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America Britain and Russia all made errors during the war; that is to be expected in any war, and does not automatically imply anything else.Britain.Came to France with a BEF Force prepared to fight the 1914 18 war again, and not modernised nearly enough. out dated tanks, old equipment and a all round general lack of readiness contributed to a back ward galloping retreat to the Port of Dunkirk.And thousands of French soldiers being abandoned and left behind to be captured by the Nazis….not one of England’s “finest hours” was it……Britain nearly LOST 50 % of its entire fighting male strength, they all had to be rescued by fishing boats, yachts and every conceivable seaworthy craft then available.Winston Churchill, remembering his past as leader of the failed Allied expedition to Gallipoli in World War One, cooly said “wars are not won by evacuations”. But lessons were learned.The pre War “BRISTOL” Blenheim design was funded by a Private English newspaper magnate. though rapidly out classed by 1942, it was a good aircraft in its day.Lack of pre War enthusiasm for excellent Modern designs such as the prize winning RJ Mitchell Spitfire, and Privately Designed De Havilland Mosquito, and general Political “Dunder heading” by the Air ministry led to these designs initialy not being taken up or only in small numbers if at all. De Havilland had to secretly DEFY the “Air Ministry” and continue to build and perfect the “wooden wonder” in PRIVATE, illegally.Britains wonderful De Havilland mosquito had to be “illegally” developed in secret after Pre wartime “rejection by the Air Ministry” (!!!)It is well worth remembering that the Spitfire, the mosquito and the Bristol Blenheim, aircraft Britain actually HAD on the eve of war, were ALl “private” developed designs.Sometimes you really do wonder just whose side some of these Political personalities really were on !!! (Editors note AND TODAY TOO !)A general mockery Apathy, laughing stock “hes a idiot” approach towards Winston Churchills Dire warnings to England about Nazi Germany also tell a sad tale of lost time, wasted opportunity and feet dragging by “appeasement” Politicians. While it is true Neville Chamberlaine secretly ordered to begin re arming, it was too little too late; he should have done it very much earlier. on the eve of the Nazi german war, Britain took delivery of 30;000 tons of steel bought from France to build weapons of all kinds.Failing to change the Admiralty navy shipping codes was another failure point, Churchill had to directly intervene at the Admiralty to make the “sea lords” do something useful about changing a clearly COMPROMISED secret code. the German U boat menace very nearly starved the island into submission.Russia.Russia entered into a non aggression Treaty, a Pact with Hitler, and carved up a large slice of Poland for itself, with Hitler taking another large slice. the poles were furious.British “promises” to gallantly come to the aid of Poland were a false promise, a “promise de Gascoigne” a worthless useless hollow sham of a promise, and empty promise, and Hitler saw they were unable to do anything to intervene in Poland, and promptly invaded Poland, triggering World War two. But Stalin soon found out Herr Hitler NEVER kept a single promise he ever made to anyone, and he later invaded Russia. Comrade Stalin remained locked inside his office for several long days, in a state of utter shock and disbelief before emerging to start to fight back.Comrade Stalin was a great general and Leader of men, but his being caught completely unready by Herr “Huttler” left Soviet territory defence badly led and poorly co ordinated during those first essential few days he remained locked inside his office. it was with all greatness of respect, a “Mistake”.Previous experience against the FINNS during the “Winter War” had clearly showed Germany that Russia was a “paper Tiger” at that point in time, with badly motivated troops and out of date lumbering old slow tanks; FINNS had used the “SUOMI” a sort of FINNISH design similar to the later Russian PPSH Sub machine gun in highly effective infantry tactics against the Russians who withdrew.The Suomi KP/-31 (Suomi-konepistooli or "Finland-submachine gun", literally: "Finland Machine-pistol") is a SMG or Sub machine gun. (SMG) of Finnish design that was mainly used during World War Two. It is a descendant of the M-22 prototype and the KP/-26 production model, which was revealed to the public in 1925. The Suomi-konepistooli KP/-31 is often abbreviated to Suomi KP.Brilliant FINNISH Army tactics made maximal effect of “squads” which used these machine guns. Russia copied this in the Great patriotic War” against Germany.Below. Soviet PPSH Sub machine gun.he PPSh-41 (pistolet-pulemyot Shpagina; In Cyrillic Russian language writing : Пистолет-пулемёт Шпагина; "Shpagin machine pistol") is a Soviet Russian Sub machine Gun designed by Georgy Shpagin as a cheap, reliable, and simplified alternative to the PPD-40. Common nickname is "papasha" (Russian :папаша), meaning "daddy".The PPSh is a magazine-fed selective fire submachine gun using an open bolt blow back action . Made largely of steel stampings it can be loaded with either a box or drum magazine and fires the 7.62×25mm Tokarev pistol round.The PPSh saw extensive combat use during World War two, and Korea in the post war years. It was one of the major infantry weapons of the Soviet armies during World War II. Around six million PPSh-41s were manufactured. In the form of the Chinese Type 50 (licensed copy), it was still being used by the Viet Cong as late as 1970. According to the 2002 edition of the Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II the PPSh was still in use with Mercenaries.I owned a Deactivated 1943 Russian PPSH in my own personal collection for several years. Slightly heavy, but I consider it a fine weapon.Hitler had been watching all of this and taking notes….He knew Russia was big, but NOT ready to repel his forces in the early war years. So he planned to strike fast, and “smash Russia in Six weeks”….Hitler’s crackpot but highly audacious and dangerous scheme to conquer the U.S.S.R in Six weeks must therefore be understood better against this background.AmericaT he United States had no enthusiasm for entering the German European War. Arms “for sale” were offered however to help Britain. And then Japan suddenly and violently attacked the American US navy pacific fleet at pearl harbour, sinking a large part of it with great loss of life.Australian and British spies had long given the United States warning of the new emerging Japanese Aerial superiority, of its many rapid, very fast fighter and bomber types of aeroplane being developed in Japan. but old out date thinking was allowed to prevail, no body seriously believed that the danger from the skies from aircraft sinking a surface fleet really existed for “real”.IT DID!!!!!!*(In fact a young Isoroku Yamamotto discussed the possibility of a aerial force attacking and sinking a surface fleet when he was at school in England with a fellow American student !!!) many years before this.)*American failure to listen to allied Intelligence warnings about Japanese aerial superiority cost them the US Fleet in the pacific. It nearly cost them the entire war.This utter humiliation of American prestige led America to declare war on imperial Japan. Japan also attacked and bombed Australia, and American Command, NOT British Colonial Command (General mc Arthur of Far East or Pacific Command) were invited by the Australian Government to make their Military strategic Headquarters there, in Australia; Australia had by now seen and witnessed British Colonial Commanders incompetence, especially following the loss of Burma, and Singapore, and did not want to “be next”.Above. Japanese soldiers marching into WUHAN China in WW2.Germany Japan and Italy and other smaller countries* had formed an “Axis of Evil”, the AXIS powers all had agreed to come to the aid of the others if they got attacked.And because America declared war on the Empire of Japan, Herr Hitler immediately came to the aid of his Japanese AXIS “tri partite tractate” Political partner, and declared “War on America”.America then supplied under “The Fourth Protocol” (lend Lease) to Soviet Russia and to Britain, thousands on thousands of weapons, bullets, thousands of GM Trucks, Liberty ships, Aeroplanes, tanks and finally American Soldiers , Aerial round the clock daytime USAAF bombing of German Industry, and landing craft to invade Europe and Liberate it from the Nazis.But for several long lonely years, Britain was forced to fight entirely on is own, until Axis of Evil partner of Hitler and Mussolini, Imperial Japan attacked the United States. Meanwhile, British commandos regularly attacked and raided German Installations in France and Norway.British Wartime Commando raiders Memorial, near Lochaber region in Scotland. Dedicated to ALL who trained there. By the end of the war 25,000 men had passed through the Commando course at a place called in Gaelic, Achnacarry. This total includes not only the British volunteers, but volunteers from Greece, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and the United States Army rangers, , which were modelled on the Commandos.Above. Commandos in WW2.British SOE Agents , many of who