bow against dismounted French knightsBattle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. Second line of dismounted French knights attacking the English lines. Source Darren Tan on ArtStation at https://www.artstation.com/artwork/Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. The Duke of Bravante just arrived and is rejectedThe English had been led brilliantly by Henry, but the incoherent tactics of the French had also contributed greatly to their defeat. Henry had won against overwhelming odds. French had above 30,000 casualties, but the English only 400 killed or bad wounded.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1415. Successive attacks of the French cavalry, which are repelled. Author Denis BeaudetOutnumbered and outmanoeuvred, when Henry V won the Battle of Agincourt it was a famous victory in the Hundred Years War between the English and the French.Agincourt, one battle of the ones that most marked the medieval imaginary and that has gone down in a haloous history of epic, courage and legend.Battle of Azincourt or Agincourt 1.415. Sequels of the battle. Author Donato GiancolaAnd it was all because ~perhaps~ of the humble english long-bow.A small, fatigued and fumished English army, led by his young (27 years old) and brave king, was caught in enemy territory by a powerful French host, several times superior in number and composed of the cream of the cavalry of the time.The arrogant paladins of France, proud under their silken banners and wrapped in their shining armor like lethal iron crustaceans, clashed disdainfully ~the Duke of Brabant even allowed himself to be late to the haul because he had a christening ~ to the battered and diminished troop of Enrique V that counted on an important proportion of archers (six by each man of arms).To everyone's amazement ~as the numerous chroniclers of the battle reflected it~ the English overwhelmed, annihilating the French knights in a malhereuse journée for these that threw a scandal marker (thousands of dead on one side for barely hundreds in the winner).As previously in Crecy and Poitiers ~it is incredible that the French had not learned the lesson~, the archers were decisive in the result. It was, writes the great military historian John Keegan in “The Face of the Battle” (Turner), where he left us the canonical text about the episode, “a victory of the weak over the strong, of the foot soldier over the mounted knight, of the resolution on grandiloquence, of the desperate, cornered and removed from his house on the arrogant and conceited”. It is true that Sir Keegan was English ...As the herald of Henry V of Shakespeare, the play that enlightened Agincourt and its winner to the Olympus of the great literary myths, I invite you to fly on the wings of the imagination away from your summer places to that field in Picardy, flanked by forests, where the two contingents are ready to battle. It has rained, the wide area recently plowed for winter planting has turned into a mud. The great warhorses of the French piafan of excitement while their colorful skirts wave like curtains of the bloody scene that is prepared. The riders look at the little nourished enemy lines with disdain. On the other side, the English swallow, pray and some ~as Bernard Cornwell narrates in his vivid novel “Azincourt” (Edhasa), a splendid and spooky recreation of the battle~ emptied the guts of fear without moving from their positions: the smell of the war.Henry did not want this. He had landed in the Bay of the Seine and taken, at the cost of leaving half the army - in the siege and by the plague - the port of Harfleur in the framework of a campaign to claim their dynastic rights over the French lands. When everything advised to return to England, the sovereign decided to make a gallop of farde with his troops until Calais to demonstrate his manhood. France had time to build an immense army, with all its nobility at the front, but not its king, Charles VI «the Fool» (!), Half mad and believed to be made of glass.The French blocked the English and forced them to fight in that field near the small castle that gave its name to the confrontation. Curiously, it was the Englishmen who opened the dance, after their king harangued them emotionally: Shakespeare would turn it into one of the most beautiful parliaments in history, band of brothers, we happy few, etcetera, advancing at a distance of shooting and throwing a cloud of arrows that unleashed the attack of the French cavalry.That moment of overture is one of the most impressive of Agincourt. Five thousand archers, located on the flanks of the English army, put in the air as many arrows, launched pointing to the sky to fall on the French. We can almost hear the noise of the bowstrings, the whistle of the arrows, the moment when they fall like a mortal hail, hitting the tips of the arrows against the armor, bouncing or crossing them. In ten minutes, 600,000 arrows are thrown on the French, one thousand per second. The charge stops - the English have set sharpened stakes in front of each soldier - and the horsemen retreat to collide with the next wave of French attack, several thousand knights on foot covered with armor and equipped with everything a mind Warm medieval can happen to him to do a lot of damage. A terrifying image. But the advance is painful. The warriors covered with 66 pounds of steel slow down in the mud in which the field has been trampled by the steeds. There is also a huge traffic jam because everyone wants to go to the English center, where the king and his peers are, and the glory (and the money they plan to charge for the ransoms). So the archers continue to harass them freely on the flanks, creating a funnel effect, and when they reach the enemy the French, huddled together, hinder one another.English are knocking them down with spears, hammers and axes as they arrive, exhausted, and the fallen bodies that are piled up make it even more difficult to attack and fight. In a decisive initiative, the archers swoop down on the knights: taking advantage of the fact that they are lighter, they knock them down and finish them on the ground, lifting them up and stabbing them in the eyes or through any unprotected point of the armor, in the armpits or English. Goya would have loved it. The fight is brutal, ruthless, savage. The moans and screams punctuate a general noise worthy of a gigantic body-ironing workshop. And surprisingly, the French withdraw in the midst of chaos and the English are the owners of the field, amazing History.Azincourt is very close to the city of Arras, and its main tourist attraction is the Medieval Historical Center, located in the Town Hall (in front of the church) and dedicated to the famous fact of arms occurred in the Middle Ages. It offers todays’ visitors an interesting audiovisual exhibition about the battle, a collection of weapons and armor, mosaics and other objects recovered from the battlefield.If the visitor likes to walk, he can walk in less than 5,000 meters the whole area where he fought in 1415, cross the battlefield ~ which has not changed anything in six centuries ~ and reach the Calvary, erected enters the mass graves where “They buried the dead”. “There is a map of the battle”.The tourist can return to Azincourt through Maisoncelle, where the English King Enrique V spent the night with his army. On the morning of the Battle of Agincourt, Henry V gave a rousing speech to his troops that was chronicled in Shakespeare's play.The king, referring to his “band of brothers”, urged his soldiers to remember previous defeats English troops had inflicted on the French, and telling them of his valid claim to the French throne.St Crispin's Day falls on 25th October, a feast day of Christian saints, and is synoymous with the English victory at Agincourt during the Hundred Years' War.“What's he that wishes so?“My cousin Westmoreland? No, my fair cousin:“If we are mark'd to die, we are enow“To do our country loss; and if to live,“The fewer men, the greater share of honour.“God's will! I pray thee, wish not one man more.“By Jove, I am not covetous for gold,“Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost;“It yearns me not if men my garments wear;“Such outward things dwell not in my desires:“But if it be a sin to covet honour,“I am the most offending soul alive.“No, faith, my coz, wish not a man from England:“God's peace! I would not lose so great an honour“As one man more, methinks, would share from me“For the best hope I have. O, do not wish one more!“Rather proclaim it, Westmoreland, through my host,“That he which hath no stomach to this fight,“Let him depart; his passport shall be made“And crowns for convoy put into his purse:“We would not die in that man's company“That fears his fellowship to die with us.”SOURCES:Beck, Steve (2005). The Battle of Agincourt, Military History Online.Bennett, Matthew (2000). "The Battle". In Curry, Anne. Agincourt 1415. Stroud: Tempus. pp. 25–30. ISBN 0-7524-1780-0.Barker, Juliet: “Agincourt - Henry V and the Battle That Made England”. ISBN-13: 9780316055895. December, 2008.Dupuy, Trevor N. (1993). Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-270056-8.Grummitt, David. (Oxford University), A review of Agincourt 1415: Henry V, Sir Thomas Erpingham and the triumph of the English Archers Ed. Anne Curry, Pub: Tempus UK, 2000 ISBN 0-7524-1780-0.Hansen, Mogens Herman (Copenhagen Polis Centre) The Little Grey Horse --Henry V's Speech at Agincourt and the Battle Exhortation in Ancient Historiography - Histos volume 2 (March 1998), website of the Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of DurhamJones, Michael J. (2005). Agincourt 1415. Barnsley: Pen & Sword. ISBN 1-84415-251-0.Keegan, John: “The Face of Battle”. Blackstone Pub; Edition: Unabridged (September 1, 2003) ISBN-10: 0786121092"Battle of Agincourt" in Military Heritage, October 2005, Volume 7, No. 2, pp. 36 to 43. ISSN 1524-8666.Nicolas, Harris (1833). History of the Battle of Agincourt, and of the expedition of Henry the Fifth into France in 1415; to which is added the Roll of the men at arms in the English army. London: Johnson & Co.Strickland, Matthew; Hardy, Robert (2005). The Great Warbow. Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-3167-1.Rogers, C. (29 August 2008). "The Battle of Agincourt". In L. J. Andrew Villalon; Donald J. Kagay. The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas. History of Warfare. 51. Leiden: Brill. pp. 37–132. ISBN 978-90-04-16821-3. ISSN 1385-7827.Rogers, Clifford J. (2008a). "The Battle of Agincourt: Appendix II". In Villalon, L. J. Andrew; Kagay, Donald J. The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas. Leiden: Brill. pp. 114–21.Rogers, Clifford J. (2008b). "The Battle of Agincourt". In Villalon, L. J. Andrew; Kagay, Donald J. The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas. Boston, MA: Brill. p. 107. ISBN 978-90-04-16821-3.Seward, Desmond (1999). The Hundred Years War: The English in France 1337–1453. Penguin. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-14-028361-7.Sutherland, Tim (17 November 2015). "The Battlefield". In Anne Curry; Malcolm Mercer. The Battle of Agincourt. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-21430-7.Walsingham, Thomas (2005). "The Reign of King Henry V". In James G. Clark. The Chronica Maiora of Thomas Walsingham (1376–1422). Translated by David Preest. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-144-0.Wason, David (2004). Battlefield Detectives. London: Carlton Books. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-233-05083-6.Woolf, Daniel (12 June 2003). The Social Circulation of the Past: English Historical Culture 1500–1730. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925778-2.Shakespeare, William. Henry V. Gary Taylor, editor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982Things You May Not Know About the Battle of AgincourtBattle of Agincourt anniversary: Henry V's St Crispin's Day speech in full

According to every major ancient Greek historian, and as written and recorded in their testimony, the kingdom of ancient Ethiopia is older than ancient Egypt. Moreover, a fact that is often glossed-over or totally ignored by most Eurocentric-minded Egyptologists, academics and novice researchers a like is the very important cultural, ethnic, historical, pastoral connection and relationship, between ancient Egypt (Ta-Meri) and Northern Ethiopia/Nubia (Ta-Seti). In addition to Ethiopia’s maternal role as the early source of ancient Egyptian civilization.OLD ETHIOPIA--ITS PEOPLE“Because of the great lapse of time, it seems almost impossible to locate the original seat of the old Ethiopian empire. Bochart thought it was "Happy Araby," that from this central point the Cushite race spread eastward and westward. Some authorities like Gesenius thought it was Africa. THE GREEKS LOOKED TO OLD ETHIOPIA AND CALLED THE UPPER NILE THE COMMON CRADLE OF MANKIND. Toward the rich luxurience of this region they looked for the "Garden of Eden." FROM THESE PEOPLE OF THE UPPER NILE AROSE THE OLDEST TRADITIONS AND RITES AND FROM THEM SPRANG THE FIRST COLONIES AND ARTS OF ANTIQUITY. The Greeks also said that EGYPTIANS DERIVED THEIR CIVILIZATION AND RELIGION FROM ETHIOPIA. Yet Egyptian forms of worship are understood and practiced among the Ethiopians of Nubia today. The common people of Egypt never truly understood their religion, this was why it so easily became debased”.Source: Sacred Texts, Ethiopia and It’s People, Drusilla Dunjee Houston, 1926“Egyptian religion was not an original conception, for three thousand years ago she had lost all true sense of its real meaning among even the priesthood”.Source: (Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection--Preface)HISTORIC EYEWITNESS ACCOUNTS AND WRITTEN DESCRIPTIONS AND TESTIMONYDiodorus Siculus (/ˌdaɪəˈdɔːrəs ˈsɪkjʊləs/; Greek: Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης Diodoros Sikeliotes) (fl. 1st century BC) or Diodorus of Sicily was a Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, much of which survives, between 60 and 30 BC.Quote(s):“Now the Ethiopians, as historians relate, WERE THE FIRST OF ALL MEN and the proofs of this statement, they say, are manifest. For that they did not come into their land as immigrants from abroad but were natives of it and so justly bear the name of "autochthones" is, they maintain, conceded by practically all men”.Source: (Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History bk.iii, para 2 page 91).“THEY SAY ALSO THAT THE EGYPTIANS ARE COLONISTS SENT OUT BY THE ETHIOPIANS, Osiris (Ausar) having been the leader of the colony. For, speaking generally, what is now Egypt, they maintain, was not land but sea when in the beginning the universe was being formed; afterwards, however, as the Nile during the times of its inundation carried down the mud from Ethiopia, land was gradually built up from the deposit. Also the statement that all the land of the Egyptians is alluvial silt deposited by the river receives the clearest proof, in their opinion, from what takes place at the outlets of the Nile; for as each year new mud is continually gathered together at the mouths of the river, the sea is observed being thrust back by the deposited silt and the land receiving the increase. AND THE LARGER PART OF THE CUSTOMS OF THE EGYPTIANS ARE, THEY HOLD, ETHIOPIAN, THE COLONISTS STILL PRESERVING THEIR ANCIENT MANNERS”.Source: (Diodorus Siculus Augustus, The Library of History bk. iii, para 3 2. 4-3. 3 page 95).“Kings as gods and bury them with such pomp; sculpture and writing were invented by the Ethiopians. “THE ETHIOPIANS CITE EVIDENCE THAT THEY ARE MORE ANCIENT THAN THE EGYPTIANS, but it is useless to report that here”.Source: Diodorus Siculus, Histoire universelle, translated by Abbe Terrasson. Paris, 1758, Bk. 3 (p. 341).“It was about 5,000 years ago that the mythical/historical god-king Ausar (Greek Osirus), along with a massive number of ancient ETHOPIAN SETTLERS, TO COLONIZE THE NILE. The ancient Egyptians would later deify Osiris (Ausar). Their maternal ancestors were Ethiopians and Eritreans, but their paternal ancestor was West African. These ancestors were the original Dynastic ruling class”.Source: - Diodorus of Sicily The Library of History of Diodorus Siculus published in Vol. II of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1935 (chaps 1-11).“We must now speak about the Ethiopian writing which is called hieroglyphic among the Egyptians, in order that we may omit nothing in our discussion of their antiquities..”Source: (Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History bk. Bk iii, para 4).Wooden Statue of Usire Kem-Ur or Ausar (the Greek’s Osiris), Ptolemaic Era.“The Ethiopians conceive themselves to be of greater antiquity than any other nation; and it is probable that, born under the sun's path, its warmth may have ripened them earlier than other men. They suppose themselves also to be the inventors of divine worship, of festivals, of solemn assemblies, of sacrifices, and every religious practice. THEY AFFIRM THAT THE EGYPTIANS ARE ONE OF THEIR COLONIES”.Source: Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Volume III, (Book 4. 59-8).What is a colony?A colony is a group of people of one nationality or ethnic group of people who leave their native country to form in a new land a settlement subject to, or connected with, the parent nation. In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. As you will see demonstrated by the evidence that Egypt is a colony of Ethiopia.Source: (Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History bk. I, para 44).Strabo (/ˈstreɪboʊ/; Greek: Στράβων Strabōn; 64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD) was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Strabo mentions the Nubians as a great race west of the Nile.Quote(s):“The faces of the Egyptians of the Old Monarchy are Ethiopian but as the ages went on they altered from the constant intermingling with Asiatic types.”Source: Strabo, Drusilla Dunjee Houston, 1926, Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire, (Volume 1)“if the moderns have confined the appellation Ethiopians to those only who dwell near Egypt, this must not be allowed to interfere with the meaning of the ancients”.Source: Strabo, Geography 1.2.26, The Geography of. Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition (1917)."I assert that the ancient Greeks, in the same way as they classed all the northern nations with which they were familiar as Scythians, etc., so, I affirm, they designated as Ethiopia the whole of the southern countries toward the ocean."Source: Strabo, Geography 1.2.26, The Geography of. Strabo published in Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition , 1917.Herodotus of Halicarnassus (c.480-c.429 BCE): Greek researcher, often called the world's first historian.Quote(s):“Egypt was the colony of Axum empire (Eritrea and Ethiopia)”.Source: (Herodotus, Vol. I., Book. I., Appendix, Essay XI., Section-5).“Of the Egyptians themselves, however, and the Ethiopians, I am not able to say which learnt from the other, for undoubtedly it is a most ancient custom”.Source: Herodotus (Histories , Book II, c. 440 BC), The History of Herodotus, Books I & II. G. Rawlinson, trans. Tudor Publishing Co., N.Y. (1947).“Ammonians [Siwa Oasis], who are a joint colony of Egyptians and Ethiopians”.Source: Herodotus (Histories , Book II, c. 440 BC), The History of Herodotus, Books I & II. G. Rawlinson, trans. Tudor Publishing Co., N.Y. (1947).“Wisemen occupying the Upper Nile, men of long life, whose manners and customs pertain to the Golden Age, those virtuous mortals, whose feasts and banquets are honored by Jupiter himself." In Greek times, the Egyptians depicted Ethiopia as an ideal state. The Puranas, the ancient historical books of India, speak of the civilization of Ethiopia as being older than that of Egypt. These Sanskrit books mention the names of old Cushite kings that were worshipped in India and who were adopted and changed to suit the fancy of the later people of Greece and Rome”.Source: The ruins: or, Meditation on the revolutions of empires: and The law of nature. by Volney, C.-F. (Constantin- François), 1757-1820. Publication date 1890.“There can be no doubt that the Colchians are an Egyptian race. Before I heard any mention of the fact from others, I had remarked it myself. After the thought had struck me, I made inquiries on the subject both in Colchis and in Egypt, and I found that the Colchians had a more distinct recollection of the Egyptians, than the Egyptians had of them. Still the Egyptians said that they believed the Colchians to be descended from the army of Sesostris. My own conjectures were founded, first, on the fact that they are black-skinned and have woolly hair, which certainly amounts to but little, since several other nations are so too. But further and more especially, on the circumstance that the Colchians, the Egyptians, and the Ethiopians, are the only nations who have practised circumcision from the earliest times”.Source: Herodotus, The History of Herodotus By written 440 B.C.E. (Translated by George Rawlinson, Publication date 1909).“The pillars which Sesostris, king of Egypt set up in the various countries are for the most part no longer to be seen extant; but in Syria Palestine I myself saw them existing with the inscription upon them which I have mentioned and the emblem. Moreover in Ionia there are two figures of this man carved upon rocks, one on the road by which one goes from the land of Ephesos to Phocaia, and the other on the road from Sardis to Smyrna. In each place there is a figure of a man cut in the rock, of four cubits and a span in height, holding in his right hand a spear and in his left a bow and arrows, and the other equipment which he has is similar to this, for it is both Egyptian and Ethiopian: and from the one shoulder to the other across the breast runs an inscription carved in sacred Egyptian characters, saying thus, “This land with my shoulders I won for myself.” But who he is and from whence, he does not declare in these places, though in other places he has declared this. Some of those who have seen these carvings conjecture that the figure is that of Memnon, but herein they are very far from the truth”.Source: Herodotus, Voyages and Travels: Ancient and Modern, The Harvard Classics, 1909-14. An account of Egypt: Being the Second Book of His Histories Called Euterpe, paras. 40-59.“The uniform voice of primitive antiquity spoke of the Ethiopians as one single race, dwelling along the shores of the southern ocean, from India to the pillars of Hercules”.Source: (Herodotus, The Histories, Vol. 1 book I).{Excerpt}“The final deliverance from the Ethiopian came about (they said) as follows:—he fled away because he had seen in his sleep a vision, in which it seemed to him that a man came and stood by him and counselled him to gather together all the priests in Egypt and cut them asunder in the midst. Having seen this dream, he said that it seemed to him that the gods were foreshowing him this to furnish an occasion against him, in order that he might do an impious deed with respect to religion, and so receive some evil either from the gods or from men: he would not however do so, but in truth (he said) the time had expired, during which it had been prophesied to him that he should rule Egypt before he departed thence. For when he was in Ethiopia the Oracles which the Ethiopians consult had told him that it was fated for him to rule Egypt fifty years: since then this time was now expiring, and the vision of the dream also disturbed him, Sabacos departed out of Egypt of his own free will”.“Then when the Ethiopian had gone away out of Egypt, the blind man came back from the fen-country and began to rule again, having lived there during fifty years upon an island which he had made by heaping up ashes and earth: for whenever any of the Egyptians visited him bringing food, according as it had been appointed to them severally to do without the knowledge of the Ethiopian, he bade them bring also some ashes for their gift. This island none was able to find before Amyrtaios; that is, for more than seven hundred years the kings who arose before Amyrtaios were not able to find it. Now the name of this island is Elbo, and its size is ten furlongs each way”.{…Excerpt}Source: Herodotus, Voyages and Travels: Ancient and Modern, The Harvard Classics, 1909-14. An account of Egypt: Being the Second Book of His Histories Called Euterpe, paras. (40-59).Khakaure Senusret III (Greek: Sesostris III)Quote(s):“For the people of Colchis are evidently Egyptian, and this I perceived for myself before I heard it from others. So when I had come to consider the matter I asked them both; and the Colchis had remembrance of the Egyptians more than the Egyptians of the Colchians; but the Egyptians said they believed that the Colchians were a portion of the army of Sesostris”.Source: The Harvard classics Volume 33. by Eliot, Charles W. (Charles William), 1834-1926. Publication date c1909-10, (page 51).“That this I conjured myself not only because they have black skins and curly hair, but also still more because the Colchians and Ethiopians alone of all races of men practised circumcision from the first”. The Phoenicians and Syrians who dwell in Palestine confess themselves that they have learnt it from the Egyptians and the Syrians about the river Thermodon and the river Parthenios, and the Macronians, who are their neighbours, say they have learnt it from the Colchians. These were the only races of men who practise circumcision, and these evidently practise it in the same manner as the Egyptians”.Source: (Herodotus, The Histories, Book II: 104).Aristotle of Stagira, Greek Aristoteles (born 384 bce, Stagira, Chalcidice, Greece—died 322, Chalcis, Euboea), ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the greatest intellectual figures of Western history."Why are the Ethiopians and Egyptians bandy-legged? Is it because the bodies of living creatures become distorted by heat, like logs of wood when they become dry? The condition of their hair supports this this theory; for it is curlier than that of other nations, and curliness is as it were crookedness of hair".Source: (Physiognomy, book XIV pg. 317).Ammiuanus Marcellinus (born c. 325 – 330, died c. 391 – 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity. He was the last major Roman historian, whose work continued the history of the later Roman Empire to 378.Quote(s):“the men of Egypt are mostly BROWN OR BLACK with a skinny desiccated look”. - Ammiuanus MarcellinusSource: - G. Mokhtar, Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa · 1981 · Africa.“Egypt itself was a colony of Ethiopia and the laws and script of both lands were naturally the same; but the hieroglyphic script was more widely known to the vulgar in Ethiopia than in Egypt”. (Diodorus Siculus, bk. iii, ch. 3.)Lucian of Samosata or Lucianus Samosatensis(about 125 AD – after 180 AD) was a satirist and rhetorician who wrote in the Greek language during the Second Sophistic. Lucian declares that:Quote(s):“The Ethiopians were the first who invented the science of stars, and gave names to the planets, not at random and without meaning, but descriptive of the qualities which they conceived them to possess; and it was from them that this art passed, still in an imperfect state, to the Egyptians”. - LucianSource: The ruins: or, Meditation on the revolutions of empires: and The law of nature. by Volney, C.F. (Constantin- François), 1757-1820. Publication date 1890.Claudius Ptolemy(90 - 168 AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.As a Roman citizen who lived in Alexandria, he used "Ethiopia" as a racial term. In his Tetrabiblos: or Quadripartite, he tried to explain the physical characteristics of people around the world saying:Quote(s):“They are consequently black in complexion, and have thick and curled hair...and they are called by the common name of Aethiopians”. Claudius PtolemySource: -Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, Or Quadripartite: Being Four Books of the Influence ...By Claudius Ptolemaeus (Alexandrinus), Proclus (Diadochus), J.M. Ashmand , Chapter II, (Page 41).Ephorus of Cyme (/ˈɛfərəs/; Greek: Ἔφορος ὁ Κυμαῖος, Ephoros ho Kymaios; c. 400 – 330 BC) was an ancient Greek historian, and author of the first universal history, who, despite his defects, was esteemed in Classical times and is considered the best of the historians writing in his period.Quote(s):“The Ethiopians were considered as occupying all of the south coasts of Asia and Africa.. this is the opinion of the Greeks”.Source: John D. Baldwin, “Pre-historic nations; or, Inquiries concerning some of the great peoples and civilizations of ... to a still older civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia (1874 [c1869])”.Stephanus of Byzantium (Greek: Στέφανος Βυζάντιος; fl. 6th century AD), was the author of an important geographical dictionary entitled Ethnica (Ἐθνικά) in which he states:Quote(s):“Ethiopia was the first established country on earth”.“and the Ethiopians were the first who introduced the worship of the gods, and who established laws." The vestiges of this early civilization have been found in Nubia, the Egyptian Sudan, West Africa, Egypt, Mashonaland, India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Arabia, South America, Central America, Mexico, and the United States”.Source: -Stephani Byzantii Ethnica Vo. A-F (Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae (43.1).Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren (25 October 1760, Arbergen – 6 March 1842, Göttingen) was a German historian.Quote(s):“THAT THE ANCESTORS OF THESE ETHIOPIANS HAD LONG LIVED IN CITIES AND HAD ERECTED MAGNIFICENT TEMPLES AND EDIFICES, that they possessed law and government, and that the fame of their progress in knowledge and the social arts had spread in the earliest ages to a considerable part of the world”.Source: (Heeren's Historical Researches--Ethiopian Nations. Ch. 1, p. 46).“no aboriginal people of Africa so claim our attention as the Ethiopians. He asks, "To what shall we attribute the renown of this one of the most distant nations of the earth? How did the fame of her name permeate the terrible deserts that surrounded her: and even yet form an insuperable bar to all who approach. A great many nations distant and different from one another are called Ethiopians. Africa contains the greater number of them and a considerable tract in Asia was occupied by this race. The Ethiopians were distinguished from the other races by a very dark or completely black skin".Source: (Heeren's Historical Researches--Ethiopian Nations. Ch. 1, p. 46).“The Nile Nubas or Barabra are the original Ethiopians. They are agricultural and have the old Hamitic traits. They plant date trees and set up wheels for irrigation.Source: (Heeren's Historical Researches--Ethiopian Nations. Ch. 1, p. 48).“The best informed travelers and the most accurate observers recognize the same color, features and mostly the same fashions and weapons in the inhabitants of the Upper Nile as they find portrayed on the Egyptian monuments. The race which we now discover in the Nubian, though by loss of liberty and religion much degenerated; yet, which was once the ruling race in Egypt. This Nubian race did not come from Arabia. Their color, language and manner of life were different. According to their own traditions, the Egyptians were originally savages without tillage or government. They lived in huts made of reeds. A race of different descent and color settled among them and lifted them to civilization. The men of this race were the ancestors of the Nubians, who planted other colonies in opposite regions of the world, in Greece, Colchis, Babylonia, and even India." All of these regions had priest-kings”. - A.H.L. Heeren(Heeren's Historical Researches-Ethiopian Nations. Ch. 1, p. 59).“We marvel at the wonders recently unearthed in Egypt. Let us look behind her through the glasses of science at the "Old Race" of which she was in her beginning, only a colony. ETHIOPIA WAS THE SOURCE OF ALL THAT EGYPT KNEW AND TRANSMITTED TO GREECE AND ROME. We are accustomed to think of Ethiopia as a restricted country in Africa but this was not true. The study of ancient maps and the descriptions of the geographers of old, reveals that THE ANCIENT LAND OF CUSH WAS A VERY WIDESPREAD AND POWERFUL EMPIRE”. - A.H.L. HeerenSource: (Rosenmuller's Biblical Geography, Bk. III, p. 154).History of Hindostan, 1798Quote(s):“that the ancestors of these Ethiopians had long lived in cities and had erected magnificent temples and edifices, that they possessed law and government, and that the fame of their progress in knowledge and the social arts had spread in the earliest ages to a considerable part of the world”.Source: (Thomas Maurice's History of Hindostan Vol 2, published 1798).“The ancient Ethiopians were the architectural giants of the past. When the daring Cushite genius was in the full career of its glory, it was the peculiar delight of this enterprising race to erect stupendous edifices, excavate long subterranean passages in the living rock form vast lakes and extend over the hallowd of adjourning mountains magnificent arches for aqueducts and bridges”.Source: (Thomas Maurice's History of Hindostan Vol 2, published 1798).“Existing monuments confirm the high antiquity of Meroe. In the Persian period Ethiopia was an important and independent state, which Cambyses vainly attempted to subdue. Rosellini thinks that the right of Sabaco and Tirhakah (Taharqa) Ethiopian kings, who sat upon the throne of Egypt in the latter days, must have been more by right of descent”.Source: (Thomas Maurice's History of Hindostan Vol 2, published 1798).Christian Karl Josias, baron von Bunsen, (born August 25, 1791, Korbach, Waldeck [Germany]—died November 28, 1860, Bonn, Prussia), liberal Prussian diplomat, scholar, and theologian who supported the German constitutional movement and was prominent in the ecclesiastical politics of his time.Quote(s):“Cushite colonies were all along the southern shores of Asia and Africa and by the archaeological remains, along the southern and eastern coasts of Arabia. The name Cush was given to four great areas, Media, Persia, Susiana and Aria, or the whole territory between the Indus and Tigris in prehistoric times. In Africa the Ethiopians, the Egyptians, the Libyans, the Canaanites and Phoenicians were all descendants of Ham. They were a black or dark colored race and the pioneers of our civilization. They were emphatically the monument builders on the plains of Shinar and the valley of the Nile from Meroe to Memphis. In southern Arabia they erected wonderful edifices. They were responsible for the monuments that dot southern Siberia and in America along the valley of the Mississippi down to Mexico and in Peru their images and monuments stand a "voiceless witnesses." This was the ancient Cushite Empire of Ethiopians that covered three worlds. Some of our later books recognizing their indisputable influence in primitive culture, speak of them as a brunet brown race representing a mysterious Heliolithic culture”.Source: Karl Bunsen, (Philosophy of Ancient History, p. 51).Quote:“THE HAMITIC FAMILY AS RAWLINSON PROVES MUST BE GIVEN THE CREDIT FOR BEING THE FOUNTAINHEAD OF CIVILIZATION. THIS FAMILY COMPRISED THE ANCIENT ETHIOPIANS, the EGYPTIANS, THE ORIGINAL CANAANITES and the OLD CHALDEANS. The inscriptions of the Chaldean monuments prove their race affinity. The Bible proves their relationship. It names the sons of Ham as Cush, Mizraim, Phut and the race of Canaan. Mizraim peopled Egypt and Canaan the land later possessed by the Hebrews. Phut located in Africa and Cush extended his colonies over a wide domain”.Source: Karl Bunsen"Outlines of a Philosophy of Universal History (1854).Gerald Massey (/ˈmæsi/; 29 May 1828 – 29 October 1907) was an English poet and writer on Spiritualism and Ancient Egypt. From about 1870 onwards, Massey became increasingly interested in Egyptology and the similarities that exist between ancient Egyptian mythology and the Gospel stories. He studied the extensive Egyptian records housed in the Assyrian and Egyptology section of the British Museum in London where he worked closely with the curator, Dr. Samuel Birch, and other leading Egyptologists of his day, even learning hieroglyphics at the time the Temple of Horus at Edfu was first being excavated.Quote(s):Massey categorically dismissed the assertions of the Aryanist German Egyptologists Bunsen and Brugsch postulating an Asian origin for Egyptian civilization. Massey asked, in refutation of the Asian theory (Caucasian):“why did the Egyptians themselves look southward to Africa as their birthplace and refer to it as Ta-neter, ‘the land of the gods?” Moreover, numerous Egyptian customs were unmistakably African in character, from the practice of tracing ancestry through the maternal line to the ceremonial dying of bodies with red ochre. Massey even derived an Egyptian etymology for the Roman word Africa from the Egyptian af-rui-ka which literally means ‘to turn toward the opening of the Ka.’ The Ka is the energetic double of every person and ‘opening of the Ka’ refers to a womb or birthplace Africa would be, for the Egyptians, ‘the birthplace.’ Parenthetically, it is worth noting that another Egyptian name for the African lands south of Egypt was Ta-Kenset, which means ‘placenta land”.“Africa was the primal source of the world’s people, languages, myths, symbols, and religions and Egypt Africa’s mouthpiece”.Source: Ancient Egypt: The Light of the World (Volume 2), (1907).The Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature or Encyclopaedia Biblica: A Critical Dictionary of the Literary, Political and Religion History, the Archeology, Geography and Natural History of the Bible (1899), edited by Thomas Kelly Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black, is a critical encyclopedia of the Bible. In Theology/Biblical studies, it is often referenced as Enc. Bib., or as Cheyne and Black says:Quote(s):“There is every reason to conclude that the separate colonies of priestcraft spread from Meroe into Egypt; and THE PRIMEVAL MONUMENTS IN ETHIOPIA STRONGLY CONFIRM THE NATIVE TRADITIONS”.Jean-François Champollion was a French scholar, philologist and orientalist, known primarily as the decipherer of Egyptian hieroglyphs and a founding figure in the field of Egyptology stated in his work Egypte Ancienne that:Quote(s):“the Egyptians and Nubians are represented in the SAME MANNER in tomb paintings and reliefs”.Note: Northern Ethiopia came to be known in time as Nubia.and further suggesting that:“In the Copts of Egypt, we do not find any of the characteristic features of the Ancient Egyptian population. The Copts are the result of crossbreeding with all the nations that successfully dominated Egypt. It is wrong to seek in them the principal features of the old race”.Source: Champollion-Figeac, M. (Jacques-Joseph), Egypte ancienne, Publication date (1876).Jacques Champollion-Figeac, Archeologist, the “Father of Egyptology” and elder brother of Jean-François Champollion (deciphered the Rosetta Stone). The quote is from his book titled “Egypts Ancienne,” published in 1839:Quote(s):“The first tribes that inhabited Egypt, that is, the Nile Valley between the Syene cataract and the sea, came from Abyssinia to Sennar. THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS BELONGED TO A RACE QUITE SIMILAR TO THE KENUOUS OR BARABRA’S, PRESENT INHABITANTS OF NUBIA”.Source: Jacques Joseph Champollion-Figeac Letter, Champollion-Figeac (M., Jacques-Joseph) 1831, (page 27).Barabra is an old ethnographical term for the Nubian peoples of northern Sudan and southern Egypt. The word is variously derived from Berberi, i.e. Berber people.Quote(s):“The knowledge of writing was universal in Ethiopia but was confined to the priestly classes alone in Egypt. This was because THE EGYPTIAN PRIESTHOOD WAS ETHIOPIAN. The highly developed Merodic inscriptions are not found in Egypt north of the first cataract or in Nubia south of Soba. These are differences we would expect to find between a colony and a parent body.”Source: Crowfoot, J.W. Griffith F.Ll. 1911 (Reprint 1975). The Island of Meroë and Meroitic Inscriptions. Archaeological Survey Memoir 19. Part I. -Sôba to Dangêl Reprint of Original Volume (1911). Hard Cover.Quote:“Those piles of ruins which you see in that narrow valley watered by the Nile, are the remains of opulent cities, the pride of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia. … There a people, now forgotten, discovered while others were yet barbarians, the elements of the arts and sciences. A race of men now rejected from society for their sable skin and frizzled hair, founded on the study of the laws of nature, those civil and religious systems which still govern the universe”.Source: Constantin-François Chasseboeuf, Marquis de Volney, The Ruins: or a Survery of the Revolutions of Empires, 3rd ed. 11/5/2017 (London: J. Johnson, 1796).George Rawlinson (23 November 1812 – 7 October 1902) was a 19th-century English scholar, historian, and Christian theologian.Quote(s):“Recent linguistic discovery tends to show that a Cushite or Ethiopian race did in the earliest times extend itself along the shores of the Southern Ocean from Abyssinia to India. The whole peninsula of India was peopled by a race of their character before the influx of the Aryans; it extended from the Indus along the seacoast through the modern Beluchistan and Kerman, which was the proper country of the Asiatic Ethiopians; the cities on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf are shown by the brick inscriptions found among their ruins to have belonged to this race; it was dominant in Susiana and Babylonia, until overpowered in the one country by Aryan, in the other by Semitic intrusion; it can be traced both by dialect and tradition throughout the whole south coast of the Arabian peninsula”.Source: -The History of Herodotus: A New English Version, Ed. with Copious ..., Volume 1. George Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson,Sir John Gardner Wilkinson Full view - (1875).“The fundamental character of the Egyptians in respect of physical type, language and tone of thought is Negritic. The Egyptians were not negroes, but they bore resemblance to the negro which is indisputable in Ancient Egypt”Source: George Rawlinson and Arthur Gilman, Ancient Egypt Volume 7 of Story of the nations. Edition, 11. Publisher, T. Fisher Unwin, New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, (1887).Note: They’re not so called “black” this just look like it??? See Dynastic Race Theory and the Aryan Th“For the last three thousand years the world has been mainly indebted to the Semitic and Indo-European races for its advancement, but it was otherwise in the first ages. Egypt and Babylon, Mizraim and Nimrod, both descendants of Ham, led the way and acted as the pioneers of mankind in the various untrodden fields of art, science and literature. Alphabetical writings, astronomy, history, chronology, architecture, plastic art, sculpture, navigation, agriculture and textile industries seem to have had their origin in one. or the other of these countries”.Source: (Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies: The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 1862–67).“The average historical book ignores this testimony and disputes in its theories the records and monuments of Egypt and Chaldea. They group the races in utter contradiction to the records of the Greeks and Hebrews. In the light of reason, who would know about the ethnic relations of the ancients, the scholars and historians of Egypt, Chaldea and Greece, who are more and more corroborated by the findings of science, or the theories of the men of today? The modern writer whose research has been superficial does not know that before the days of Grecian and Roman ascendency, the entire circle of the Mediterranean and her islands was dotted with the magic cities and the world-wide trade of Ethiopians. The gods and goddesses of the GREEKS and ROMANS WERE BUT THE BORROWED KINGS AND QUEENS OF THIS CUSHITE EMPIRE OF ETHIOPIANS. So marvelous had been their achievements in primitive ages, that in later days, they were worshipped as immortals by the people of India, Egypt, old Ethiopia, Asia Minor and the Mediterranean world”.Source: George Rawlinson, Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Vol. I (The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 1: The History, Geography, And Antiquities Of Chaldaea, Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, And Sassanian or New Persian Empire; With Maps and Illustrations, 1862).James Cowles Prichard, (11 February 1786 – 23 December 1848) was a British physician and ethnologist with broad interests in physical anthropology and psychiatry. His influential Researches into the Physical History of Mankind touched upon the subject of evolution. He also introduced the term "senile dementia" Researches into the Physical History of Man:Quote(s):“It is probable that the Barabra may be an offshoot from the original stock that first peopled Egypt and Nubia. It was the Old Race of the higher civilization that ruled Egypt in the pre-dynastic ages. It was from this nation went forth the colonies that spread civilization. This old race of the Upper Nile, the Agu or Anu of the ancient traditions, spread their arts from Egypt to the Ægean, from Sicily to Italy and Spain. Mosso Angelo says that the characteristic decorations on the pottery of the Mediterranean race of prehistoric times is identical with that of pre-dynastic Egypt”.Source: R.T. Pritchard, Drusilla Dunjee Houston, Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire (Black Classic Press 1985 reprint from 1926 edition).“The physical character of the Egyptians who showed many tokens of relationship to the people of Africa”.Source: R. T. Prittchett, The Natural History of Man, 1843: (pg. 161).“The blacker Goulash resemble in complexion the darkest people of the Nile.; they are of a deep brown mahogany colour. The fairest of the Foulahs is not darker than the Copts or even some Europeans”.Source: Nations of Africa, Page 329, Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: In Two Volumes, Volume 1“THE BARABRAS, SEEMS TO HAVE FORMED HIS IDEAL DEFINITION OF A COMMON ETHIOPIAN AND EGYPTIAN STOCK FROM THAT PEOPLE”.Source: Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, Volume 1. Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, James Cowles Prichard. Author, James Cowles Prichard. Edition, 3. Publisher, Sherwood, Gilbert.A Barabra is an old ethnographical term for the Nubian peoples of northern Sudan and southern Egypt. WikipediaCharles Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.Darwin makes a reference to this statue on his Descent of Man:Quote(s):"When I looked at the statue of Amunoph III (Amenhotep III), I agreed with two officers of the establishment, both competent judges, that he had a strongly marked Negro type of features." The features of Akhnaton (Amennhotep IV), are even more Negroid than those of his illustrious predecessor. That the earliest EGYPTIANS WERE AFRICAN ETHIOPIANS (Nilotic Negroes), is obvious to all unbiased students of oriental history".Source: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, (1871).John Denison Baldwin (September 28, 1809 – July 8, 1883) was an American politician, Congregationalist minister, newspaper editor, and popular anthropological writer.Quote(s):“In the oldest recorded traditions, Arabia is the land of Cush, the celebrated ETHIOPIA OF VERY REMOTE TIMES." HE CONTINUES, "IN AGES OLDER THAN EGYPT OR CHALDEA, Arabia was the seat of an enlightened and enterprising civilization that went far into neighboring countries. At that time ARABIA WAS THE EXALTED AND WONDERFUL ETHIOPIA OF OLDEN tradition, the center and life of what in western Asia was known as the civilized world. TRADITIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD RIGHTLY INTERPRETED CAN HAVE NO OTHER MEANING. In the early traditions and records of Greece, Arabia was described as Ethiopia." Arabia was only separated from old Ethiopia by the Red Sea. We would decide that the "Old Race" of the Upper Nile early sent colonies across the sea, which built up the cities and communities along the opposite Arabian coast. This happening before the founding of Memphis or the colonizing of Chaldea”.Source: John D. Baldwin, Pre-historic nations; or, Inquiries concerning some of the great peoples and civilizatins of antiquity, and their probable relation to a still older civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia, A. M., New York, Harper & brothers, (c1869).Encyclopaedia Biblica: A Critical Dictionary of the Literary, Political and Religion History, the Archeology, Geography and Natural History of the Bible.Quote:“Isaiah often mentions Ethiopia and Egypt in close political relations. In fine the name of ETHIOPIA CHIEFLY STOOD AS THE NAME OF THE NATIONAL AND ROYAL FAMILY OF EGYPT. In the beginning Egypt was ruled from Ethiopia. Ethiopia was ruined by her wars with Egypt, which she sometimes subdued and sometimes served." Modern books contain but little information about the country of the Upper Nile, but archaic books were full of the story of the wonderful Ethiopians. The ancients said that they settled Egypt”.Source: The Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature (1804–1854).Charles Anthon (November 19, 1797 – July 29, 1867) was an American classical scholar.Quote(s):“Egyptians spoken of as a Egyptians spoken of as a very peculiar race of men. ... that the general complexion of this people was a chocolate, or a red copper colour”.“from what has been adduced, we may consider it as tolerably well proved that the EGYPTIANS AND ETHIOPIANS ARE THE SAME RACE, whose abode, from the earliest periods of history, where the regions bordering the Nile”.Source: Charles Anthon, (A classical dictionary, containing an account of the principal proper names mentioned in ancient authors and intended to elucidate all the important points connected with geography, history, biography, mythology, and fine arts of the Greeks and Romans. Together with an account of coins, weights, and measures, with tabular values of the same) by Anthon, Charles, 1797-1867: (Page 32).Émile Amélineau (1850 – 12 January 1915 at Châteaudun) was a French Coptologist, archaeologist and Egyptologist. His scholarly reputation was established as an editor of previously unpublished Coptic texts. But his reputation was destroyed by his work as a digger at Abydos, after Flinders Petrie re-excavated the site and showed how much destruction Amélineau had wrought.{Excerpt}These Anu [Ethiopians=Nubians] were agricultural people, raising cattle on a large scale along the Nile, shutting themselves up in walled cities for defensive purposes. To this people we can attribute without fear of error, the most ancient Egyptian books, The Book of The Dead and the Text of the Pyramids, consequently all the myths of religious teachings. I would add almost all the philospohical systems then known and still called Egyptian. They evidently knew the crafts necessary for any civilization and were familiar with the tools those trades required. They knew how to use metals . . . They made the earliest attempts at writing, for the whole Egyptian tradition attributes this art to Thoth, the great Hermes, an Anu like Osiris, who is called Onian in chapter fifteen of The Book of the Dead and in the Texts of the Pyramids. Certainly the people already knew the principal arts; it left proof of this in the architecture of the tombs at Abydos, especially the tomb of Osiris, and in those sepulchres objects have been found bearing the unmistakeable stamp of their origin - such as carved ivory . . . . All those cities [Ant, Annu Menti, Aunti, Aunyt-Seni today called Esneh, Erment, Quoch, and Heliopolis] have the characteristic symbol which serves to denote the name Anu. Source: Les nouvelles fouilles d'Abydos : [Compte rendu des fouilles d'Abydos, 1896-1898]. by Amélineau, E. (Emile) , 1850-1915. Publication date 1896. Publisher Angers : A. Burdin.Sir Gaston Camille Charles Maspero (June 23, 1846 – June 30, 1916) was a French Egyptologist known for popularizing the term "Sea Peoples" in an 1881 paper.Quote(s):“By the almost unanimous testimony of ancient historians, they belonged to an African race [read: Negro] WHICH FIRST SETTLED IN ETHIOPIA, on the Middle Nile; following the course of the river, they gradually reached the sea”.Source: Gaston Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient. Paris: Hachette, 1917, p. 15, 12th ed. (Translated as: The Dawn of Civilization. London, 1894; reprinted, New York: Frederick Ungar, 1968.)Quote(s):“The Egyptians, though healthy, large and robust were clumsy in their forms and course in their features. Like other African tribes they were woolly haired, flat-nosed and thick lipped, and if not absolutely black were very near it in color.”Source: by T. Bensley for T. Payne and J. White, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, Aegyptian, Etruscan, Greek, and Roman, Society of Dilettanti, Vol 1, London: 1809-1835. Published by Richard Payne Knight.Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, 1st Baronet (5 April 1810 – 5 March 1895) was a British East India Company army officer, politician and Orientalist, sometimes described as the Father of Assyriology.Quote(s):“Recent linguistic discovery tends to show that a Cushite or Ethiopian race did in the earliest times extend itself along the shores of the Southern Ocean from Abyssinia to India. The whole peninsula of India was peopled by a race of their character before the influx of the Aryans; it extended from the Indus along the seacoast through the modern Beluchistan and Kerman, which was the proper country of the Asiatic Ethiopians; the cities on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf are shown by the brick inscriptions found among their ruins to have belonged to this race; it was dominant in Susiana and Babylonia, until overpowered in the one country by Aryan, in the other by Semitic intrusion; it can be traced both by dialect and tradition throughout the whole south coast of the Arabian peninsula”.Source: The New American Cyclopædia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge, Volume 5. Front Cover. George Ripley, Charles Anderson Dana. D. Appleton, 1869 - Encyclopedias and dictionaries.Gustave FlaubertA novelist regarded as a highly influential French novelist and the prime mover of the realist school of French literature. He was best known for his masterpiece, Madame Bovary (1857), regarding the Sphinx. Here's an excerpt:Quote(s):“it exactly faces the east, its head is grey, ears very large and protruding like a negro’s, its neck is eroded and thinner, from the front it rises even higher before you, that to a great hollow dug in the sand before its chest; its missing nose increases the flat, negroid effect. In any case it was certainly Ethiopian, judging by the thick lips”.Flaubert has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country.Philip C. Smith, English scholar states:Quote(s):“No people have bequeathed to us so many memorials of its form complexion and physiognomy as the Egyptians. … If we were left to form an opinion on the subject by the description of the Egyptians left by the Greek writers we should conclude that they were, if not Negroes, at least closely akin to the Negro race. That they were much darker in coloring than the neighboring Asiatics; that they had their frizzled either by nature or art; that their lips were thick and projecting, and their limbs slender, rests upon the authority of eye-witnesses who had traveled in the country and who could have had no motive to deceive. … The fullness of the lips seen in the Sphinx of the Pyramids and in the portraits of the kings is characteristic of the Negro”.Source: (The Ancient History of the East, pp. 25-26, London, 1881)..Professor Charles Seignobos (b. 10 September 1854 at Lamastre, d. 24 April 1942 at Ploubazlanec) was a French historian and Doctor of Letters of the University of Paris, originally released this book in France, titled Histoire de la Civilisation. In his History of Ancient Civilization, Seignobos notes that:Quote(s):“the first civilized inhabitants of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates valleys, were a dark-skinned people with short hair and prominent lips; and that they are referred to by some scholars as Cushites (Ethiopians), and as Hamites by others”.Source: The Great Cities of the Ancient World, In their Glory and their Desolation. By T. A. Buckley, B.A, (1885)."Ethiopian kings, who sat upon the throne of Egypt in the latter days, must have been more by right of descent".Source: The Great Cities of the Ancient World, In their Glory and their Desolation. By T. A. Buckley, B.A, (1885).Jacques Élisée Reclus was a renowned French geographer, writer and anarchist. He produced his 19-volume masterwork, La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes, over a period of nearly 20 years.Quote(s):“The Nile Nubas or Barabra are the original Ethiopians. They are agricultural and have the old Hamitic traits. They plant date trees and set up wheels for irrigation. These are the Ethiopians mentioned in chronicles as possessing war chariots”.Source: Jacques Élisée Reclus From “La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes, (1875).“ETHIOPIA WAS RUINED BY HER WARS WITH EGYPT, WHICH SHE SOMETIMES SUBDUED AND SOMETIMES SERVED." MODERN BOOKS CONTAIN BUT LITTLE INFORMATION ABOUT THE COUNTRY OF THE UPPER NILE, BUT ARCHAIC BOOKS WERE FULL OF THE STORY OF THE WONDERFUL ETHIOPIANS. THE ANCIENTS SAID THAT THEY SETTLED EGYPT. Is it possible that we could know more about the origin of this nation than they? Reclus says, "The people occupying the plateau of the Blue Nile, are conscious of a glorious past and proudly call themselves Ethiopians." He calls the whole triangular space between the Nile and the Red Sea, Ethiopia proper. This vast highland constituted a world apart. From it went forth the inspiration and light now bearing its fruit in the life of younger nations”.Source: Jacques Élisée Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle : la terre et les hommes. Vol. 1 , (1875)."The people occupying the plateau of the Blue Nile, are conscious of a glorious past and proudly call themselves Ethiopians." He calls the whole triangular space between the Nile and the Red Sea, Ethiopia proper. This vast highland constituted a world apart. From it went forth the inspiration and light now bearing its fruit in the life of younger nations”.Source: Jacques Élisée Reclus From “La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes”, (1875).Augustus Henry Keane (1833–1912) was an Irish Roman Catholic journalist and linguist, known for his ethnological writings.Quote(s):“All Barbara have woolly hair with scant beards like the figures of Negroes on the walls of the Egyptian temples." The race of the Old Empire approached closely to this type”.Source: Reclus, Elisée, The earth and its inhabitants, North America, (1890).Thomas Maurice (1754–1824) was a British oriental scholar and historian. His conclusion Thomas Maurice (1754–1824) was a British oriental scholar and historian.Quote(s):“ANCIENT ETHIOPIANS WERE THE ARCHITECTURAL GIANTS OF THE PAST. When the darung Cushite genius was in full career of it's glory, it was the peculiar delight of this enterprising race to erect stupendous edifices, excavate long subterranean passages in living rock, form vast lakes and extend over the hollows of adjoining mountains magnificent arches for aquaducts and bridges”.Source: Indian antiquities: or, Dissertations, relative to the ancient geographical divisions, the pure system of primeval theology, the grand code of civil laws, the original form of government, the widely-extended commerce, and the various and profound literature, of Hindostan: compared, throughout, with the religion, laws, government, and literature, of Persia, Egypt, and Greece, the whole intended as introductory to the history of Hindostan, upon a comprehensive scale (Volume 4).“IN ALL THE RECITALS AND LEGENDS OF THE EARLIEST ANTIQUITIES THE EGYPTIANS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE ETHIOPIANS and to the latter is assigned a distiguished character for wisdom, knowledge, piety which testifies to their priority in order of civilization”.Source: - (Herodotus 2, 42) Aegyptos Lempriere's Bibliotheca classica; or, Classical dictionary, re-ed. by E.H ...edited by Edmund Henry Barker, (1765).Sir Grafton Elliot Smith (1871-1937), Australian-British professor of anatomy, Egyptologist and anthropologist an anatomist, Egyptologist and a proponent of the hyperdiffusionist view of prehistory. He believed in the idea that cultural innovations occur only once and that they spread geographically.Quote(s):“the physical characteristics of the present day Nubian, Beja, Danakil, Galla, and Somali populations are if we leave out of account the alien negro and Semitic traits are an obvious token of their undoubted kinship with the proto-Egyptians”.Source: The Ancient Egyptians and the Origin of CiviliLondonPage 75).“The Great kings of Africa peacefully spread the African civilization to other parts. This peaceful process was disturbed by the coming of the Hyksos into Egypt. These people conquered lower Egypt and ruled it for nearly two hundred years. They were eventually expelled by a king from Upper Egypt. The kings who came after the explusion of the Hyksos extended the boundaries of Egypt into Asia. Many nations in Asia came under the direct control of Egypt”.Source: G. Elliot Smith's booklet The Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilization in the East and in America (New York, 1983).Sir Ernest Alfred Thompson Wallis Budge (27 July 1857 – 23 November 1934) was an English Egyptologist, Orientalist, and philologist who worked for the British Museum and published numerous works on the ancient Near East. He made numerous trips to Egypt and the Sudan on behalf of the British Museum to buy antiquities, and helped it build its collection of cuneiform tablets, manuscripts, and papyri. He published many books on Egyptology, helping to bring the findings to larger audiences. In 1920 he was knighted for his service to Egyptology and the British Museum.Quote(s):"The prehistoric native of Egypt, both in the old and in the new Stone Ages, was African and there is every reason for saying that THE EARLIEST SETTLERS CAME FROM THE SOUTH."Source: Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th-Century Travel Guide, Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, (pg. 21–2).“There are many things in the manners and customs and religions of the historic Egyptians that suggests that the ORIGINAL HOME OF THEIR PREHISTORIC ANCESTORS WAS IN A COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF UGANDA AND Punt”. (Some historians believe that the biblical land of Punt was in the area known on modern maps as Somalia).Source: Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th-Century Travel Guide, Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, pg. (21–2).“The astonishing resemblance of the art of the Fourth, Twelfth and Eighteenth Dynasties, the great periods of Egyptian history lies in the fact that they were dynasties that were purely Ethiopian. They represented the best genius of the race that had given Egypt her civilization. When they were out of power her culture always declined”.Source: The History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, Vol. I., Preface, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1928, (p. 102).“A new strain of Ethiopian blood appears in this line through the Nubian queen, Metuma, about 1400, B. C. Her son, Amenhotep III, the Amenophis of the Greeks, covered the banks of the Nile with monuments remarkable for their grandeur and perfection”.Source: The History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, Vol. I., Preface, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1928, (p. 103).“This was without doubt the Middle Ages when the Cushite race ruling from Thebes as a center, sought to follow and hold THE OLD LINES OF THE MORE ANCIENT CUSHITE EMPIRE OF ETHIOPIANS that in the ages of Amen-Ra and Osiris had covered three worlds. In an earlier age, the central seat had been the primitive Meru. In the latter days of the Egyptian empire, the priestcraft and soldiers retired and set up a new capital at Napata; but the days of world empire were over, which empire had lasted, some authorities say, for six thousand years..”Source: Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, The History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, Vol. I., Preface, (1928).“EGYPTIAN TRADITION OF THE DYNASTIC PERIOD HELD THAT THE ABORIGINAL HOME OF THE EGYPTIANS WAS PUNT…”. While the exact location is still under debate, Punt is generally believed to have been located to the south-east of Egypt”.Source: Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, The History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, Vol. I., Preface, (1928).Lady Lugard, Flora Louise Shaw, DBE (born 19 December 1852 – 25 January 1929), was a British journalist and writer. She is credited with having coined the name "Nigeria".Quote(s):“The fame of the ETHIOPIANS was widespread in ancient history. Herodotus describes them as “the tallest, most beautiful and long-lived of the human races,” and before Herodotus, Homer, in even more flattering language, described them as “the most just of men; the favorite of the gods.” The annals of all the great early nations of Asia Minor are full of them. The Mosaic records allude to them frequently; but while they are DESCRIBED AS THE MOST POWERFUL, the most just, and the most beautiful of the human race, they are constantly spoken of as BLACK, and there seems to be no other conclusion to be drawn, than that at that REMOTE PERIOD OF HISTORY THE LEADING RACE OF THE WESTERN WORLD WAS A BLACK RACE”.Source: [A Tropical Dependency, p. 221, by Lady Lugard], (1905).François Lenormant (17 January 1837 – 9 December 1883) was a 19th-century French assyriologist and archaeologist.Quote(s):“The Jokanites were subject to the Cushites until the end of the second Adite empire. We may be sure the Sabaeans, who at first let them in peaceably made a stout resistance. THE CUSHITES WERE THEIR SUPERIORS IN KNOWLEDGE AND, CIVILIZATION." It had been a Cushite principle to mete out equal justice to aliens. For many years the Semites lived subject to the laws of the Sabaeans, silently increasing in strength. They accepted in part the language, manners and institutions of the Cushites. At last they rose and overthrew those who had given them the light”.Source: A Manual of the Ancient History of the East to the Commencement of the Median Wars, Volume 2. Front Cover · François Lenormant, E. Chevallier. Asher & Company, 1870 - History of Medicine, Ancient {p. 124}.“The foundations of ancient Chaldea, were laid as early as those of Egypt. In fact they were the sister colonies of a parent state. The earliest civilized inhabitants were Sumerians. 5000 B. C. the land was full of city-states. The Sanskrit books of India, called Chaldea one of the divisions of Cusha-Dwipa, the first organized government of the world”.Source: A Manual of the Ancient History of the East to the Commencement of the Median Wars, Volume 2. Front Cover · François Lenormant, E. Chevallier. Asher & Company, 1870 - History of Medicine, Ancient, (Page 160).“This early tradition and the image of the fish-god, the sea-god of the Babylonians, worshipped on down through the ages, stands for a historic happening in the life of an undeveloped and untutored people. It was an age when every unexplained wonder was seen as a god. It was the totemic emblem that is seen among so many of the African races. This ship bringing civilized people to the untaught Turanians and Semites, who introduced the arts to these aborigines, proves that civilization did not originate in Chaldea, that it did not spring from the Turanian or Semitic races, or from Egypt, but came from elsewhere. It shows that Chaldea was not the original Cushite country but that civilization must have sprung from a parent root where it had developed during the long ages”.Source: A Manual of the Ancient History of the East to the Commencement of the Median Wars, Volume 2. Front Cover · François Lenormant, E. Chevallier. Asher & Company, 1870 - History of Medicine, Ancient {p. 169}“In the Chaldean inscriptions the vernacular name of Ethiopia was Mirukh, and its maritime enterprise was very distinctly recognized. THIS CIVILIZATION BROUGHT BY CUSHITES TO CHALDEA MUST HAVE DEVELOPED IN THAT FIRST COMMON CRADLE OF MANKIND THAT THE GREEKS LOCATED UPON THE UPPER NILE”.Source: A Manual of the Ancient History of the East to the Commencement of the Median Wars, Volume 2. Front Cover · François Lenormant, E. Chevallier. Asher & Company, 1870 - History of Medicine, Ancient {page 306}.John Clark Ridpath (April 26, 1840 – July 31, 1900) was an American educator, historian, and editor. His mother was a descendant of Samuel Matthews, a colonial governor of Virginia.Quote(s):“The pictures on the Egyptian monuments reveal that ETHIOPIANS WERE THE BUILDERS. THEY, NOT THE EGYPTIANS, WERE THE MASTER-CRAFTSMEN OF THE EARLIER AGES. The first courses of the pyramids were built of Ethiopian stone. The Cushites were a sacerdotal or priestly race. There was a religious and astronomical significance in the position and shape of the pyramids”.Source: John Clark Ridpath “Ridpath's History” Race Type Of The Early Dynasty (1901).“There is strong reason to think that man was at first very dark of skin, woolly-haired and flat-nosed, and, as he wandered into different climates, the branches of the race diverged and developed their characteristics.”.Source: Joseph McCabe (No. 11, p. 10.) Key to Culture #36: The Complete Story of Philosophy Paperback – (1928).Leo Viktor Frobenius (29 June 1873 – 9 August 1938) was an ethnologist and archaeologist and a major figure in German ethnography. , the great anthropologist, says:Quote:“Ethiopia is an ancient classical land. In olden days its inhabitants were considered the most pious and oldest of mankind. In many quarters Meroe is thought to be indebted to primitive Egypt. From a standpoint of ethnology, we must unhesitatingly reject this supposition. The Nubians possessed an independent and individual religion in the earliest known times, the cult of which impressed the Egyptians, who gave an account of it to the, authors of old”.Source: John D. Baldwin, (Voice of Africa. Vol. II p. 621) 1869.(Pre-historic nations; or, Inquiries concerning some of the great peoples and civilizatins of antiquity, and their probable relation to a still older civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia, A. M., New York, Harper & brothers, c1869).Sir Henry "Harry" Hamilton Johnston (12 June 1858 – 31 July 1927), was a British explorer who traveled widely in Africa, botanist, artist, linguist who spoke many African languages and colonial administrator.Quote:“The Negro with all of his peculiarities of form, colour, and hair appears just the same in the paintings of the age of Thothmoth (Thutmose) III, fifteen centuries before the Christian Era, as he is now seen in the interior of Africa”.Source: (John Kendrick, History Of Ancient Egypt, Volume I, pages 186: 16 401) Found in the fifth and final volume of third edition of Prichard's “Researches” which was published in 1847.Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, (3 June 1853 – 28 July 1942), commonly known as Flinders Petrie, was an English Egyptologist and a pioneer of systematic methodology in archaeology and preservation of artifacts.Quote(s):“In the Fifth Dynasty the capital was moved to Middle Egypt. . The royal forces at this time were composed chiefly of Ethiopians and their pictures appear largely in the pictured priesthood. Tylor points, out that 2000 B. C. Negroes by the tens of thousands were in the Egyptian service, carrying her dominion into Syria and Arabia”.Source: (Petrie, William M. Flinders: Abydos: Part II: 1903).Petrie says of Pharoah Khufu:"Dynasty IV was 3700 B. C. Recent excavations have enabled us to look upon the face of Khufu. He possessed a giant Ethiopian profile".Source: (Petrie, William M. Flinders: Abydos: Part II: 1903).Stela of Nesi (Pharaoh) Amenemhat I. 5th king of the 12th Dynasty, Middle Kingdom. Limestone, painted, British Museum“Amenemhat I of Cushite blood ruled beyond Egypt southward as Lord of the Two Lands. All Egypt came under his domination”.“The Two Lands were pulling apart, though Ethiopians still sat upon the throne of Egypt. By the Two Lands we mean Egypt and Ethiopia. Ethiopia in those ages extended to the northern confines of Upper Egypt. Amenemhat II and III and Usurtesen I were Ethiopian Pharaohs of this Nubian line”.Source: Petrie, William M. Flinders: Abydos: Part II: 1903, (pg. 98).