were female, got parachuted into enemy occupied France and Yugoslavia, to give help and equipment to the French partisans, and with support from Free Fighting French, “Free Dutch navy” (Dutch navy escapees), and Polish pilots.Above. Polish Spies in action against Germans in Europe during the war time. Poland had a secure spy network.Below. Memorial in Cambridgeshire at AUDLEY END HOUSE of the Wartime Polish Agents who trained there in the SOE. A Polish agent was integral to SOE's Operation Foxley, the plan to assassinate Hitler.British planes flew on raids over Europe and Nazi Germany, bombing Berlin, and English cities got flattened by German bombs in the Blitz.And British forces attacked and fought against the German Afrika Korps in North Afrika.Indian and Commonwealth troops from new Zealand and Australia did greatly help, but American intervention Directly in the Nazi German war did not happen (in W .Europe*) until the Invasion of Normandie in June 1944, (and Pacific “island hopping campaign” against Japan in Asia..)Polite Note. My other articles refer and mention American landings in Italy Tunisia Morocco and North (VICHY French) Afrika separately as they are beyond the scope of this article subject today).Many persons see “America” as being their personal saviour, but the United States came “late” to the war against the Nazis. But it should firmly be remembered, that if Britain had not survived for several years ALONE fighting the Nazis, there would have been NO country FREE to stage the Invasion and liberation of from. No “stepping stone” into France and Germany in 1944.A lot of people talk about America winning the war. It did, but NOT first or worst or hardest in terms of hardship, personal sacrifice or stoic Determination to “stand fast” and hold the position against all comers”. Britain, and ONLY England did that.Wartime English Poster showing Unity of all against the Nazis.And the mistake made by British War Cabinet, that murdered and sacrificed for cynical political purposes, 4;000 Canadian soldiers at DIEPPE in 1942, left Soviet Russia to do the dirty killing work and the “mauling” of the Nazi juggernaut, for several long further years, before the final invasion by the Allies at Normandie in 1944. Failure to open the second attack front in Europe in 1942, as many British civilians and also Stalin’s Russia had hoped, led to a great pro longing of the Jewish Exterminations and massacres of civilians by Nazis in Europe. it also allowed for the Germans to develop their own Anglo Japanese Atomic weapons, and the submarines and planes to use them. Millions more civilian lives were un -doubtedly lost because the British war cabinet resolved to allow the “Second front Dieppe” raid to fail, cynically providing them with a means to shut up and “appease” an angry British public at home, and to DELAY the invasion of France by several years, to their advantage.This delay allowed the dreadful Vengeance weapons to be put in operation, the first intercontinental ballistic missiles, or “Agregat 4” type V2 Rockets.Above. The Nazi and Japanese Axis of Evil Developed Germ Warfare Rockets and Nuclear weapons.Delaying opening the second front against Germany gave Hitler precious gift of time to perfect and then test Fire, Detonate, Evil Weapons of mass Destruction.In Italy, the Nazis flooded a River marsh, and carried out the first documented germ warfare experiment, by contaminating Fleas with Diseases which then rapidly spread to humans, killing even the lives of Italian civilians who were supposed to be on their side at the time !!The putrefactive and Disease bacteria were destined, intended, to be placed inside special V 2 Rockets fired and launched from the Island of ALDERNEY, just sixty miles from English cities and land. Had the Nazis scheme succeeded, we would not be here today…..Japan also developed killer Disease weapons, and Unit 731 in Manchuria (Manchukuo) developed and tested them on Chinese civilians….How “much time” did the cynical British war cabinet think everybody, including the rest of the world all had left? !!In Ardennes area Forest, Germany tested the first Atomic bomb in Winter 1944. railway wagons found in Antwerp , a Belgium port captured from the Nazis, were discovered to be filed with weapons enriched Uranium !!!!Also German Jet fighter propulsion came dangerously close to turning the tide of the war, but for Hitler’s insistence on the ME 262 first being developed and used as a bomber and not as a fighter, ensuring it arrived too little too late.Many express a view that leaving Hitler in charge of Germanys war effort (and not having him assassinated) was the best way to ruin the war for Germany; I do NOT necessarily agree; There are other, more Humanitarian and human considerations, that the delay to the invasion in 1944 led to the suffering and deaths of Millions more people, killed in the Nazi Extermination Death camps and Reprisals against pro longed continued partisan resistance attacks on the Germans.Right until the final weeks of the war, lives were exterminated by the Germans, including ANN FRANK the Jewish girl who kept her diary, handed down to all posterity as a true Holocaust proving story, and a warning from history of what should happen, if politicians should fail or go bad.Politicians always make other peoples lives pay for their “mistakes”. they have the best of both worlds, fine houses and fine dinners and fancy women…but all that “butter” is paid for with your flesh and your childrens life blood…Cynical “murdering” lieing Politicians “need us we do NOT need them”.Ann Frank was for innocent people then, what Greta Thornberg is for people today.“Jesus said Truly I say unto you, unless you become as small children, you cannot enter the Kingdom of the Heavens”. Why is it that ONLY young children can SEE what “us clever (stupid!) adults refuse to see???Poor Leadership by LYING Politicians, was perhaps the very worst enemy “within” in the war years. As it is with facing climate and other Political ills today, including the return of the Neo Nazi Extreme Right again. Nazi hatred, Xenophobia, attacks on “Foreigners” (term used advisedley !) racism Antesemitisme has again returned not only to Europe, but also it has contaminated, thanks to a secret Nazi network, much of England’s Society too.The young people are correct, AND WE MUST LISTEN TO THEM !!!!!!! Before it is too late.Technical Footnote.Warning nerdy technical details and short form Aircraft Development stories. You can skip this section if you want too; I included it as an after thought, kindly prompted by Feed-back Comment of a Constructive and Positive Nature.Development of the featured 3 British Fighter and Bomber RAF Aircraft pre and Early War types. Does NOT Cover all the MANY later Royal Air Force types.Development of the Spitfire. the “Supermarine” company began development of the Type 300 in 1934, as a privately developed non mass production version, the entry into this actual venture following the unsuccessful Type 224 prototype. Chief designer R. J. Mitchell and his team took the Type 224 as their starting point and continued to draw on their experience with the Schneider Trophy seaplanes.Only one prototype was made, receiving the Military Flight number K5054. Following its first flight on 5 March 1936, pilot Mutt Summers made his famous but oft-misunderstood remark, "I don't want anything touched!" Its outstanding looks and performance caused a significant stir wherever it appeared. The aircraft underwent progressive modifications throughout its life, eventually being converted to near-production standard. It crash-landed several times, finally crashing fatally and being written off just as the German Nazi War in Europe was breaking out.Several replicas have been built, including a static one as a memorial to Mitchell. At least one is flyable.Prototype constructionConstruction on K5054 started in December 1934, although the design continued to evolve during the early stages of build, with the prototype gaining an oval rear fuselage, slightly reduced wing span and rear vision cockpit glazing behind the sliding canopy.[8] Like many prototypes of mass-production designs, the first Type 300 had to be largely hand-built and although its general structure followed that of the proposed production design, its details differed in many ways.The Merlin engine was still under development when the airframe was finished. The engine fitted for initial trials was a prototype Merlin C 990 hp (738 kW), with six stub exhaust ports just protruding from each side, driving an Aero-Products "Watts" two-bladed, wooden fixed-Pitched propeller.In November 1934, Mitchell started detailed design work.On 1 December the Air Ministry issued contract AM 361140/34, providing £10,000 for the construction of a single prototype.DE HAVILLAND MOSQUITO DEVELOPMENT.The de Havilland Mosquito was the most versatile aircraft of the Second World war hostilities, serving as a pure bomber, with a bomb load of 4,000lb, a fighter bomber, a Night Fighter and a high flying photo reconnaissance picture taking Aircraft. When it first appeared it was the fastest aircraft yet to enter RAF service. All this in a wooden aircraft, developed despite severe reservations amongst the RAF hierarchy.n 1936 the Air Ministry had issued specification P.13/36, for a twin engine’d medium bomber capable of carrying 1000lb of bombs 1000 miles at 15,000 feet at a cruising speed of 275mph. De Havilland was one of several companies to make a submission. Their aircraft could carry 4,000lb of bombs for 1,500 miles but only at 260 mph. One result of this work was that de Havilland became convinced that all current attempts to design this fast bomber were using too large a fuselage.While their bomber proposals were meeting with failure, de Havilland was working on other projects that would play a part in the success of the Mosquito. The D.H. 88 Comet was a two engine’d racing plane, built from spruce and plywood. It was designed for, and won, the 1934 Mac Robertson Air Race. The DH 91 or “ALBATROSS” was a streamlined four engine’d transport and passenger plane, designed in 1936, and also built from wood.The experience de Havilland gained on these two aircraft convinced them that a small streamlined wooden twin engine’d aircraft could be made fast enough to evade any potential fighter opposition. Wooden construction would also have the advantage of using a non-strategic material – one that could be acquired easily by Britain – and using the skills of the large number of wooden furniture makers to be found in Britain.This was highly beneficial, for war stretched resources in Britain, so it maximized use of pre existing tooling’s and factories, speeded up production, and avoided costly re investments (and associated delays) into new factory facilities to make the wooden component parts. It comparative ease of manufacture using existing infrastructure inside England greatly contributed to the success story of this wonderful Aircraft.De Havilland submitted two similar design proposals to the Air Ministry in September 1939. Project D.H. 98 was selected for further work, and on 12 December 1939 de Havilland were commissioned to produce a prototype. Specification B.1/40 was produced to describe the new aircraft. Things had moved on dramatically from 1936 just THREE years before war broke out with Nazi Germany over Poland; and when the Air ministry had flatly rejected the De Havilland Wooden aircraft proposals.So finaly, the “Wooden Wonder born in 1939, the year the war came, was as much a child of necessity and war as a elegant design well ahead of others of the era in Aviation quality, speed and versatility of service.BRISTOL BLENHEIM.Lord Rothermere the Newspaper millionaire.Genesis of the Design.In early 1934, Millionaire printer Lord Rothermere , owner of the Daily mail newspaper, challenged the British aviation industry to build a high-speed aircraft capable of carrying six passengers and two crew members – he referred to the ambition as seeking "the fastest commercial aeroplane in Europe, if not the world". At the time, German firms were producing a variety of record-breaking high-speed designs, such as the single-engined heinkel HE 70 Transatlantic mail plane, and Rothermere wanted to recapture the title of fastest civilian aircraft, as well as to purchase such an aircraft himself. Rothermere also intended to encourage businesses and key figures to make greater use of civil aviation, and to demonstrate to the British British Air Ministry how their fighter aircraft may not be able to match modern transport aircraft, which may be easily converted to, or used as the basis for, a bomber aircraft.Since July 1933, Mr Frank Branwell , Bristol's chief designer, had been working on a small twin-engine low-wing Monoplane design, initially intended to be powered by the sleeve vavled bristol AQUILA aero engine designated as the Type 135.] Rothermere became aware of Bristol's proposal and, in response to his inquiry, on 3 March 1934, Barnwell issued him with a quote of the specification and performance statistics of the design, including an estimated top speed of 240 mph at an altitude of 6,500 feet. By this point, proposed use of the Aquila engine had been shelved in favour of the supercharger equipped, poppet-valve Bristol Mercury engine. Deeming it suitable for the issued challenge, the design of Type 135 was further adapted to produce the Type 142 in order to meet the requirements outlined by Rothermere In late March 1934, Rothermere placed an order for a single Type 142 aircraft, under which he paid for half of the estimated £18,500 cost up front and the remainder upon the aircraft's first flight in the following year.The first production Type 142M with the Military in flight registration airframe number K7033, which served as the only initial prototype and made its first flight in June 1936.On 12 April 1935, the Type 142, which had been given the name Britain First, conducted its first ever flight from Filton Airfield very near the City of Bristol, , in the English county of Southern Gloucestershire, Flight tests soon proved that the aircraft was in fact faster than any fighter in service with the Royal Air Force at the time, having demonstrated a top speed of 307 mph. Rothermere presented the aircraft to the nation for a formal evaluation at a potential bomber. By June 1935, the Air Ministry had become interested in the project due to its high performance. On 9 July 1935, a design conference was held by Bristol at the ministry's request into the question of converting the Type 142 into a suitable medium bomber.Based upon talks from the conference, the Air Ministry quickly formalised Specified as b 28 : 35 for prototypes of a bomber version; the Type 142M (M for military).Therefore, ALL THREE started out as entirely private funded projects, before finally getting any Green light or grant of order from the Air Ministry.

Another civilian clueless as to what the U.S. military does.Take a look at the some of job offers just for the Navy. Granted not all military jobs will cross to a civilian job.InsigniaGeneral ratingAbbreviationService ratingAbbreviationAviation boatswain's mateAB[I](Launching & Recovery)(Fuels)(Aircraft Handling)ABEABFABHAviation Boatswain's Mates are responsible for aircraft catapults, arresting gear and barricades. They operate fuel and lube oil transfer systems, as well as direct aircraft on the flight deck and in hangar bays before launch and after recovery. They use tow tractors to position planes and operate support equipment used to start aircraft.[15]Air traffic controllerACAir traffic controllers assist with the speedy flow of air traffic by directing and controlling aircraft. They operate field lighting systems and communicate with aircraft. They furnish pilots with information regarding traffic, navigation, and weather conditions, as well as operate and adjust ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems and interpret targets on radar screens and plot aircraft positions.[15]Air traffic controllerACAir traffic controllers assist with the speedy flow of air traffic by directing and controlling aircraft. They operate field lighting systems and communicate with aircraft. They furnish pilots with information regarding traffic, navigation, and weather conditions, as well as operate and adjust ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems and interpret targets on radar screens and plot aircraft positions.[15]Aviation machinist's mateAD[II]Aviation machinist's mates are usually assigned to billets concerned with the maintenance of turbo-jet aircraft engines and associated equipment. They are responsible for the maintenance and replacement of aircraft engines and accessories, as well as performing the duties of flight engineers.[15]Aviation Electrician's MateAE[III]Aviation Electrician's Mates are responsible for aircraft electrical power generating and converting systems. They maintain lighting, control, and indicating systems and can install as well as maintain flight and engine instrument systems.[15]Aerographer's mateAGAerographer's mates are the U.S. Navy's weather forecasters. They are trained in meteorology and the use of aerological instruments that monitor air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed, and direction. They prepare weather maps and forecasts and can analyze atmospheric conditions to determine the best flight levels for aircraft. An AG can measure wind and air density to aid the accuracy of anti-aircraft firing, shore bombardment and delivery of weapons by aircraft.[15]Aviation structural mechanicAM[II](Safety Equipment)(Hydraulics and Structures)AMEAMAviation structural mechanics are responsible for the maintenance of many aircraft parts such as wings, fuselage, tail, control surfaces, landing gear, and hydraulic systems. AME's maintain and repair oxygen, cockpit and cabin pressurization, and ejection seat systems.[15]Aviation ordnancemanAOAviation ordnancemen operate and handle aviation ordnance equipment. They are responsible for the maintenance of guns, bombs, torpedoes, rockets, and missiles. Their duties include the stowing, issuing, and loading of munitions and small arms.[15]Aviation support equipment technicianASAviation support equipment technicians perform intermediate maintenance on aviation accessory equipment at naval air stations and aboard aircraft carriers. They maintain gasoline and diesel engines, gas turbine compressor units and electrical systems.[15]Aviation electronics technicianAT[III]Aviation electronics technicians are responsible for the maintenance of radars, avionics, and navigation systems at all times. They do checks on equipment, and calibration of many aviation electronics systems on a regular basis.