“A breath of life came from the Sudan (Northern Ethiopia). This southern source was likewise the inspiration of . . .” the 1st, 2nd (Anu), 3rd [Sudanese], 4th, 5th, 12th [Sudanese] dynasties. “The 12th dynasty was undoubtedly descended from Amenemhat, the great vizier of the 11th dynasty. It seems, then, that he married the heiress of the Uah-ka family, as stated in the pseudo-prophecy, “A king shall come from the south whose name is Ameny, son a Nubian woman.” She called her son by the family name Senusert, and he was the founder of the 12th dynasty, according to Manetho. The main sources of the 18th dynasty were Nubian and Libyan, depicted black and yellow, but not red of the Egyptians. Ahmos Nefertari was one of their black queens. Her black strain seems to come through the Tao I and II ancestry. The 19th dynasty was a direct mixture of races.” Petrie states: “Decay continued in a divided kingdom; Egypt seemed hopeless until a fresh Ethiopian invasion stimulated it, as in earlier instances”.Source: Petrie, W.M. Flinders, The Making of Egypt, Sheldon Press, New York, 1939, (p. 105).“The foundations of ancient Chaldea, were laid as early as those of Egypt. In fact they were the sister colonies of a parent state. The earliest civilized inhabitants were Sumerians. 5000 B. C. the land was full of city-states”.Source: (Petrie, William M. Flinders: Abydos: Part II: 1903).“The astonishing resemblance of the art of the Fourth, Twelfth and Eighteenth Dynasties, THE GREAT PERIODS OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY LIES IN THE FACT THAT THEY WERE DYNASTIES THAT WERE PURELY ETHIOPIAN. THEY REPRESENTED THE BEST GENIUS OF THE RACE THAT HAD GIVEN EGYPT HER CIVILIZATION. When they were out of power her culture always declined”.Source: (Petrie, William M. Flinders: Abydos: Part II: page 102, 1903).“At the beginning of the historical period of Egypt most inhabitants of the earth were rude savages. In western Europe and northern Asia the half-human Neanderthal lived in eaves under overhanging ledges and fed upon the untamed products of the wild. Outside of Africa, we find over the earth the rude stone tools of the first barbaric inhabitants, that mark the evolution of these races, from savagery, through long stages of development to the civilized state. In Africa we mud no evidences of this slow progress of man up from the barbaric state. The Soudan shows no evidence of a stone age. The African seems to have passed directly to the use of metals without intermediate steps. The Semitic and Japhetic races upon the more sterile lands of the east, and north, as nomadic shepherds, were slow to change to the more settled life, that developed naturally in the rich regions of Egypt and the Upper Nile. Without agriculture they could not advance to the handicraft stage. Going back only three thousand years we find these nations still very ignorant. Semites made no showings of culture until the rise of half barbarous Assyria, WHICH COPIED ITS ARTS AND SCIENCES FROM CUSHIER CHALDEA. The Hebrews learned agriculture and building from the Hamitic race of Canaan”.Source: (Petrie, William M. Flinders: Abydos: Part II, p. 55, 1903).Carleton Stevens Coon was an American physical anthropologist, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, lecturer and professor at Harvard University, and president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists.Quote(s):“…the type of certain Pharaohs, like Ramses II, appears related to the ABYSSINIAN TYPE.”Source: The Races of Europe, Macmillan, (1939 p. 96).NOTE: Abssynia was a Kingdom of Ethiopia.Timothy Hogan is an author and lecturer within the Western Mystery school tradition. He is a Past Master within several different spiritual traditions, including many bodies in Freemasonry (AF&AM) and of Rosicrucian lineages. He is a Grand Master for multiple Knight Templar lineages.Quote:“At some unknown point thousands of years ago, a DYNASTIC RACE THAT ORIGINATED IN UGANDA AND OTHER PARTS OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, traveled up the Nile river at the time, before it had dried up and when it once FLOWED FROM WEST AFRICA INTO ETHIOPIA AND EGYPT. A Niger-Congo speaking people, they adopted the African language of Ethiopians which replaced their own. The language referred to most as Afro-Asiatic, arose in Ethiopia 12,000 years ago. Though they had merged linguistically with the ETHIOPIANS AND ERITREANS THEY REMAINED AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RULING CLASS. THEIR PHARAONIC CULTURE WOULD LATER SPREAD INTO NUBIA (modern day Sudan, ancient Ethiopia), WHOSE INHABITANT WOULD GO ON TO CREATE THE WORLD’S FIRST CIVILIZATION, ANCIENT CAVE RELIEFS AND INDEPENDENT RENEGADE BREAKAWAY COLONY KNOWN AS EGYPT”.Source: Hogan, Timothy (Pharaoh: A One-Woman play - The life and times of Ancient Egypt's female king), 2011.Maria C. Gatto, Ph.D.Ph.D. degree in African ArchaeologyResearch Associate, formerly at YaleThe University of Leicester/Research AssociateSchool of Archaeology and Ancient History, Leicester, Leicestershire, United Kingdom Museums and [email protected] completed her undergraduate and graduate education in Archaeology at “Sapienza” University of Rome, where she received a Master degree in 1993 (summa cum laude) with a dissertation on the prehistory of Nubia. In 2001 she received a PhD degree in African Archaeology from the University of Naples “L’Orientale” with a research on ceramic traditions and cultural boundaries in the late prehistory of North-East Africa.After being awarded her PhD, Maria worked at the British Museum as a research curator for prehistoric pottery collections from the Nile Valley, and in Italy and abroad as a museum educator, lecturer, field archaeologist and ceramic specialist. From 2008 to 2013, she has been at Yale University, holding positions in Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations (postdoctoral fellow, associate research scholar and lecturer in Egyptology) as well as in Anthropology (research associate).Since 2005 she co-directs in Egypt the Aswan-Kom Ombo Archaeological Project, co-sponsored by Yale University and University of Bologna.Quote(s):“NUBIA IS EGYPT’S AFRICAN ANCESTOR. What linked Ancient Egypt to the rest of the North African cultures is this strong tie with the Nubian pastoral nomadic lifestyle, the same pastoral background commonly shared by most of the ancient Saharan and modem sub-Saharan societies. Thus, not only did Nubia have a prominent role in the origin of Ancient Egypt, it was also a key area for the origin of the entire African pastoral tradition .” The ‘greatness’ of ancient Egypt is captivating, and it appears that nearly everyone has been trying to claim its origin for themselves, at some point, in order to identify with their legacy; this includes major western scholars, indigenous Africans, and “Black” scholars. “Nowadays support for the Egypt-Africa connection comes from DIFFERENT FIELDS OF RESEARCH, mainly ARCHEOLOGICAL, LINGUISTIC, and GENETIC, but to what extent and in what way Egypt interacted with the African world still remains to be clarified .” To me, this notion is a problem, because Egypt IS the so-called African world: Egypt is in Africa! Egypt did not have to “interact” with Africa, because it is IN Africa”!!Research: The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological RecordSource: Maria Carmela Gatto, The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological Record (Oxford: Hadrian Books Ltd., 2009).“Any Egyptian evidence in Nubia was seen as an import or as cultural influence,while any Nubian evidence in Upper Egypt was viewed as the sporadic presence of foreign people within Egyptian territory. IN THE LAST few years, new research on the subject, particularly from a Nubian point of view, shows that the interaction between the two cultures was much more complex than previously thought, affecting the time, space and nature of the interaction (Gatto & Tiraterra 1996; Gatto 2000, 2003a, 2003b). The Aswan area was probably never a real borderline, at least not until the New Kingdom. Of particular importance in this perspective is the area between Armant and Dehmit, south of the First Cataract, as well as the surrounding deserts, and for the availability of data, more specifically the Western Desert”.“The data recently collected and a new interpretation of available information are bringing to light a stable and long-term interaction between Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia that has to be seen in a very different perspective. The two regions, and so their cultural entities, are not in antithesis to one another, but in the Predynastic period are still the expression of the same cultural tradition, with strong regional variations, particularly in the last part of the 4th millennium BC. Some of them are clearly connected with the major cultural and political changes of Egypt”.Research: The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological RecordSource: Maria Carmela GATTO (British Museum, London) 2002. "At the Origin of the Egyptian Civilisation: Reconsidering the Relationship between Egypt and Nubia in the Pre- and Protodynastic Periods." Conférence internationale / International Conference L'Egypte pré- et protodynastique. Les origines de l'Etat Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt. Origin of the State. Toulouse (France) - 5-8 sept. 2005).Quote:"The distinction between an Egyptian and a Nubian identity is something connected to the rise of the Naqada culture in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE. During the previous millennium such a distinction would have not made sense. As previously stated, the Tarifian, Badarian Tasian cultures of Middle and Upper Egypt have strong ties with rhe Nubian/Nilotic pastoral tradition, as can be inferred, for instance, by the very similar pottery, economy and settlement pattern and by the latest findings in the deserts surrounding the Egyptian Nile valley (Gatto 2011b, 2012a, b, 2013)".Research: http://www.academia.edu/19519311/_Cultural_entanglement_at_the_dawn_of_the_Egyptian_history_a_view_from_the_Nile_First_Cataract_region_Origini_Prehistory_and_Protohistory_of_Ancient_Civilizations_XXXVI_93_123Source: Maria Gatto 2014. Cultural entanglement at the dawn of the Egyptian history: A View from the Nile First Cataract Region (IN: Origini - XXXVI: 93-123- Preistoria e protostoria delle civiltà antiche).Nubians were ethnically the closest people to the Egyptians. Conflict between the two were typical of clashes between kingdoms without the need "racial" models drawn by some 20th century writers.Quote:"To sum up, Nubia is Egypt’s African ancestor. What linked Ancient Egypt to the rest of the North African cultures is this strong tie with the Nubian pastoral nomadic lifestyle, the same pastoral background commonly shared by most of the ancient Saharan and modern sub-Saharan societies. Thus, NOT ONLY DID NUBIA HAVE APROMINENT ROLE IN THE ORIGIN OF ANCIENT EGYPT, it WAS ALSO A KEY AREA FOR THE ORIGIN OF THE ENTIRE AFRICAN PASTORAL TRADITION."Source: Maria C. Gatto, The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological RecordResearch: The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological RecordGeoff Emberling, an American assistant research scientist from The University of Michigan“We now recognize that populations of Nubia and Egypt form a continuum rather than clearly distinct groups,” Mr. Emberling writes, “and that it is impossible to draw a line between Egypt and Nubia that would indicate where ‘black’ begins.”“Nubia” is by no means a comprehensive picture of this ancient civilization — we haven’t had one of those since the mid-1990s — but it’s certainly illuminating. As a collaboration between the university and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, it strikes a scholarly but not overly specialized tone. The museum organized the exhibition and lent the majority of the show’s objects, many of which are rarely on view there”.A brief summary of the period: Beginning in about 3000 B.C., Southern Nubia developed into a powerful kingdom known as Kush. Egypt, increasingly nervous about this neighbor, conquered a large swath of it in 1500 B.C. Four centuries later the Egyptian empire collapsed; a dark age followed. Then, around 900 B.C., Nubia rose again. By 750 B.C., its Napatan kings had control of Egypt — at least until the Assyrians arrived, in 650 B.C.EVIDENCE OF THE OLDEST RECOGNIZABLE MONARCHY IN HUMAN HISTORY, PRECEDING THE RISE OF THE EARLIEST EGYPTIAN KINGS BY SEVERAL GENERATIONS, HAS BEEN DISCOVERED IN ARTIFATS FROM ANCIENT NUBIA IN AFRICA.Dr. Keith C. SeeleIn 1962, a research team headed by Keith C. Seele, Director of The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Nubian Expedition, discovered a pharaonic dynasty in Nubia that predated the first pharaonic period in Kemet (Egypt). This is an area that extends from northern Sudan to southern Kemet. In some literature it was referred to as ancient Ethiopia, or as in the Bible, Kush. Today, it is called Ta-Seti (Nubia).Twelve of the tombs were tremendous, each one large enough to have served a predynastic Egyptian king.Tombs of this size, wealth and date in Egypt would have been immediately recognized as royal. Their extraordinarily varied contents would have been taken as evidence of a complex culture exposed to wide outside connections. But because the discovery was made in Nubia at a time and place when kingship wasthought impossible, further proof of royalty is necessary. What was really surprising was the age of the tombs. The cemetery clearly dated from the time of the so-called A-Group - a prehistoric people believed to havedominated lower Nubia from about 3800 to 3100 B.C.In 1962 the Aswan High Dam was due to flood the region where Qustal was located in Nubia. Keith C. Seele organized an emergency team of archaeologists to excavate the areas (Qustal was only one among many). Although initially neglected, Seele decided to give Qustal a brief look before time ran out. He did not disappoint himself. In Qustul, thirty-three tombs were found, twelve being large enough to resemble predynastic Egyptian sarcophagi. Jewelry, pottery, flasks, bowls, and large storage jars were located. The presence of the tombs seemed to imply that some sort of a monarchy existed amongst the Nubians---but anthropologists immediately jettisoned this possibility, stating that no such thing was possible. Egypt had the first monarchy and no others preceded it.Then, in Tomb L-24 at Qustul, the Qustul censer was discovered.“The inscription showed three ships sailing in procession. The three ships were sailing toward the royal palace. One of the ships carried a lion - perhaps a deity. The central boat carries the king, sitting and equipped with long robe, flail and White Crown. All motifs that would later become symbols of Pharaonic rule in Egypt. This piece had been made no later than 3400 B.C. At that early date, there were not supposed to have been any such things as pharaohs or pharaohs' palaces. The discovery of the Qustul Incense Burner is considered one of the earliest certifiable uses of incense by a culture. This Qustul burner also rose a debate regarding the Nubian origin of Egyptian civilization. Upon the Incense Burner is a relief of a royal procession considered by many archeologists as evidence of the worlds first monarchy. This debate maintains that Nubian culture often referred to as Ta-seti, developed as early as 7000 B.C. forming the source for Egyptian Pharonic culture, as well as its religious system. However, Egyptologists all agree that the bounty of the lush Nile Valley was instrumental to the luxuriant flowering of Ancient Egypt. The Sahara was not always a desolate wasteland. Some 10,000 years ago, the Sahara received considerably more rain than it does today, permitting a savanna-like vegetation of open grasslands peppered with shrubs and trees, much like the East African plains of today”.Source: Evidence of the Badarians into Pre-historic Egypt (4500-3800 BC)Dr. Seele died of cancer without ever seeing his theory vindicated. Seele had gone to his grave believing that Nubian kings lay buried in Cemetery L. But he had never imagined that those kings might have been pharaohs, arraying themselves in all the formal regalia similar to that of an Egyptian monarch.Dr. Boyce RensbergerOn March 1, 1979, The New York Times carried an article on its front page, written by Boyce Rensberger, with the headline:"Nubian Monarchy Called Oldest".In the article, Rensberger wrote:“Evidence of the oldest recognizable monarchy in human history, preceding the rise of the earliest Egyptian kings by several generations, has been discovered in artifacts from ancient Nubia." He estimated that “The first kings of Ta-Seti (Nubia) may well have ruled about 5900 BC”.Until now it had been assumed that at that time the ancient Nubian culture, which existed in what is now northern Sudan and southern Egypt, had not advanced beyond a collection of scattered tribal clans and chiefdoms.The existence of rule by kings indicates a more advanced form of political organization in which many chiefdoms are united under a more powerful and wealthier ruler.The discovery is expected to stimulate a new appraisal of the origins of civilization in Africa, raising the question of to what extent later Egyptian culture may have derived its advanced political structure from the Nubians. The various symbols of Nubian royalty that have been found are the same as those associated, in later times, with Egyptian kings.The new findings suggest that the ancient Nubians may have reached this stage of political development as long ago as 3300 B.C., several generations before the earliest documented Egyptian king.Source: Dr. Boyce Rensberger, The New York Times, Ancient Nubian Artifacts Yield Evidence of Earliest Monarchy, March 1, 1979“Scholars from the University of Chicago Oriental Institute excavated at Qustul (near Abu Simbel – Modern Sudan), in 1960–64, and found artifacts which incorporated images associated with Egyptian pharaohs. From this Williams concluded that "Egypt and Nubia A-Group culture shared the same official culture", "participated in the most complex dynastic developments", and "Nubia and Egypt were both part of the great East African substratum”.Source: Dr. Boyce Rensberger, Ancient Nubian Artifacts Yield Evidence of Earliest Monarchy, New York Times, March 1, 1979“Thousands of artifacts created by the Nubians themselves, reflecting a distinct culture dating back almost 6,000 years. Scholars are finding in the artifacts striking evidence of Nubia's influence on Egyptian culture and its development of kingly rule, a pivotal political innovation that may have influenced the rise of pharaohs in Egypt”."It's clear Nubia was an important civilization in its own right and not just a stepsister of Egypt," said Dr. Emily Teeter, curator of a new exhibit of Nubian archeology that opened last week at the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute”.