[15]Naval aircrewmanAW(Operator)(Mechanical)(Avionics)(Helicopter)(Tactical Helicopter)AWOAWFAWVAWSAWRNaval aircrewman operate airborne radar and electronic equipment used in detecting, locating, and tracking submarines. They provide information for aircraft and surface navigation and act as helicopter-rescue crewmen, and function as part of the flight crew on long-range and intermediate-range aircraft. Beginning in 2009, other enlisted aviation ratings that perform flight engineer or loadmaster duties in Navy aircraft will convert to the AW rating.[15]Aviation maintenance administrationmanAZAviation maintenance administrationmen perform clerical, administrative, and managerial duties necessary to keep aircraft maintenance activities running smoothly. They schedule and coordinated the maintenance workload, including inspections and modifications to aircraft and equipment.[15]Aircrew survival equipmentmanPRAircrew survival equipmentmen are responsible for the packing and care of parachutes. They maintain flight clothing, rubber life rafts, life jackets, oxygen-breathing apparatus, protective clothing, and air-sea rescue equipment.[15]The abbreviation comes from the former official title (still used informally) of parachute rigger.[16]Notes[edit]I^ : ABE, ABF, and ABH combine at paygrade E-9 to the rate of Master chief aviation boatswain's mate (ABCM).[17]II^ : AM, AME, and AD combine at paygrade E-9 to the rate of Master chief aircraft maintenanceman (AFCM).III^ : AE and AT combine at paygrade E-9 to the rate of Master chief avionics technician (AVCM).IV^ : 2009 AW rating merged with all other aircrew NEC's and changed their title from aviation warfare system operators to naval aircrewman.Construction ratings[edit]InsigniaGeneral ratingAbbreviationService ratingAbbreviationBuilderBU[I]Navy builders are like civilian construction workers. They are skilled carpenters, plasterers, roofers, cement finishers, asphalt workers, masons, and painters. They build and repair all types of structures including: piers, bridges, towers, schools, offices, houses, and other buildings.[15]Construction electricianCE[II]Construction electricians are responsible for the power production and electrical work required to build and operate airfields, roads, barracks, and hospitals. The work of a CE is equivalent to civilian construction electricians, telephone and electrical repairmen, lineman, and others.[15]Construction mechanicCM[III]Construction mechanics maintain many types of construction machinery including; buses, dump trucks, bulldozers, rollers, cranes, backhoes, and pile drivers. They work on gasoline and diesel engines and transmissions. They also repair electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic and steering systems.[15]Engineering aideEA[I]Engineering aides provide construction engineers with information needed to develop final construction plans. They conduct surveys for roads, airfields, buildings, etc. They perform soil tests, prepare topographic and hydrographic maps. They also survey for sewers, water lines, drainage systems and underwater excavations.[15]Equipment operatorEO[III]Equipment operators work with heavy machinery such as bulldozers, power shovels, pile drivers, etc. They use this machinery to dig ditches, excavate for building foundations, break up old concrete or asphalt paving and pour new paving. They grade and remove debris from construction sites, raise girders, and move and set in place other pieces of equipment or materials needed for the job.[15]SteelworkerSW[I]Steelworkers rig and operate all special equipment used to move or hoist structural steel, structural shapes and similar material. They erect and dismantle steel bridges, piers, buildings, storage tanks, etc. They work with steel shapes, plates and built-up sections used in the construction of overseas facilities. They are skilled in arc welding, MIG welding, TIG welding, and gas welding.[15]UtilitiesmanUT[II]Utilitiesmen supervise and perform tasks involved in the installation and maintenance of plumbing, steam, compressed air and fuel storage and distribution systems. They maintain air conditioning and refrigeration equipment, as well as sewage collecting and disposal facilities.[15]Notes[edit]I^ : BU, EA, and SW combine, as follows:at paygrade E-8 to the rating of Senior chief constructionman (CUCS)at paygrade E-9 to the rating of Master chief constructionman (CUCM).[18]II^ : CE and UT combine at paygrade E-9 to the rating of Master chief utilitiesman (UCCM).[18]III^ : CM and EO combine at paygrade E-9 to the rating of Master chief equipmentman (EQCM).[18]Medical[edit]InsigniaGeneral ratingAbbreviationService ratingAbbreviationHospital corpsmanHMHospital corpsmen are medical professionals who provide health care to service people and their families. They serve as pharmacy technicians, medical technicians, nurse's aides, physician's or dentist's assistants, battlefield medics, and more. All work falls into several categories: first aid and minor surgery, patient transportation, patient care, prescriptions and laboratory work, food service inspections, and clerical duties.[15]Administration, deck, technical, and weapons specialty ratings[edit]InsigniaGeneral ratingAbbreviationService ratingAbbreviationBoatswain's mateBMBoatswain's mates train and supervise personnel in all activities relating to marlinspike, deck, and boat seamanship, and oversee the maintenance of the ship's external structure and deck equipment. They act as petty officers in charge of small craft and may perform duties as master-at-arms, serve in or take charge of gun crews, and damage control parties.Boatswain's mates are also responsible for the "deck side" watch. In port, three of the crew are on deck watch 24/7 (in hazardous areas such as war zones there are more than three, depending on ship's size). They are the Officer of the Deck, Boatswain's Mate of the watch, and Messenger of the Watch (usually a Seaman or Seaman Apprentice). They are stationed very close to the gangway and monitor all the comings and goings of persons to and from the ship. At sea the boatswain's mate of the watch is within ear shot of the conning officer (on the bridge). The boatswain's mate of the watch supervises the rest of the enlisted watch standers on deck. They include helmsman, messenger of the watch, and all the look outs. In port or at sea the boatswain's mate of the watch is charged with the responsibility of making all announcements to the crew; everything from chow call to general quarters (battle stations).[15]Culinary specialistCS(Surface)(Subsurface)CSCSSCulinary specialists prepare menus and order food items. They operate galley and dining facilities, manage large facilities, keep records for food supplies and financial budgets, and can even serve as flight attendant aircrewmen. They can also serve as a personal food service specialist, household/estate manager or chef for an admiral, the First Family, President of the United States at Camp David and the White House, to the Vice President at Number One Observatory Circle or for a commanding officer aboard ship or at shore bases. Ashore, Culinary Specialists often manage and maintain clubs, TAD hotels and Permanent Party naval barracks.[19]Cryptologic technicianCT[I](Interpretive)(Maintenance)(Networks)(Collection)(Technical)CTICTMCTNCTRCTTCryptologic technicians control the flow of messages and information and also conduct electronic warfare. Their work depends on their specific branch: CTAs or administration cryptologic technicians (as of 01 OCT 07 CTA merged with the YN rating) perform administrative and clerical duties that control access to classified material. CTIs or interpretive cryptologic technicians handle radiotelephone communications and foreign language translation. CTMs or maintenance cryptologic technicians maintain electronic and electromechanical equipment. CTNs or networking cryptologic technicians handle computer communication. CTRs or collection cryptologic technicians handle all Morse code communications and operate radio direction-finding equipment. Finally, CTTs or technical cryptologic technicians deal with electronic warfare. CTTs are the first line of defense against inbound threats and anti-ship missiles. They also collect, analyze, and provide electronic intelligence support to commands throughout the world.[15]Explosive ordnance disposalEODExplosive ordnance disposal technicians locate, identify, render safe and dispose of all forms of ordnance (conventional, nuclear, chemical, biological, military, and improvised) both U.S. and foreign made. Parachute or Helicopter insertion and deep-sea diving capabilities are sometimes necessary to perform this mission. In addition to working closely with other military services, EOD technicians occasionally assist civilian law enforcement agencies.[20]Electronics technicianETSurfaceNuclear PowerSubmarine, NavigationSubmarine, CommunicationsETETN[21]ETV[21]ETR[21]Electronics technicians are responsible for electronic equipment used to send and receive messages, detect enemy planes and ships, and determine target distances. They maintain, repair, and calibrate all electronic equipment used for communications, detection tracking, identification, and navigation. Specially qualified electronics technicians are employed onboard nuclear-powered ships to operate the nuclear reactor and maintain its control subsystems.[15]Fire controlmanFCConventionalNon-Conventional (Aegis)FCFCAFire controlmen (FC's) maintain the control mechanism used in weapons systems on combat ships. Complex electronic, electrical and hydraulic equipment is required to ensure the accuracy of Navy guided-missile and surface gunfire-control systems. They are responsible for the operation, routine care and repair of this equipment, which includes radars, computers, weapons direction equipment, target designation systems, gyroscopes and rangefinders.[15]Fire controlman - Aegis (FCA's) maintain the Aegis Combat System, an integrated naval weapons system on the Ticonderoga-class cruiser and the Arleigh Burke-class destroyer.Fire control technicianFTFire control technicians maintain the electronic equipment used in submarine weapons systems. They are responsible for the operation and maintenance of the complex electronic, electrical and mechanical equipment required to ensure the accuracy of Navy guided-missile systems and underwater weapons. They are responsible for ship safety by recognizing and analyzing data from several critical systems including sonar, radar, periscope, radio, and torpedo inputs.[15]Gunner's mateGMGunner's mates operate and maintain all gunnery equipment, guided-missile launching systems, rocket launchers, guns, turrets, and associated equipment. They repair electrical, electronic, hydraulic and mechanical systems, and make detailed casualty analysis. They test ammunition, missiles and their ordnance components. GMs train and supervise personnel in the handling and stowage of ammunition, missiles, and assigned ordnance equipment.[15]Intelligence specialistISIntelligence specialists are involved in collecting and interpreting intelligence especially secret information about enemies or potential enemies. They analyze photographs and prepare charts, maps, and reports that describe in detail the strategic situation all over the world.[15]Information systems technician (Surface)Information Systems Technician Submarines (Submarine)IT[II]ITSInformation systems technicians design, install, operate, and maintain state-of-the-art informations systems. This technology includes local and wide area networks, mainframe, mini and microcomputer systems and associated peripheral devices. They also write programs to handle the collection, manipulation and distribution of data for a wide variety of applications and requirements. They perform the functions of a computer system analyst, operate telecommunications systems including automated networks and the full spectrum of data links and circuits.[22]LegalmanLNLegalmen are the Navy's paralegals. They assist Staff Judge Advocates in the proper administration of military justice and administrative law, such as courts-martial, nonjudicial punishment, and administrative separation. They work in Region Legal Service Offices (RLSO), Defense Service Offices, aboard aircraft carriers and large amphibious ships, and at various independent duty locations. Legalmen assist service members, retirees, and their family members with powers of attorney, wills, tax returns, voter registration procedures, immigration and customs regulations, Social Security regulations, and veterans' benefits.[15]Logistics specialistLS(Surface)(Subsurface)LSLSSLogistics specialists manage inventories and issuance of repair parts/general supplies and specialized supplies (e.g., personal flight gear for naval aircrews or specialized combat equipment for Navy SEALs or Naval Military Construction Battalion "Seabees"), as well as distribute mail for naval ships, submarines, aviation squadrons, and shore-based activities. They procure, receive, store and issue material and repair selected components. They utilize financial accounting and database systems to perform inventory and financial management functions. Additionally, they sort and distribute all official and personal mail, manage money order and stamp inventories, and maintain financial and inventory reports.[15]Master-at-armsMAMasters-at-arms uphold law and order aboard ships, shore stations, control access to naval installations, and deploy overseas with expeditionary forces and squadrons performing antiterrorism/force protection (AT/FP) duties. The basic duty of an MA is to enforce rules and regulations, maintain good order and discipline, and protect life and property. Some other duties include conducting criminal investigations, personal protective services, take part in correctional and rehabilitative programs, military working dog (MWD) handlers, small arms instruction, lethal and non-lethal weapons training, and organize and train sailors assigned to shore patrol police duty. Their equivalents in the civilian world are detectives, security guards, and policemen.[15]Mass communication specialistMCMass communication specialists are public affairs and visual information experts. They present the U.S. Navy story to audiences in the Navy and to the rest of the world through a variety of media. Mass communication specialists write and produce print and broadcast journalism, news, and feature stories for military and civilian newspapers, magazines, television and radio broadcast stations. They record still and video photography of military operations, exercises, and other Navy events.[15]MinemanMNMinemen test, maintain, and repair mines and their components. They are responsible for assembling, testing, and delivering mines to the planting agent. They maintain minehandling and minelaying equipment.[15]At sea, minemen primarily man Avenger Class mine countermeasures ships as well the new Independence Class littoral combat ships as a part of the MCM module. Their duties at sea include but are not limited to: operating mine hunting sonar, operating remote controlled submersibles in prosecuting mine-like contacts, rigging and deploying minesweeping gear as well as standing normal underway deck and combat information center watches.[23]Missile technicianMTMissile technicians operate and maintain the UGM-133 Trident II D5 missile Strategic Weapon System (SWS) carried aboard ballistic missile submarines and at strategic weapons facilities. Missile technicians operate and maintain electronic, mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic strategic weapon subsystems, test and operate the MK98 fire-control system and MK 6 guidance system, perform classified targeting operations, and provide physical security to nuclear weapon systems.[15]MusicianMUMusicians play in official Navy bands and special groups such as jazz bands, dance bands and small ensembles. They give concerts and provide music for military ceremonies, religious services, parades, receptions and dances. Official unit bands usually do not include stringed instruments, but each musician must be able to play at least one brass, woodwind or percussion instrument. Sailors are selected for this rating through auditions.[15]Navy counselorNC(Career)(Recruiter)NC(C)NC(R)Navy counselors offer vocational guidance to Navy personnel — individually and in groups — aboard ships and at shore facilities. They assess the interests, aptitudes, abilities and personalities of individuals and assist them in reaching their full potential. They are responsible directly to the command triumvirate (CO, XO, CMC) and report on many items such as retention, attrition, advancement, testing and various other facets of the career development program. Additionally, it is their keen eye and attention to detail that ensure personnel throughout the command are updated on current Navy policies in regards to career management, off duty education and administrative procedures, among various other responsibilities.[15]Operations specialistOSOperations specialists operate radar, navigation and communications equipment in the shipboard combat information centers (CICs) or bridges. They detect and track ships, planes, and missiles. They operate and maintain identification friend or foe (IFF) systems, electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment and radio-telephones.[15]They control and assist aircraft.Personnel specialistPSPersonnel specialists provide enlisted personnel with information and counseling about Navy jobs, opportunities for general education and training, and promotion requirements. They assist enlisted members' families with legal aid or reassignments in hardship situations. Personnel Specialists keep records up to date, prepare reports, type letters and maintain files.[15]QuartermasterQM[III]Quartermasters assist the navigator and officer of the deck (OOD), steer the ship, take radar bearings and ranges, make depth soundings and celestial observations, plot courses and command small craft.[15]Religious program specialistRPReligious program specialists assist Navy chaplains with administrative and budgetary tasks. They serve as custodians of chapel funds, keep religious documents and stay in contact with religious and community agencies. They prepare devotional and religious educational materials, set up volunteer programs, operate shipboard libraries, supervise chaplains' offices and perform administrative, clerical and secretarial duties. They train personnel in religious programs and publicize religious activities.