“From the new archeological evidence, scholars have identified the first Nubian civilization as emerging about 3800 B.C. and lasting to 3100. Its settlements were between Aswan and the second Nile cataract, or waterfall, to the south. Toward the end of this period, Egyptians and Nubians came in ever closer contact through trade in ivory, gold, animal skins and ebony”.“A most significant discovery from this period, made by Chicago's Oriental Institute, was a stone incense burner excavated at the site of Qustul, capital of the Nubian kingdom called Ta-Seti, "The Land of the Bow." Engraved on the side of the burner are a seated ruler, a palace portal and a crown and falcon, motifs that were to become symbols of Egyptian pharaohs”.“Archeologists and other scholars have only recently begun to appreciate the full significance of the salvaged Nubian treasures, having now had time to catalog and study them”.Source: John Noble Wilford, Nubian Treasures Reflect Black Influence on Egypt, The New York Times Archive article February 11, 1992Egyptologist and Nubiologist Bruce Williams, Ph.D“After the rebirth of the Qustul spectacle, after the New York Times proclaimed on March 1st, 1979 that, "Evidence of the oldest recognizable monarchy...is expected to stimulate a new appraisal of the origins of civilization in Africa", the Eurocentrics, beat red with anger and humiliation, could restrain themselves no longer”.Source: Williams, Bruce (2011). Before the Pyramids. Chicago, Illinois: Oriental Institute Museum Publications. pp. 89–90.The Qustul censer made no later than 3400 B.C.The Qustul censer is an incense burner depicting three ships sailing toward a serekh (royal palace). In the middle boat a Pharaoh is shown (as archaeologist Bruce Williams discerned) wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt and is adorned in royal Egyptian regalia. By his crown, a falcon symbol of the god Horus hovers, and in front of the falcon a rosette, an Egyptian royal insignia, is shown. This piece of characteristic Egyptian art was found not in Egypt, but rather 200 miles southward into Nubia. This discovery was mind-boggling. The Qustul censer was dated at 3,400 B.C., long preceding predynastic Egypt.The evidence was irrefutable. The earliest displays of the Egyptian monarchy and Pharaonic symbols came, not from Egypt, but from the South---Nubia. It should be understood that the censer was no anomaly.Heads of the anthropological elite offered naive and feeble rationales and retorts for the Qustul censer. They asserted that the censer was mostly likely an import. The Qustul censer, however, was made of indisputably Nubian stone. That it could be made in Nubia, exported to Egypt, and imported once again back to Nubia was highly improbable. Others exclaimed that Williams was incorrect in his dating of the object, despite the fact that his dating was accurate and conclusive. Yet more, "one scholar actually resorted to the desperate tactic of claiming that the Qustul censer had not really been found in Tomb L-24 [site at Qustul] at all. He claimed that the paper work... had been sloppy." Williams kept detailed and accurate records which were verified (via signature) by other archaeologists accompanying him in his excavations.The Qustul incense burner indicates that the unification of Nubia preceded that of Egypt. The Ta-Seti had a rich culture at Qustul. Qustul Cemetery L had tombs that equaled or exceeded Kemite tombs of the First Dynasty of Egypt. The A-Group people were called Steu 'bowmen'.The Steu had the same funeral customs, pottery, musical instruments and related artifacts of the Egyptians. Williams (1987, p.173,182) believes that the Qustul Pharaohs are the Egyptian Rulers referred to as the Red Crown rulers in ancient Egyptian documents.Dr. Williams (1987) gave six reasons why he believes that the Steu of Qustul founded Kemite civilization:1. Direct progression of royal complex designs from Qustul to Hierakonpolis to Abydos.2. Egyptian objects in Naqada III a-b tombs3. No royal tombs in Lower and Upper Egypt.4. Pharoanic monuments that refer to conflict in Upper Egypt.5. Inscriptions of the ruler Pe-Hor, are older than Iry-Hor of Abydos.6. The ten rulers of Qustul, one at Hierakonpolis and three at Abydos corresponds to the "historical"kings of late Naqada period.“The findings of Williams (1987), support the findings of so-called Afrocentric Dr. Diop (1991) because we also understand better now why the Egyptian term designating royalty etymologically means: (the man) who comes from the South= nsw< n y swt = who belongs to the South= who is a native of the South= the King of Lower Egypt, and has never meant just King, in other words king of Lower and Upper Egypt, King of all Egypt (p.108)”.“A number of writers dispute any claim that the Nubian kings were responsible for the genesis of the Egyptian monarchies that followed”.Source: Bruce Williams, "Forbears of Menes in Nubia: Myth or Reality," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1987), pp. 15-26“Williams however notes that his research advanced no claim of a Nubian origin or genesis for the pharonic monarchy. Instead he holds that the archaeological data shows Nubian linkages and influence in helping to "fashion pharaonic civilization." Such data includes detailed excavations of the burial place of the Nubian rulers with date stamps well before the historical First Dynasty of Egypt. The size and wealth of the tombs were also vastly greater than that of the well-known Abydos tombs in Egypt”.Source: F. J. Yurco, 'Were the ancient Egyptians black or white?', Biblical Archeology Review (Vol 15, no. 5, 1989), pp. 24-9, 58.Heads of the anthropological elite offered naive and feeble rationales and retorts for the Qustul censer. They asserted that the censer was mostly likely an import. The Qustul censer, however, was made of indisputably Nubian stone. That it could be made in Nubia, exported to Egypt, and imported once again back to Nubia is highly improbable. Others exclaimed that Williams was incorrect in his dating of the object, despite the fact that his dating was accurate and conclusive. Yet more, "one scholar actually resorted to the desperate tactic of claiming that the Qustul censer had not really been found in Tomb L-24 [site at Qustul] at all! He claimed that the paper work...had been sloppy." Williams kept detailed and accurate records which were verified (via signature) by other archaeologists accompanying him in his excavations.“Ta-Seti, the A-Group state based in Qustul, perhaps the earliest known kingdom in the Nile Valley apparently conquered portions of upper Egypt. A-Group type royal tombs have been found in Upper Egypt”.Source: Excavations Between Abu Simbel and the Sudan Frontier, Part 1: The A-Group Royal Cemetery at Qustul, Cemetery L., (Bruce B. Williams, 1986), The Oriental Institute of the University of ChicagoThey Hail From the SouthTa-Seti, the A-Group state based in Qustul, perhaps the earliest known kingdom in the Nile Valley (Williams, 1986) apparently conquered portions of Upper Egypt. A-Group type royal tombs have been found in Upper Egypt (Williams, 1986). As a matter of language we read Qus-tul, but this is a corruption of Qus-Uta-Su, where Qus is Kus and Uta is bow, su is like saying the Su-Dan or the Khenti-Amenti-Su. In other words Qus-Uta-Su is the same as Ta-Seti but in two different forms/languages. Kus would be how the Hebrews called the people of Kusah, ie., Kush and I guess Qus is an Arabic dialect of Kus, ultimately though, the generic Kas as in K'Mt is Kas'Ma'At or Kas'Ma'Et, depending on the word following 'At or 'Et, as in Horu-Sa-Aset-Nephru. There is no 'f' in the language so as we read Neferu, the 'f' is replaced with the 'ph' sound and the 'e' of ne-fe-r is removed.“Qustul in Nubia "could well have been the seat of Egypt's founding dynasty".Source: Williams, Bruce (2011). Before the Pyramids. Chicago, Illinois: Oriental Institute Museum Publications. pp. 89–90.The Narmer PaletteDuring Egyptian Dynasty I, the A-Group or Ta-Seti (Kushite) people of Lower Nubia “disappear”. Given the close relationship between the Predynastic Egyptians and Ta-Seti who founded the first empire on earth (Williams 1985), suggest that the Narmar Palette, depiction of the epic battle which unified Kem (Egypt) may also record the forced submission of the A-Group people to Upper Egyptian rule. The terms of this victory may have called for the A-Group people to move into Kem. This would explain the lack of archaeological data on the A-Group people after the unification of Kem. This would also explain how the Egyptian form of government came from the south into the Delta. Trigger (1987) noted that: Evidence that both the Red and the White Crowns were originally southern Egyptian symbols suggests that most of the iconography originated in Upper Egypt" (p.63).The research makes it clear that the first sepats or nomes of Egypt were probably founded by “Kushites” who spoke a Niger-Congo language and belonged to the Ounanian culture. The A-Group people were the foundation of the Egyptians. The Egyptians differenciated themselves from the Kushites once the former city-states or sepats became Kem (Winters, 1994, 2002).David O'Connor wrote that the Qustul incense burner provides evidence that the A-group Nubian culture in Qustul marked the "pivotal change" from predynastic to dynastic "Egyptian monumental art”.https://www.cambridge.org/core/j...The Nubian drawings from roughly the same period as the Qustul incense burner, many showing distinctly "Egyptian" like themes and symbols.A close-up of the pharaonic figure and his fan-bearer in the Nag el-Hamdulab tableaux, prior to its destruction by vandals. The rock art features a royal procession with two standard bearers in front and the figure of a man holding a cane-like staff in one hand and perhaps a flail in the other and is presumably wearing a hedjet (white crown) who is then followed by a fan-bearer.The assumption is that the art probably represents an Egyptian pharaoh's triumphal procession over the Nubians with possible tribute from Nubians. This doesn’t make sense as Egyptologists have long acknowledged that the southern periphery of Upper Egypt around the Aswan-Elephantine area was inhabited by ethnically 'Nubian' (A-Group) people since neolithic times. This of course upsets their theories.Then the obvious question must be asked, why would the earliest depiction of an Egyptian king be found so far from the actual centers of of pharaonic activity namely Abutu (Abydos), Nubt (Naqada), and Nekhen (Hierakonpolis)-- and much closer to cultural centers of Lower Nubia? It defies common logic, unless it is in fact a Nubian and not an Egyptian.Research Source: https://www.researchgate.net/pub...Sudan has some important rock art. Most of the northern part of the country is either desert or semi-desert but there are fertile areas in the Nile Valley and there is a lot of art in these Rocky hills. In the extreme north east is a mountain called Jebel Awaynat on top of which the borders of Egypt, Libya and Sudan all meet. This area is very rich in rock engravings and paintings. South of here is an ancient river valley (ancient tributary of the Nile) with many important engravings and still further south and east of Darfur is Kordofan which is also rich in rock art. Meanwhile, there are rock paintings in the north east along the Ethiopian border. Southern Sudan does so far not appear to have much rock art but there is art in the Nuba Mountains and there is probably art not yet recorded near the Ethiopian border and the border with the Central Africa Republic (CAR).Source: www.britishmuseum.org/Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project: Amri to Kirbekan SurveyCited: https://www.researchgate.net/pub...Dr. Muhammad Arabi a Nubian and Egyptian historian explains why the ancient Egyptians and Nubians were “black”.Racist scholars are comfortable placing Greece & Rome within the context of European/Western history and civilization (rightly so), but are threatened when ancient Egypt is viewed the same way within African culture.STATE FORMATION HAD IT’S ORIGINS IN THE SOUTHThe southern kingdom, Upper Egypt, was always recognized as the more dominant of the two regions. It was from the south that the most enduring influences in Egyptian society came and without doubt most of its greatest leaders were southerners too. Throughout her long history Egypt constantly needed to return to the south to refresh herself and to restore her institutions, when the weight of years or of external pressures bore too heavily upon her.State formation and the cultural weight of the south.“The consensus among Egyptologists is that the south (Upper Egypt), achieved ascendacy over Lower Egypt (the Delta/north,) to usher in the well-known Egyptian dynastic period.[105] The exact nature of the unification is still a matter of ongoing research, but the northern culture does not appear to be as elaborated as that of the south as regards conditions near the establishment of the dynastic civilization. According to the mainstream Cambridge History of Africa: "While not attempting to underestimate the contribution that Deltaic political and religious institutions made to those of a united Egypt, many Egyptologists now discount the idea that a united prehistoric kingdom of Lower Egypt ever existed”.Source: The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 1, From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC, (Cambridge University Press: 1982), Edited by J. Desmond Clark pp. 500-509Egyptian state founded from the south, and indigenous in character. Egyptians dominated Palestine in some eras.“State formation in the ancient Nile Valley does not appear to have taken the sudden form suggested by the influx or inspiration of a Dynastic Mediterranean or Mesopotamian race. Instead material evidence indicates that the indigenous peoples evolved the state gradually, in a slowly phased process suggesting a degree of regional integration well before the 1st Dynasty. These phases involved the emergence of dispersed kingdoms both in Egypt (Kaiser and Dreyer 1982) and possibly in Nubia (Williams 1987), with up to ten indigenous rulers in place before the 1st Dynasty. (Kaiser and Dreyer 1982). Such continuity confirms the forensic data of Zakrzewski (2007) and others noted above, and provides further evidence of the indigenous genesis of the pharaonic state”.Source: Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) The Languages of Africa. International journal of American linguistics, 29, 1, part 2“What is truly unique about this state is the integration of rule over an extensive geographic region, in contrast to other contemporaneous Near Easter polities in Nubia, Mesopotamia, Palestine and the Levant. Present evidence suggests that the state which emerged by the First Dynasty had its roots in the Nagada culture of Upper Egypt, where grave types, pottery and artifacts demonstrate an evolution of form from the Predynastic to the First Dynasty. This cannot be demonstrated for the material culture of Lower Egypt, which was eventually displaced by that which originated in Upper Egypt. Hierarchical society with much social and economic differentiation, as symbolized in the Nagada II cemeteries of Upper Egypt, does not seem to have been present, then, in Lower Egypt, a fact which supports an Upper Egyptian origin for the unified state. Thus archaeological evidence cannot support earlier theories that the founders of Egyptian civilization were an invading Dynastic race from the east..”Source: (Bard, Kathryn A. 1994 The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence. Journal of Field Archaeology 21(3):265-288.)References Cited: https://www.researchgate.net/fil...“Populations and cultures now found south of the desert roamed far to the north. The culture of Upper Egypt, which became dynastic Egyptian civilization, could fairly be called a Sudanese transplant."Source: (Egypt and Sub-Saharan Africa: Their Interaction. Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa, by Joseph O. Vogel, AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, California (1997), pp. 465-472 )“Analysis of crania is the traditional approach to assessing ancient population origins, relationships, and diversity. In studies based on anatomical traits and measurements of crania, similarities have been found between Nile Valley crania from 30,000, 20,000 and 12,000 years ago and various African remains from more recent times (see Thoma 1984; Brauer and Rimbach 1990; Angel and Kelley 1986; Keita 1993). Studies of crania from southern predynastic Egypt, from the formative period (4000-3100 B.C.), show them usually to be more similar to the crania of ancient Nubians, Kushites, Saharans, or modern groups from the Horn of Africa than to those of dynastic northern Egyptians or ancient or modern Southern Europeans”.Source: S.O.Y. and A.J. Boyce, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians", in Egypt in Africa, Theodore Celenko (ed), Indiana University Press, 1996, pp. 20-33.Ancient Egyptian civilization was, in ways and to an extent usually not recognized, fundamentally African. The evidence of both language and culture reveals these African roots.The main cities of are shown on the maps and provide the locations of important cities such as Thebes, Abydos, Thinis, Khmun (Hermopolis), Dendera, Hierakonpolis, Koptos, Edfu, Elephantine and Aswan. Upper Egypt had its own kings and Pharoahs until the unification of Egypt c3100BC.The evidence of the origins of the ancient Egyptians from their sacred texts:Detail from the Papyrus of Hunefer, c. 1370 bce. Hunefer and his wifeThe Hunefer PapyrusHunefer the 19th century scribe was the owner of the Papyrus of Hunefer, a copy of the funerary Egyptian Book of Spells for Going Forth by Day, coined by 19th century Egyptologists as “the Egyptian Book of the Dead”, which represents one of the classic examples of these texts, along with others such as the Papyrus of Ani. The papyrus was found in his tomb in Thebes. It dates from the 19th Dynasty, about 1285 B.C.E. It can be seen in the British Museum. In the words of the ancient Egyptians, in their own sacred texts, it states:“WE CAME FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE NILE WHERE THE GOD HAPI DWELLS, AT THE FOOTHILLS OF THE MOUNTAINS OF THE MOON”. "We," meaning the ancient Egyptians, as stated, came from the beginning of the Nile. Not from the Mediterranean, not from the Levant or any other lands north and outside of Egypt. The hail from the south. Let’s deal with facts.Mountains of the Moon is an ancient term referring to a legendary mountain range of eastern equatorial Africa, located on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) at the source of the Nile river.Q: Where Is The Begining Of The Nile?A: The farthest point of the beginning of the Nile is in Uganda; this is the White Nile. Another point is in Ethiopia.“The Blue Nile and White Nile meet in Khartoum; and the other side of Khartoum is the Omdurman Republic of Sudan. From there it flows from the south down north. And there it meets with the Atbara River in Atbara, Sudan. Then it flows completely through Sudan (Ta-Nehisi, Ta-Seti, as it was called), part of that ancient empire which was at one time adjacent to the nation called Meroe or Merowe. From that, into the southern part of what the Romans called "Nubia," and parallel on the Nile, part of which the Greeks called "Egypticus"; the English called it "Egypt" and the Jews in their mythology called it "Mizraim" which the current Arabs called Mizr/Mizrair. Thus it ends in the Sea of Sais, also called the Great Sea, today's Mediterranean Sea. The God Hapi is always shown tying two symbols of the "Two Lands," Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, during Dynastic Periods, or from the beginning of the Dynastic Periods. The lotus flower is the symbol of the south, and the papyrus plant, the symbol of the north. From: A lecture delivered for the Minority Ethnic Unit of the Greater London Council, London, England, March 6–8, 1986”.“According to Herodotus, the Ancient Egyptians believed that the Nile had its source in two great mountains within which were eternal springs. From here one branch was said to flow north, dividing Egypt, and another south into Nubia and Ethiopia. Greek trader Diogenes traveled inland from Rhapta (coastal city in what is today Tanzania) for 25 days before encountering two great lakes and a snowy range of mountains where the Nile draws its source (Lane-Poole 1950: 4)”.“It seems very clear that Diogenes, traveling directly west from the coast, came upon either Lake Nyassa or Lake Victoria (or possibly both). The nearby snowcapped mountains could only be the Rwenzori range. Others have suggested that Diogenes may have spotted Kilimanjaro, however, this is unlikely given the absence of a major lake in the region as well as that that Diogenes described a range rather than a solitary mountain. In any case, via Marinus’s writings, the travels of the Greek merchant Diogenes found their way into to Ptolemy’s canonical Geographica and we see the first appearance of the Mountains of the Moon”.Source: “History of the Exploration of Africa as Reflected in the Maps in the Collection of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum”, Edward Humphry Lane-Poole. Rhodes-Livingstone Museum, 1950 - Africa - page 4THE RWENZORI MOUNTAINS OF UGANDA (Mountains of the Moon)Where Are The Foothills Of The Mountains Of The Moon? There are two mountains in all of Africa whose river contributes to the Nile. The White Nile Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and the Blue Nile, the Rwenzori Mountain in Uganda, which is the source of the White Nile. Civilization flowed “down” the river Nile, which starts from the White Nile and Blue Nile in Uganda and Ethiopia, flowing . The River Nile stretching for 4,000 miles was a huge cultural highway that facilitated the movement of African people and natural resources and the exchange of information and goods. So, Uganda appears to be the ancestral home of the ancient Egyptians or the “Foothills of the Mountains of the Moon”. - Through The Dark Continent: or “The Sources of the Nile around the Great Lakes of Equatorial Africa and down the Livingstone River to the Atlantic Ocean". The Twa people (also known as Batwa or pygmies) originate from the very same area. So do the gods Bes and Hathor.Various identifications have been made in modern times, the Rwenzori Mountains of Uganda being the most accurate and celebrated.“For centuries this area of equatorial Africa has been called “The Mountain of the Moon” by the native inhabitants. As a matter of fact, in the language of Ki-Swahili, Kilimanjaro means “Mountain of the Moon,” as does the Buganda word Rwenzori”.Source: Nile Valley Civilizations, Anthony Browder (pg. 46)“THE LAND OF PUNT, LAND OF THE GODS”"There are many things in the manners and customs and religions of the historic EGYPTIANS THAT SUGGESTS THAT THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THEIR PREHISTORIC ANCESTORS WAS IN A COUNTRY IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF UGANDA AND PUNT." (Some historians believe that the biblical land of Punt was in the area known on modern maps as Somalia).Source: Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th-Century Travel Guide, Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, pg. (21–2).The ancient Egyptians held a special reverence for the Land of Punt. Known to them as Ta netjer or Ta nuter (“God’s Land”), they regarded it as both their ancestral homeland and a spiritual center. There was a pre-existing relationship with Punt, one which seems to have dwindled over thousands of years. Egyptian and Puntite culture had many things in common (i.e. shared language, shared heritage and shared deities), but ties had obviously weakened, the result of conflicts.Based on the evidence of the ancient pharaoh’s inscriptions, Punt/Punt Land is many believe is in part the State of Somalia at the Horn of Africa. The ancient city of Opone in Somalia is identical to the city of Pouen referenced as part of Punt by ancient inscriptions. Areas in Eritrea are also thought to be in the mix.Hatshepsut's inscriptions also claim that her divine mother was from Punt - and there is evidence that Bes (the goddess of childbirth) came from Punt Land as well. Other inscriptions indicate that the 18th Dynasty pharaohs considered Punt as the origin of their culture.James Henry Breasted (1906):“The question of the location of Punt (ancient Ethiopia) is too large for discussion here, but is was certainly in Africa, and probably was the Somali coast”.W.M. Flinders Petrie (1939): In “The Making of Egypt” (1939). Petrie states:“In the “Horn of Africa” there they named the "Land of Punt," sacred to later Egyptians as the source of the race". The Horn of Africa is the easternmost projection of the African continent. The Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia..”Source: British Egyptologist Ernest A. Wallis BudgeOne of the principal challenges in locating the Land of Punt has been the absence of artifacts that could be definitively identified with an ancient Puntite civilization. Perhaps the closest thing to that were two v-shaped arm-clamps made of ivory, which were found in an Old Kingdom tomb at Shellal in Upper Egypt. Some writers initially proposed that the person buried within the grave may have been a Puntite envoy. However, the Egyptologist David O’Connor later demonstrated that the man was, in fact, an Upper Nubian emissary since an Upper Nubian figure is shown wearing a very similar armlet on the causeway of Pharaoh Sahure’s mortuary temple in Abusir (cf. Wilkinson).Punt Land became a semi-mythical land for the pharaohs, but it was a real place through the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BC). During the reign of Amunhotep II (1425-1400 BC) delegations from Punt were accepted. The reign of Ramses II (1279-1213 BC) and of Ramesses III (1186-1155 BC) mentioned Punt as well. The pharaohs were fascinated by Punt as a "land of plenty" and it was best known as Ta Netjer – “God’s Land.”Source: E.A. Wallis BudgeBaboon mummy analysis reveals Eritrea and Ethiopia as location of land of Punt“It appears that the search for Punt may have come to an end according to new research which claims to prove that it was located in Eritrea/East Ethiopia. Live baboons were among the goods that we know the Egyptians got from Punt. The research team included Professor Salima Ikram from the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and Professor Nathaniel Dominy and graduate student Gillian Leigh Moritz, both from the University of California, Santa Cruz”.The team studied two baboon mummies in the British Museum. By analysing hairs from these baboons using oxygen isotope analysis, they were able to work out where they originated. Oxygen isotopes act as a 'signal' that can let scientists know where they came from. Depending on the environment an animal lived in, the ratio of different isotopes of oxygen will be different. “Oxygen tends to vary as a function of rainfall and the water composition of plants and seed,” said Professor Nathaniel Dominy of UC Santa Cruz.Only one of the two baboons was suitable for the research – the other had spent time in Thebes as an exotic pet, and so its isotopic data had been distorted. Working on the baboon discovered in the Valley of the Kings, the researchers compared the oxygen isotope values in the ancient baboons to those found in their modern day brethren. Although isotope values in baboons in Somalia, Yemen and Mozambique did not match, those in Eritrea and Eastern Ethiopia were closely matched.“All of our specimens in Eritrea and a certain number of our specimens from Ethiopia – that are basically due west from Eritrea – those are good matches,” said Professor Dominy.The team were unable to compare the mummies with baboons in Yemen. However, Professor Dominy reasoned that “We can tell, based on the isotopic maps of the region, that a baboon from Yemen would look an awful lot like a baboon from Somalia isotopically.” As Somalia is definitely not the place of origin for the baboon, this suggests that Yemen is not the place of origin either.He concluded that “We think Punt is a sort of circumscribed region that includes eastern Ethiopia and all of Eritrea.”The team also think that they may have discovered the location of the harbour that the Egyptians would have used to export the baboons and other goods back to Egypt. Dominy points to an area just outside the modern city of Massawa: “We have a specimen from that same harbour and that specimen is a very good match to the mummy”.Next, the team hopes to get the British Museum’s permission to take a pea-sized sample of bone from the baboon mummy and use it strontium isotope testing. This would hopefully confirm Eritrea/Eastern Ethiopia as the baboon’s origin and narrow down its location more specifically”.Source: http://www.independent.co.uk/lif...“The Land of Punt, “Ta-Netjeru”, meaning "Land of the Gods”Sankhkare Mentuhotep III of the Eleventh Dynasty as Osiris. Museum Luxor: Statue showing the King Mentuhotep III as Osiris with a tall crown, long beard and an full-length cloak. Sandstone, 2010 - 1998 B.C. Temple, Armant.The first Punt expedition of the Middle Kingdom was organized by Sankhkare Mentuhotep III after the reunification and internal stabilisation of Egypt. The purpose and nature of the expedition can be deduced from an inscription accompanying the scene of the offering of products which were brought back from Punt to Amen Ra. It's main purpose on the practical level was to provide"ntjw" for the Temple of Amun Re. This was accomplished by bringing back yo Egypt not just the substance in question, but also actual ntjw trees; whixh constitutes a direct link with the divine cult and creates the religious background of the expedition.In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, they may have wished to eliminate intermediaries, but in Hatshepsut's time, Nubia was already part of the Egyptian empire, no longer an obstacle their contact with Punt.It should be stressed that, by organising the Punt expedition, Hatshepsut did not aim to establish a completely new tradition but, quite the contrary, to revive an ancient one which already existed in the glorious times of the Old and Middle Kingdom. Re-establishing contact with Punt was seen as a major personal achievement with later kingsSource: Diego Espinel, Flora Trade Between Egypt and Africa in Antiquity, 2011, 439-95, 534-77.Punt was associated with Egyptians in that it came to be seen as their ancestral homeland and further, the land where the gods emerged from and consorted with each other.Head of Hatshepsut (portrayed as a male), ca. 1479-1425 B.C.E., The Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, NYMekare Hatshepsut c. 1507 B.C.E.-1458 B.C.E. (was the first female ruler of ancient Egypt to reign as a male with the full authority of pharaoh (King). Her name means "Foremost of Noble Women" or "She is First Among Noble Women". She was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty during the period known as the New Kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) and regarded as one of the best. In the 1493 B.C.E. she led an expedition to the Land of a Punt, land of the gods, Hatshepsut's was given particular significance.Queen Hatshepsut's temple inscriptions at Luxor reveal that her “divine mother”, Hathor, was from Punt - with strong indications that the pharaohs (Kings) considered the origin of their culture to be Punt Land. The Punt reliefs of Hatshepsut have an inscription describing the setting out of the fleet:“Sailing in the sea, beginning the goodly way toward God's Land, journeying in peace to the land of Punt”Source: James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt Part Two, § 253The evidence suggests the way to Punt had been lost and Hatshepsut was directed by the gods to re-establish the connection. How the voyage was first commissioned by Hatshepsut, is based on the reliefs from her temple:“Amun-ra of Karnak spoke from his sanctum in the temple and directed Hat-shepsut to undertake the commercial exploration of the land of Punt. "The majesty of the palace made petition at the stairs of the Lord of the Gods. A command was heard from the Great Throne, an oracle of the god himself, to search out ways to Punt, to explore the roads to the terraces of myrrh" (169). Egyptians called Punt land Ta-Netjeru, meaning "Land of the Gods," and considered it their place of origin”.Source: (Richard Pankhurst, The Ethiopian Borderlands: 1997).Relief from Hatshepsut’s tombTo emphasize their Puntite origins, the Egyptians portrayed the Puntites in the exact same manner in which they portrayed themselves.King Parahu and Queen Ati of Punt from a relief in Hatshepsut’s tomb. (Notice they are depicted as being the same complexion as the ancient Egyptians).Egyptians and the Puntites spoke and and communicated in the SAME language, believed in the same gods and are DEPICTED SIMILARLY IN COMPLEXION.“The mistress of Punt, Hatshepsut’s mother was from the land of Punt, from "Buun" the ancient name of Somalia. To conclude,"Buun" means in Somali "Horn" and the Land of "Buun" (or Punt the European translation) is located in the the Horn of Africa, in the Somali territories.”Source: Abdisalam Mahamoud. Master II degree: History of Civilisations and Religions.Puntite Workers carrying frankincense during Queen Hatshepsut's Expedition“Egyptian tradition of the Dynastic Period held that the aboriginal home of the Egyptians was Punt…”. While the exact location is still under debate, Punt is generally believed to have been located to the south-east of Egypt”.Source: Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, The History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, Vol. I., Preface, (1928).Needless to say, Punt is not in the Arabian Peninsula, the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia or Lebanon, as many Eurocentrics have suggested. Once again, the evidence of their origins will not be found outside of Africa. It’s not a mystery, it’s stupidity. Punt is almost certainly modern-day Puntland State of Somalia based on the evidence of the ancient Egyptian inscriptions.According to historian Ahmed Abdi:“the ancient city of Opone in Somalia is identical to the city of Pouen referenced as part of Punt by ancient inscriptions”.The Egyptians called Punt Pwenet or Pwene which translates as Pouen known to the Greeks as Opone. It is well established that Opone traded with Egypt over many many centuries. Based on the evidence of the ancient pharaoh’s inscriptions, Punt/Punt Land is certainly the State of Somalia at the Horn of Africa. The ancient city of Opone in Somalia is identical to the city of Pouen referenced as part of Punt by ancient inscriptions. There are some that suggest neighboring Eritrea as a more precise location, which in ancient times was part of greater Ethiopia.Parade of the Queen's soldiers in honour of the goddess Hathor, painted relief, Chapel of Hathor, Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari, Theban Necropolis.The Puntites are depicted in several Eighteenth Dynasty scenes. Typically, the men have brown skins and they occur amongst depictions of riverine southerners (of Wawat, Kush, Irem, etc.)