[15]Special warfare boat operatorSBSpecial warfare boat operators (SWCC - special warfare combatant-craft crewmen) drive fast speedboats down narrow, winding rivers, or the open ocean while performing high speed, medium range, or all weather insertion/extraction of special operations forces. They participate in maritime interdiction operations, tactical swimmer operations, intelligence collection, operation deception, and coastal patrol.[24]Retail Services SpecialistRSRetail Services Specialists manage barber shops, tailor shops, ships' uniform stores, laundries, dry cleaning plants and cobbler shops. They serve as clerks in exchanges, gas stations, warehouses, and commissary stores. Some RSs function as Navy club managers.[25][26]Special warfare operatorSOSpecial warfare operators are Navy SEALs, which are the Navy's primary unconventional warfare units that conduct warfare at SEa, in the Air, and on Land (SEAL). A SEAL's core skills consist of: sniper, breacher, communicator, maritime/engineering, close air support, corpsman, driver, navigator (rural/urban/protective security), heavy weapons operator, sensitive site exploitation, air operations (parachuting/helicopter insertion, etc.), climber, interrogator, technical surveillance, and advanced special operations. SEALs oversee ocean-borne mine disposal, carry out direct action raids against military targets, conduct reconnaissance, and secure beachheads for invading amphibious forces.[24]Sonar technicianST(Surface)(Subsurface)STGSTSSonar technicians are responsible for underwater surveillance. They assist in safe navigation and aid in search and rescue and attack operations. They operate and repair sonar equipment and jam enemy sonars. Sonar Technicians operate, maintain and repair sonar systems, antisubmarine warfare fire control equipment and other various equipment associated with underwater detection, counter-detection, warfare and communications.[15]YeomanYN(Surface)(Subsurface)YNYNSYeomen perform administrative and clerical work. They deal with visitors, coordinate worldwide travel, submit passport applications, telephone calls and incoming mail, and assist various ships, squadrons, staff commands, and special warfare teams around the world with administrative tasks. They write and type business and social letters, notices, directives, forms and reports.[15]Notes[edit]I^ : Cryptologic technician now includes former rating of electronic warfare technician (EW).[27]II^ : Information systems technician now includes former rating of cryptologic technician – communications (CTO).[27]III^ : Quartermaster QM now exists as electronics technician (navigation) ETV on submarines.[27]Engineering and hull ratings[edit]InsigniaGeneral ratingAbbreviationService ratingAbbreviationDamage controlmanDC[I]Damage controlmen perform the work necessary for damage control, ship stability, fire-fighting. They also prepare defenses against chemical, biological and radiological (CBR) warfare attacks. They instruct personnel in damage control and CBR defense and repair damage-control equipment and systems.[15]Electrician's mateEM(Nuclear)EMNElectrician's mates are responsible for the operation and repair of a ship's or station's electrical power plant and electrical equipment. They also maintain and repair power and lighting circuits, distribution switchboards, generators, motors and other electrical equipment. Specially qualified electrician's mates are employed onboard nuclear-powered ships to maintain the control subsystems in nuclear reactors.[15]EnginemanENEnginemen are responsible for internal diesel and gasoline engines. They also maintain refrigeration, air-conditioning, distilling-plant engines and compressors.[15]Gas turbine system technicianGS(Electrical)(Mechanical)GSEGSMGas turbine system technicians are responsible for all gas turbine engines. They maintain propulsion machinery, including gears, shafting and controllable pitch propellers, assigned auxiliary equipment propulsion control systems, electrical and electronic circuitry up to the printed circuit module, and alarm and warning circuitry. They handle administrative tasks related to gas turbine propulsion system operation and maintenance.[15]Hull maintenance technicianHT[I]Hull maintenance technicians are responsible for maintaining ships' hulls, fittings, piping systems and machinery. They install and maintain all shipboard and shore based plumbing and piping systems. They look after a vessel's safety and survival equipment and perform many tasks related to damage control.[15]Interior communications electricianIC[II]Interior communications electricians operate and repair electronic devices used in the ship's interior communications systems, SITE TV systems, 1MC (public address system), electronic megaphones and other announcing equipment. They are responsible for the gyrocompass systems.[15]Machinist's mateMM(Nuclear)submarine (Weapons)submarine (Auxiliary)MMNMMAMachinist's mates are responsible for the continuous operation of the many engines, compressors, gears, refrigeration, and air-conditioning equipment along with other types of machinery onboard ships and shore installations. They are responsible for the ship's steam propulsion and auxiliary equipment and the outside (deck) machinery. Specially trained and qualified machinist's mates are deployed onboard nuclear-powered ships to maintain the machinery and piping in nuclear reactors. Some nuclear machinists mates (engineering laboratory technicians) receive additional specialization in health physics and maintaining reactor chemistry.[15]Torpedoman's mateTMsubmarine (Weapons, not SLBMS)TMs are responsible for all phases of weapons loading, unloading and storage on all classes of submarines. This includes torpedoes, Tomahawk missiles and countermeasure devices. A TM works on high pressure air and hydraulic systems to maintain loading and launching capabilities for torpedo and vertical launch tubes.[28]Machinery repairmanMR[I]Machinery repairmen are skilled machine tool operators. They make replacement parts and repair or overhaul a ship's engine auxiliary equipment, such as evaporators, air compressors and pumps. They repair deck equipment, including winches, hoists, condensers, and heat exchange devices. Shipboard machinery repairmen frequently operate main propulsion machinery, besides performing machine shop and repair duties.Navy diverNDNavy divers are responsible for a wide variety of tasks like underwater ship maintenance, construction, and underwater rescue. They are assigned to Naval Special Warfare Units to provide diving technical expertise and supervisory support to all submersible operations.[29]

Here is a small list directly from NASARed light-emitting diodes are growing plants in space and healing humans on Earth. The LED technology used in NASA space shuttle plant growth experiments has contributed to the development of medical devices such as award-winning WARP 10, a hand-held, high-intensity, LED unit developed by Quantum Devices Inc. The WARP 10 is intended for the temporary relief of minor muscle and joint pain, arthritis, stiffness, and muscle spasms, and also promotes muscle relaxation and increases local blood circulation. The WARP 10 is being used by the U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Navy as a noninvasive “soldier self-care” device that aids front-line forces with first aid for minor injuries and pain, thereby improving endurance in combat. The next-generation WARP 75 has been used to relieve pain in bone marrow transplant patients, and will be used to combat the symptoms of bone atrophy, multiple sclerosis, diabetic complications, Parkinson’s disease, and in a variety of ocular applications. (Spinoff 2005, 2008)Infrared Ear ThermometersDiatek Corporation and NASA developed an aural thermometer, which weighs only 8 ounces and uses infrared astronomy technology to measure the amount of energy emitted by the eardrum, the same way the temperature of stars and planets is measured. This method avoids contact with mucous membranes, virtually eliminating the possibility of cross infection, and permits rapid temperature measurement of newborn, critically-ill, or incapacitated patients. NASA supported the Diatek Corporation, a world leader in electronic thermometry, through the Technology Affiliates Program. (Spinoff 1991)Artificial LimbsNASA’s continued funding, coupled with its collective innovations in robotics and shock-absorption/comfort materials are inspiring and enabling the private sector to create new and better solutions for animal and human prostheses. Advancements such as Environmental Robots Inc.’s development of artificial muscle systems with robotic sensing and actuation capabilities for use in NASA space robotic and extravehicular activities are being adapted to create more functionally dynamic artificial limbs (Spinoff 2004). Additionally, other private-sector adaptations of NASA’s temper foam technology have brought about custom-moldable materials offering the natural look and feel of flesh, as well as preventing friction between the skin and the prosthesis, and heat/moisture buildup. (Spinoff 2005)Ventricular Assist DeviceCollaboration between NASA, Dr. Michael DeBakey, Dr. George Noon, and MicroMed Technology Inc. resulted in a lifesaving heart pump for patients awaiting heart transplants. The MicroMed DeBakey ventricular assist device (VAD) functions as a “bridge to heart transplant” by pumping blood throughout the body to keep critically ill patients alive until a donor heart is available. Weighing less than 4 ounces and measuring 1 by 3 inches, the pump is approximately one-tenth the size of other currently marketed pulsatile VADs. This makes it less invasive and ideal for smaller adults and children. Because of the pump’s small size, less than 5 percent of the patients implanted developed device-related infections. It can operate up to 8 hours on batteries, giving patients the mobility to do normal, everyday activities. (Spinoff 2002)Anti-Icing SystemsAirplane anti-icing systemsNASA funding under the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program and work with NASA scientists advanced the development of the certification and integration of a thermoelectric deicing system called Thermawing, a DC-powered air conditioner for single-engine aircraft called Thermacool, and high-output alternators to run them both. Thermawing, a reliable anti-icing and deicing system, allows pilots to safely fly through ice encounters and provides pilots of single-engine aircraft the heated wing technology usually reserved for larger, jet-powered craft. Thermacool, an innovative electric air conditioning system, uses a new compressor whose rotary pump design runs off an energy-efficient, brushless DC motor and allows pilots to use the air conditioner before the engine even starts. (Spinoff 2007)Highway SafetyGrooves in concreteSafety grooving, the cutting of grooves in concrete to increase traction and prevent injury, was first developed to reduce aircraft accidents on wet runways. Represented by the International Grooving and Grinding Association, the industry expanded into highway and pedestrian applications. The technique originated at Langley Research Center, which assisted in testing the grooving at airports and on highways. Skidding was reduced, stopping distance decreased, and a vehicle’s cornering ability on curves was increased. The process has been extended to animal holding pens, steps, parking lots, and other potentially slippery surfaces. (Spinoff 1985)Improved Radial TiresRadial tiresGoodyear Tire and Rubber Company developed a fibrous material, five times stronger than steel, for NASA to use in parachute shrouds to soft-land the Vikings on the Martian surface. The fiber’s chain-like molecular structure gave it incredible strength in proportion to its weight. Recognizing the increased strength and durability of the material, Goodyear expanded the technology and went on to produce a new radial tire with a tread life expected to be 10,000 miles greater than conventional radials. (Spinoff 1976)Chemical DetectionNASA contracted with Intelligent Optical Systems (IOS) to develop moisture- and pH-sensitive sensors to warn of potentially dangerous corrosive conditions in aircraft before significant structural damage occurs. This new type of sensor, using a specially manufactured optical fiber whose entire length is chemically sensitive, changes color in response to contact with its target. After completing the work with NASA, IOS was tasked by the U.S. Department of Defense to further develop the sensors for detecting chemical warfare agents and potential threats, such as toxic industrial compounds and nerve agents, for which they proved just as successful. IOS has additionally sold the chemically sensitive fiber optic cables to major automotive and aerospace companies, who are finding a variety of uses for the devices such as aiding experimentation with nontraditional power sources, and as an economical “alarm system” for detecting chemical release in large facilities. (Spinoff 2007)Public SafetyVideo Enhancing and Analysis SystemsIntergraph Government Solutions developed its Video Analyst System (VAS) by building on Video Image Stabilization and Registration (VISAR) technology created by NASA to help FBI agents analyze video footage. Originally used for enhancing video images from nighttime videotapes made with hand-held camcorders, VAS is a state-of-the-art, simple, effective, and affordable tool for video enhancement and analysis offering benefits such as support of full-resolution digital video, stabilization, frame-by-frame analysis, conversion of analog video to digital storage formats, and increased visibility of filmed subjects without altering underlying footage. Aside from law enforcement and security applications, VAS has also been adapted to serve the military for reconnaissance, weapons deployment, damage assessment, training, and mission debriefing. (Spinoff 2001)Land Mine RemovalLand mine removal deviceDue to arrangements such as the one between Thiokol Propulsion and NASA that permits Thiokol to use NASA’s surplus rocket fuel to produce a flare that can safely destroy land mines, NASA is able to reduce propellant waste without negatively impacting the environment, and Thiokol is able to access the materials needed to develop the Demining Device flare. The Demining Device flare uses a battery-triggered electric match to ignite and neutralize land mines in the field without detonation. The flare uses solid rocket fuel to burn a hole in the mine’s case and burn away the explosive contents so the mine can be disarmed without hazard. (Spinoff 2000)Fire-Resistant ReinforcementInsulation over steelBuilt and designed by Avco Corporation, the Apollo heat shield was coated with a material whose purpose was to burn and thus dissipate energy during reentry while charring, to form a protective coating to block heat penetration. NASA subsequently funded Avco’s development of other applications of the heat shield, such as fire-retardant paints and foams for aircraft, which led to the world’s first intumescent epoxy material, which expands in volume when exposed to heat or flames, acting as an insulating barrier and dissipating heat through burn-off. Further innovations based on this product include steel coatings devised to make high-rise buildings and public structures safer by swelling to provide a tough and stable insulating layer over the steel for up to 4 hours of fire protection, ultimately to slow building collapse and provide more time for escape. (Spinoff 2006)Firefighter GearFirefighting equipment widely used throughout the United States is based on a NASA development that coupled Agency design expertise with lightweight materials developed for the U.S. Space Program. A project that linked NASA and the National Bureau of Standards resulted in a lightweight breathing system including face mask, frame, harness, and air bottle, using an aluminum composite material developed by NASA for use on rocket casings. Aerospace technology has been beneficially transferred to civil-use applications for years, but perhaps the broadest fire-related technology transfer is the breathing apparatus worn by firefighters for protection from smoke inhalation injury. Additionally, radio communications are essential during a fire to coordinate hose lines, rescue victims, and otherwise increase efficiency and safety. NASA’s inductorless electronic circuit technology contributed to the development of a lower-cost, more rugged, short-range two-way radio now used by firefighters. NASA also helped develop a specialized mask weighing less than 3 ounces to protect the physically impaired from injuries to the face and head, as well as flexible, heat-resistant materials—developed to protect the space shuttle on reentry—which are being used both by the military and commercially in suits for municipal and aircraft-rescue firefighters. (Spinoff 1976)Consumer, Home, and RecreationTemper FoamAs the result of a program designed to develop a padding concept to improve crash protection for airplane passengers, Ames Research Center developed a foam material with unusual properties. The material is widely used and commonly known as temper foam or “memory foam.” The material has been incorporated into a host of widely used and recognized products including mattresses, pillows, military and civilian aircraft, automobiles and motorcycles, sports safety equipment, amusement park rides and arenas, horseback saddles, archery targets, furniture, and human and animal prostheses. Its high-energy absorption and soft characteristics not only offer superior protection in the event of an accident or impact, but enhanced comfort and support for passengers on long flights or those seeking restful sleep. Today, temper foam is being employed by NASCAR to provide added safety in racecars. (Spinoff 1976, 1977, 1979, 1988, 1995, 2002, 2005)Enriched Baby FoodBaby bottleCommercially available infant formulas now contain a nutritional enrichment ingredient that traces its existence to NASA-sponsored research that explored the potential of algae as a recycling agent for long-duration space travel. The substance, formulated into the products life’sDHA and life’sARA, can be found in over 90 percent of the infant formulas sold in the United States, and are added to the infant formulas sold in over 65 additional countries. The products were developed and are manufactured by Martek Biosciences Corporation, which has pioneered the commercial development of products based on microalgae; the company’s founders and principal scientists acquired their expertise in this area while working on the NASA program. (Spinoff 1996, 2008)Portable