“Representations of the early Puntites, or Somali people, on the Egyptian monuments, show striking resemblances to the ancient Egyptians themselves”. »Source: Brian Brown New York: Brentano's [1923]“...before foreign rule, all Egyptian Kings were Natives and the land was the most prosperous of the whole inhabited world”.Source: (Book 1, para 44, 69 Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Books II, 35 – IV. 58, Translated by C.H. Oldfather, Harvard University Press, 2000).Hatshepsut became queen regent and, over the course of her 20-year rule, began to bend tradition to suit her needs. Within a period of seven years, Hatshepsut statues and reliefs progressed from depictions of a subordinate queen ruling alongside a child king to that of a full fledged, male pharaoh with Thutmose III, who would have been around 10 by this time, literally below her.Hatshepsut is depicted as a male wearing the tall white crown of Upper Egypt (southern)Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, The Queen Who Would Be KingHatshepsut's Punt Expedition had special significance, simply because it was larger than any other, and evidence suggests that it was directed by the Gods to establish a connection. Amun-Ra of Karnak spoke from his sanctum in the temple and directed Hatshepsut to undertake the exploration of Punt Land. Hatshepsut made petition at the stairs of the Lord of the Gods. A command was heard from the Great Throne, an oracle of the God himself, for her to search out ways to Punt Land. Hatshepsut then commanded that the will of the God be done.The Egyptians entertained an extreme reverence in the abstract for the Land of Punt, which apparently formed part of a larger district known generally as Ta-neter, or the Land of the Gods. Hathor and Bes, two of the principal deities worshipped by the Egyptians had their divine origin in Punt, and Hathor was adored under a special form as “The Lady of Punt.” Bes, in his grotesque features and general characteristics, is clearly a barbaric divinity, and is occasionally represented as nursing or devouring the large cynocephalus apes depicted in the wall-sculptures of Dayr-el-Bahari as indigenous to the Land of Punt. The Egyptians appear to have cherished a vague tradition of their own origin as natives of Ta-nuter at some extremely remote period ; and it is interesting to note that the curved beard characteristic of these natives of the Land of the Gods is a special attribute of divinities as well as of deified personages in Egyptian art.Bes (Bisu, Aha) was a deity originally African in origin who was absorbed into the Egyptian pantheon. Bes frightened off bad spirits with his fearsome face, but was fiercely loyal to his family, and comforted them in times of sickness or childbirth. A popular household idol, the ancient Egyptians believed that Bes protected against snake and scorpion bites. He was called “The Fighter” because of his ferocity – Bes was thought to have been able to strangle lions, antelopes (thought to be agents of chaos), and cobras with his bare hands.Bes helped to encourage sleep and drove away bad dreams, and amulets of Bes were very popular and widespread. Bes’ protective duties extended to warfare – he appears on a Second Intermediate Period archer’s brace, shields, and on the war chariot of Tutankhamen. Bes was also a bringer of peace to the dead, being depicted on the headrests supporting the heads of mummies. He was associated with the protective hieroglyphic sign.Meaning of Name:“Little Warrior.” The word Bes also appears to be connected to the Nubian word for “cat” (Besa).Family: Bes’ wife was thought to be Taweret. Beginning during the late Middle Kingdom, he was paired with a female form, named Beset or Besit.Titles: “Lord of Punt”“Great Dwarf with a Large Head”Research Source: Dwarfs in ancient Egypt.Hathor, “Lady of Punt” is an ancient Egyptian goddess who personified the principles of joy, music, feminine love, and motherhood.She was one of the most important and popular deities throughout the history of ancient Egypt. She was the goddess of mothers, women, and women's physical and psychological wellbeing. She was the personification of joy, goodness, celebration, and love. She was also associated with the sky, the movement of planets, Venus, birth, and rebirth after death, as well as the cyclical rejuvenation of the entire cosmos. She is often shown as a woman with the head of a cow and is very occasionally shown as an entire cow (conflated with the primeval cow goddess whose milk created the Nile). More frequently, you may see Hathor symbolized as a woman who only has the ears or horns of a cow, with the red sun disk of Horus between her horns. Her other symbol is the sistrum, a rattle-like percussion instrument which she uses to drive evil away from the world.Fragment of a statue from the queen's temple at Deir el-Bahari representing Hatshepsut in the form of Osiris. Date/Period: 18th Dynasty, c. 1475 BC.As previously mentioned, Hatshepsut's inscriptions also claim that her divine mother was from Punt and the evidence confirms that Bes and Hathor came from Punt Land as well. Other inscriptions indicate that the 18th Dynasty pharaohs considered Punt as the origin of their culture.The respect that the ancient Egyptians had for Punt, and its associated goddess Hathor in particular, is perhaps best expressed by Pharaoh Hatshepsut herself. Hieroglyphic inscriptions attributed to her remark that:Quote:“It is the sacred region of God’s Land; it is my place of distraction; I have made it for myself in order to cleanse my spirit, along with my mother, Hathor… the lady of Punt”.Source: The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt, Bill Manley, 1996Sailing into antiquity : BU archeologist unearths clues about ancient Egypt’s sea trade (Egypt - from 1950 to 1480 BC), 11 January 2011Trading with Punt LandInscriptions indicate relations between the two countries were very close and show the Puntites as an extremely generous people. The Land of Punt was routinely praised for its riches and the "goodness of the land" by many of the pharaohs’ scribes.The expedition presented a fair exchange by both parties and the treasures offered by the Puntites were gold (even though the Egyptians had a few of their own gold mines), wild animals, live apes, elephants, leopard skins, ivory, spices, precious woods, cosmetics, incense, aromatic gum, and frankincense and 31 incense trees (Boswellia). This was the first time a plant species was successfully transplanted to another country. The transplant was so successful that the trees flourished in Egypt for centuries.The luxury goods of Punt included: ebony, ivory, obsidian, frankincense, precious metals, and strange beasts, such as dog-faced baboons and giraffes.One thing is certain, whether Punt is in Ethiopia/Eritrea or Somalia, it is NOT in lands outside of Africa. In fact it’s south, where all the evidence points to, as the place of the ancient Egyptians origins.The Nile Valley1. Omo Kibish - site of 195,000-year-old remains of homo sapiens2. Awash Valley - site of 160,000-year-old remains of homo sapiens3. Semliki Harpoon (90,000 BC) - oldest harpoon4. Weapons factory (70,000 BC) - early commerce and industry5. Ishango Bone (20,000 BC) - oldest mathematics6. Wadi Kubbaniya (17,000-15,000 BC) - early agriculture and grain storage7. Jebel Sahaba (13,700 BC) - oldest ceremonial burials and pottery8. Toshka cemetery (13,000 BC) - oldest cattle worship9. Nabta Playa/Nubian desert (12,000 BC, 6,400 BC) - early cattle worship and calendar10. El-Salha (7050-6820 BC) - early petroglyph of a ship11. Hor-em-akhet/the “Sphinx” (8,000–13,000 BC) - oldest megalithArchaeological evidence can trace the spread of modern human habitation from the southern end of the Nile Valley in Ethiopia some 195,000 years ago to as far north as modern-day Central Sudan by 70,000 BC. Archaeological evidence also suggests the Nile Valley was the primary migratory route for early modern humans out of Central Africa and into Western Asia, and the continuous inhabitation along the riverbanks eventually grew to a large, influential civilization. Some of the world's oldest remains of Homo sapiens lie at Omo Kibish ("Omo Kibish-1" or "Kamoya's Hominid Site") on the southern edge of the Nile Valley near the modern Ethiopian-South Sudanese border.Source: http://www.academia.edu/6346508/...“The fact is the ancient Egyptians were black skinned Africans who had migrated north from Central Africa over many thousands of years and many "Culture Phases". Among them: The Qadan culture (13,000 - 9,000 B.C.), The Badari culture (circa 4400 B.C.), The Amratian culture (4500-3100 B.C.), The Amratian (Naqada I), started as a parallel culture to the Badari, but eventually replaced it. In the middle of the fourth millennium B.C, the Gerzean/Naqada II culture superceded the Naqada I. In the next period, known as Naqada III, Egypt has by now, been split-up into many administrative/territorial divisions, known as Nomes - this heralds the beginning of Dynastic Egypt”.Source: Professor Christopher Ehret Distinguished Research Professor at the University of California at Los Angeles, American scholar of African history and African historical linguistics.The peopling of the Nile is the product of the populations in the A map, from inner Africa, from the South, which expanded in the Sahara and then went back along the Nile to settle down during the desertification of the Sahara in search of greener pastures.The red dots represent the long term human occupation of indigenous African in the Nile Valley. Notice ZERO red dots show an origin outside of Africa. Sorry, the Nile Valley was made up of INDIGENOUS peoples of Africa.There is no evidence of population replacement, only population movements. Black African populations were indigenous to the region and moved their settlements in relation to the climate. Groups from the south, already adapted to savannah ecology, extended their traditional way of life following the northward shifting rains. There were almost no settlements along the Nile during the early-mid Holocene (according to this study) beside at the south (Kharthoum area). That is the 2 maps in the middle. Which is a bit surprising. The document suggest that it was inhospitable. It was then followed by an exodus of the population of the Green Sahara toward the Nile during the dessication of the Sahara.“The peoples of Egypt, the Sudan, and much of East African Ethiopia and Somalia are now generally regarded as a Nilotic continuity, with widely ranging physical features (complexions light to dark, various hair and craniofacial types) but with powerful common cultural traits, including cattle pastoralist traditions”.Source: (Trigger 1978; Bard, Snowden, this volume), (F. Yurco "An Egyptological Review," 1996).“A variety of factors are involved in the origins of the Nilotic peoples and their linkages with the rest of Africa, including geographic, genetic, and environmental data. These are presented throughout the article. As one archaeological text suggests, INTERPRETATIONS OF THE BIOLOGICAL AFFINITIES AND ORIGINS OF THE ANCIENT NILE VALLEY PEOPLES MUST BE PLACED IN THE CONTEXT OF HYPOTHESIS INFORMED OF HYPOTHESEISES INFORMED BY ARCHEOLOGICAL, LINGUISTIC, GEOGRAPHIC AND OTHER DATA. IN SUCH CONTEXTS, THE PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT THE EARLY NILE VALLEY POPULATIONS CAN BE INDETIFIED AS PART OF AN AFRICAN LINEAGE, BUT EXHIBITING LOCAL VARIATION.This variation represents the short and long term effects of evolutionary forces, such as gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection, influenced by culture and geography”.Source: Nancy C. Lovell, “ Egyptians, physical anthropology of,” in Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt, ed. Kathryn A. Bard and Steven Blake Shubert, ( London and New York: Routledge, 1999). pp 328-332Scale and social organization / edited by Fredrik Barth, https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/997223Quote(s):“Over the long run of northeastern African history, what emerges most strongly is the extent to which ancient Egypt's culture grew from sub-Saharan African roots. The earliest foundations of the culture that was to evolve into that of dynastic Egypt were laid, as we have already discovered, by Afrasan immigrants from the general direction of the southern Red Sea hills, who arrived probably well before 10,000 B.C.E. The new inhabitants brought with them a language directly ancestral to ancient Egyptian. They introduced to Egypt the idea of using wild grasses or grains as food. They also introduced a new religion its central belief, in the efficacy of clan deities, explains the traceability of the ancient Egyptian gods to different particular Egyptians localities: originally they were the deities of the local communities, whose members in still earlier times had belonged to a clan or a group of related clans”.Source: Christopher Ehret. (2002) The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800, (p. 93).Using primarily linguistic evidence, and taking into account recent archaeology at sites such as Hierakonpolis/Nekhen, as well as the symbolic meaning of objects such as sceptres and headrests in Ancient Egyptian and contemporary African cultures, this paper traces the geographical location and movements of early peoples in and around the Nile Valley. It is possible from this overview of the data to conclude that the limited conceptual vocabulary shared by the ancestors of contemporary Chadic-speakers (therefore also contemporary Cushitic-speakers), contemporary Nilotic-speakers and Ancient Egyptian-speakers suggests that the earliest speakers of the Egyptian language could be located to the south of Upper Egypt or, earlier, in the Sahara.The marked grammatical and lexicographic affinities of Ancient Egyptian with Chadic are well-known, and consistent Nilotic cultural, religious and political patterns are detectable in the formation of the first Egyptian kingships. The question these data raise is the articulation between the languages and the cultural patterns of this pool of ancient African societies from which emerged Predynastic Egypt.It is possible from this overview of the data to conclude that the limited conceptual vocabulary shared by the ancestors of contemporary Chadic-speakers (therefore also contemporary Cushitic-speakers), contemporary Nilotic-speakers and Ancient Egyptian-speakers suggests that the earliest speakers of the Egyptian language could be located to the south of Upper Egypt (Diakonoff 1998) or, earlier, in the Sahara (Wendorf 2004), where Takács (1999, 47) suggests their ‘long co-existence’ can be found. In addition, it is consistent with this view to suggest that the northern border of their homeland was further than the Wadi Howar proposed by Blench (1999, 2001), which is actually its southern border. Neither Chadics nor Cushitics existed at this time, but their ancestors lived in a homeland further north than the peripheral countries that they inhabited thereafter, to the south-west, in a Niger-Congo environment, and to the south-east, in a Nilo-Saharan environment, where they interacted and innovated in terms of language.From this perspective, the Upper Egyptian cultures were an ancient North East African ‘periphery at the crossroads’, as suggested by Dahl and Hjort-af-Ornas of the Beja (Dahl and Hjort-af-Ornas 2006).In summary, genetics strongly relates both the modern and ancient Egyptians with contemporary Afro-Asiatic groups elsewhere in Northeast Africa. This, in turn, jibes perfectly with Puntite origins for the latter populations.The region known as Kush has been inhabited for several millennia. Royal Ontario Museum and University of Khartoum researchers found a "tool workshop" south of Dongola, Sudan with thousands of paleolithic axes on rows of stones, dating back 70,000 years.Old Dongola graveyardAs early as 13,000 BC, ceremonial burial practices were taking place at Jebel Sahaba and Wadi Halfa in the northern part of modern-day Sudan (known to archaeologists as the "Qadan" period, 13,000-8,000 BC).Tomb of the C-group (Middle Kingdom) at Toshka East in the form of a brick burial chamber with stone ring.Note: The C-Group culture was an ancient civilization centered in Nubia, which existed approximately ca. 2600 BCE to ca. 1550 BCEAt the Toshka site in modern-day "Lower Nubia," archaeologists have uncovered tombs where domesticated wild cattle were placed above human remains, indicative of the use of cattle in a ceremonial fashion. Circular tomb walls with above-ground mounds are further evidence of the beginnings of ceremonial burials.At other sites nearby, we can see the development of Ethiopian (better known as "Egyptian") civilization. At the Kadruka cemetery, spouted vessels were found, and the tombs at El Gaba were filled with jewelry, pottery, ostrich feathers, headrests, facial painting, etc.--all of which were present in "dynastic Egypt," and are still used today amongst different peoples of modern-day Ethiopia.The neolithic The Sabu-Jaddi rock artpaintings site in Sudan is a unique cluster of more than 1600 rock drawings from different historical periods expanding for more than 6000 years through different eras of Nubiancivilization. The site is located 600 km north of Khartoum between the villages of Sabu and Jaddi. The well-preserved drawings include wild and domestic animals, humans and boats.Source: WikiThe term "Ethiopia" was first used by Ancient Greek writers in reference to the east-central African kingdom that they believed to be not only culturally and ethnically linked to ancient "Egypt" (Kemet), but the source of such civilization as well.Just west of the city of Kerma lies the site of Busharia, where shards of pottery dating from 8000 to 9000 BC have been found. A nearby discovery at El-Barga shed light on foundations of round buildings, graves and pottery shards from 7,500 BC.Therefore Kushitic civilization began on the banks of the Nile over 15,000 years ago and was settled at least 55,000 years prior.Furthermore, based on the traditions of the first settlers and the artifacts found in this region, Kushitic civilization gave birth to that of so-called "Egypt" (see: Nile Valley Civilization).Kerma (also known as Dukki Gel) was the capital city of the Kerma Culture, which was located in present-day Sudan at least 5500 years ago. Kerma is one of the largest archaeological sites in ancient Nubia.