Cordless VacuumsCordless vacuumApollo and Gemini space mission technologies created by Black & Decker have helped change the way we clean around the house. For the Apollo space mission, NASA required a portable, self-contained drill capable of extracting core samples from below the lunar surface. Black & Decker was tasked with the job, and developed a computer program to optimize the design of the drill’s motor and insure minimal power consumption. That computer program led to the development of a cordless miniature vacuum cleaner called the Dustbuster. (Spinoff 1981)Freeze Drying TechnologyFreeze dried food containerIn planning for the long-duration Apollo missions, NASA conducted extensive research into space food. One of the techniques developed was freeze drying—Action Products commercialized this technique, concentrating on snack food. The foods are cooked, quickly frozen, and then slowly heated in a vacuum chamber to remove the ice crystals formed by the freezing process. The final product retains 98 percent of its nutrition and weighs only 20 percent of its original weight. Today, one of the benefits of this advancement in food preparation includes simple nutritious meals available to handicapped and otherwise homebound senior adults unable to take advantage of existing meal programs sponsored by government and private organizations. (Spinoff 1976, 1994)Environmental and Agricultural ResourcesHarnessing Solar EnergySilicon solar power cellsHomes across the country are now being outfitted with modern, high-performance, low-cost, single crystal silicon solar power cells that allow them to reduce their traditional energy expenditures and contribute to pollution reduction. The advanced technology behind these solar devices—which are competitively-priced and provide up to 50 percent more power than conventional solar cells—originated with the efforts of a NASA-sponsored 28-member coalition of companies, government groups, universities, and nonprofits forming the Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) Alliance. ERAST’s goal was to foster the development of remotely piloted aircraft intended to fly unmanned at high altitudes for days at a time, requiring advanced solar power sources that did not add weight. As a result, SunPower Corporation created the most advanced silicon-based cells available for terrestrial or airborne applications. (Spinoff 2005)Pollution RemediationA product using NASA’s microencapsulating technology is available to consumers and industry enabling them to safely and permanently clean petroleum-based pollutants from water. The microencapsulated wonder, Petroleum Remediation Product or “PRP,” has revolutionized the way oil spills are cleaned. The basic technology behind PRP is thousands of microcapsules—tiny balls of beeswax with hollow centers. Water cannot penetrate the microcapsule’s cell, but oil is absorbed right into the beeswax spheres as they float on the water’s surface. Contaminating chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil (such as fuels, motor oils, or petroleum hydrocarbons) are caught before they settle, limiting damage to ocean beds. (Spinoff 1994, 2006)Water PurificationNASA engineers are collaborating with qualified companies to develop a complex system of devices intended to sustain the astronauts living on the International Space Station and, in the future, those who go on to explore the Moon. This system, tentatively scheduled for launch in 2008, will make use of available resources by turning wastewater from respiration, sweat, and urine into drinkable water. Commercially, this system is benefiting people all over the world who need affordable, clean water. By combining the benefits of chemical adsorption, ion exchange, and ultra-filtration processes, products using this technology yield safe, drinkable water from the most challenging sources, such as in underdeveloped regions where well water may be heavily contaminated. (Spinoff 1995, 2006)Computer TechnologyBetter SoftwarePhoto/video image stationFrom real-time weather visualization and forecasting, high-resolution 3-D maps of the Moon and Mars, to real-time tracking of the International Space Station and the space shuttle, NASA is collaborating with Google Inc. to solve a variety of challenging technical problems ranging from large-scale data management and massively distributed computing, to human-computer interfaces—with the ultimate goal of making the vast, scattered ocean of data more accessible and usable. With companies like InterSense, NASA continues to fund and collaborate on other software advancement initiatives benefiting such areas as photo/video image enhancement, virtual-reality/design, simulation training, and medical applications. (Spinoff 2005)Structural AnalysisComputer-generated car modelNASA software engineers have created thousands of computer programs over the decades equipped to design, test, and analyze stress, vibration, and acoustical properties of a broad assortment of aerospace parts and structures (before prototyping even begins). The NASA Structural Analysis Program, or NASTRAN, is considered one of the most successful and widely-used NASA software programs. It has been used to design everything from Cadillacs to roller coaster rides. Originally created for spacecraft design, NASTRAN has been employed in a host of non-aerospace applications and is available to industry through NASA’s Computer Software Management and Information Center (COSMIC). COSMIC maintains a library of computer programs from NASA and other government agencies and offers them for sale at a fraction of the cost of developing a new program, benefiting companies around the world seeking to solve the largest, most difficult engineering problems. (Spinoff 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1998)Refrigerated Internet-Connected Wall OvensInternet-connected wall ovensEmbedded Web Technology (EWT) software—originally developed by NASA for use by astronauts operating experiments on available laptops from anywhere on the International Space Station—lets a user monitor and/or control a device remotely over the Internet. NASA supplied this technology and guidance to TMIO LLC, who went on to develop a low-cost, real-time remote control and monitoring of a new intelligent oven product named “ConnectIo.” With combined cooling and heating capabilities, ConnectIo provides the convenience of being able to store cold food where it will remain properly refrigerated until a customized pre-programmable cooking cycle begins. The menu allows the user to simply enter the dinner time, and the oven automatically switches from refrigeration to the cooking cycle, so that the meal will be ready as the family arrives home for dinner. (Spinoff 2005)Industrial ProductivityPowdered LubricantsTube of powdered lubricantNASA’s scientists developed a solid lubricant coating material that is saving the manufacturing industry millions of dollars. Developed as a shaft coating to be deposited by thermal spraying to protect foil air bearings used in oil-free turbomachinery, like gas turbines, this advanced coating, PS300, was meant to be part of a larger project: an oil-free aircraft engine capable of operating at high temperatures with increased reliability, lowered weight, reduced maintenance, and increased power. PS300 improves efficiency, lowers friction, reduces emissions, and has been used by NASA in advanced aeropropulsion engines, refrigeration compressors, turbochargers, and hybrid electrical turbogenerators. ADMA Products has found widespread industrial applications for the material. (Spinoff 2005)Improved Mine SafetyTension and high-pressure monitorAn ultrasonic bolt elongation monitor developed by a NASA scientist for testing tension and high-pressure loads on bolts and fasteners has continued to evolve over the past three decades. Today, the same scientist and Luna Innovations are using a digital adaptation of this same device for a plethora of different applications, including non-destructive evaluation of railroad ties, groundwater analysis, radiation dosimetry, and as a medical testing device to assess levels of internal swelling and pressure for patients suffering from intracranial pressure and compartment syndrome, a painful condition that results when pressure within muscles builds to dangerous levels. The applications for this device continue to expand. (Spinoff 1978, 2005, 2008)Food Safety SystemsFaced with the problem of how and what to feed an astronaut in a sealed capsule under weightless conditions while planning for human space flight, NASA enlisted the aid of The Pillsbury Company to address two principal concerns: eliminating crumbs of food that might contaminate the spacecraft’s atmosphere and sensitive instruments, and assuring absolute freedom from potentially catastrophic disease-producing bacteria and toxins. Pillsbury developed the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept, potentially one of the most far-reaching space spinoffs, to address NASA’s second concern. HACCP is designed to prevent food safety problems rather than to catch them after they have occurred. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has applied HACCP guidelines for the handling of seafood, juice, and dairy products. (Spinoff 1991)Space exploration improves our lives every day, even if we don’t see it.