Of Form 1838-C, Carrier'S Count Of Mail-Letter: Fill & Download for Free

I wonder what is the tone of this question. Is it a sincere and innocent request for information? Or some sort of cynical rhetoric suggestion that the answer should be “very little”?I will give credit that it is a sincere “Ask” and answer accordingly. So here is a list of the inventions of just 10% of Great Britain - the Inventions of Scotland. If I included the inventions from the other 90% of Great Britain, I would swamp Quora!Road transport innovationsMacadamised roads (the basis for, but not specifically, tarmac): John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836)[3]The pedal bicycle: Attributed to both Kirkpatrick Macmillan (1813–1878)[2] and Thomas McCall (1834–1904)The pneumatic tyre: Robert William Thomson and John Boyd Dunlop (1822–1873)[9]The overhead valve engine: David Dunbar Buick (1854–1929)[10]Civil engineering innovationsTubular steel: Sir William Fairbairn (1789–1874)[11]The Falkirk wheel: Initial designs by Nicoll Russell Studios, Architects, RMJM, Architects and engineers Binnie Black and Veatch (Opened 2002)[12][13]The patent slip for docking vessels: Thomas Morton (1781–1832)[14][15]The Drummond Light: Thomas Drummond (1797–1840)[16]Canal design: Thomas Telford (1757–1834)[17]Dock design improvements: John Rennie (1761–1821)[18]Crane design improvements: James Bremner (1784–1856)[19]"Trac Rail Transposer", a machine to lay rail track patented in 2005, used by Network Rail in the United Kingdom and the New York Subway in the United States.[20][21][22]Aviation innovationsAircraft design: Frank Barnwell (1910) Establishing the fundamentals of aircraft design at the University of Glasgow.[23]Power innovationsCondensing steam engine improvements: James Watt (1736–1819)[1]Thermodynamic cycle: William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872)[24]Coal-gas lighting: William Murdoch (1754–1839)[25]The Stirling heat engine: Rev. Robert Stirling (1790–1878)[26]Carbon brushes for dynamos: George Forbes (1849–1936)[27]The Clerk cycle gas engine: Sir Dugald Clerk (1854–1932)[28]The wave-powered electricity generator: by South African Engineer Stephen Salter in 1977[29]The Pelamis Wave Energy Converter ("red sea snake" wave energy device): Richard Yemm, 1998[30]Shipbuilding innovationsEurope's first passenger steamboat: Henry Bell (1767–1830)[31]The first iron–hulled steamship: Sir William Fairbairn (1789–1874)[32]The first practical screw propeller: Robert Wilson (1803–1882)[citation needed]Marine engine innovations: James Howden (1832–1913)[33]John Elder & Charles Randolph (Marine Compound expansion engine)[33]Military innovationsLieutenant-General Sir David Henderson two areas: Field intelligence. Argued for the establishment of the Intelligence Corps. Wrote Field Intelligence: Its Principles and Practice (1904) and Reconnaissance (1907) on the tactical intelligence of modern warfare during World War I.[34]Special forces: Founded by Sir David Stirling, the SAS was created in World War II in the North Africa campaign to go behind enemy lines to destroy and disrupt the enemy. Since then it has been regarded as the most famous and influential special forces that has inspired other countries to form their own special forces too.Intelligence: Allan Pinkerton developed the still relevant intelligence techniques of "shadowing" (surveillance) and "assuming a role" (undercover work) in his time as head of the Union Intelligence Service.Heavy industry innovationsCoal mining extraction in the sea on an artificial island by Sir George Bruce of Carnock (1575). Regarded as one of the industrial wonders of the late medieval period.[35]Making cast steel from wrought iron: David Mushet (1772–1847)[36]Wrought iron sash bars for glass houses: John C. Loudon (1783–1865)[37]The hot blast oven: James Beaumont Neilson (1792–1865)[38]The steam hammer: James Nasmyth (1808–1890)[39]Wire rope: Robert Stirling Newall (1812–1889)[40]Steam engine improvements: William Mcnaught (1831–1881)[41]The Fairlie, a narrow gauge, double-bogie railway engine: Robert Francis Fairlie (1831–1885)[42]Cordite - Sir James Dewar, Sir Frederick Abel (1889)[43]Agricultural innovationsThreshing machine improvements: James Meikle (c.1690-c.1780) & Andrew Meikle (1719–1811)[44]Hollow pipe drainage: Sir Hew Dalrymple, Lord Drummore (1700–1753)[45]The Scotch plough: James Anderson of Hermiston (1739–1808)[46]Deanstonisation soil-drainage system: James Smith (1789–1850)[47]The mechanical reaping machine: Rev. Patrick Bell (1799–1869)[48]The Fresno scraper: James Porteous (1848–1922)[49]The Tuley tree shelter: Graham Tuley in 1979[50]Communication innovationsPrint stereotyping: William Ged (1690–1749)[51]Roller printing: Thomas Bell (patented 1783)[52]The adhesive postage stamp and the postmark: claimed by James Chalmers (1782–1853)[53]The Waverley pen nib innovations thereof: Duncan Cameron (1825–1901) The popular "Waverley" was unique in design with a narrow waist and an upturned tip designed to make the ink flow more smoothly on the paper.[54]Universal Standard Time: Sir Sandford Fleming (1827–1915)[55]Light signalling between ships: Admiral Philip H. Colomb (1831–1899)[56]The underlying principles of Radio - James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)[57]The Kinetoscope, a motion picture camera: devised in 1889 by William Kennedy Dickson (1860-1935)[58]The teleprinter: Frederick G. Creed (1871–1957)[59]The British Broadcasting Corporation BBC: John Reith, 1st Baron Reith (1922) its founder, first general manager and Director-general of the British Broadcasting Corporation[60]Radar: A significant contribution made by Robert Watson-Watt (1892–1973) alongside Englishman Henry Tizard (1885-1959) and others[61]The automated teller machine and Personal Identification Number system - James Goodfellow (born 1937)[62]Publishing firstsThe first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1768–81)[63]The first English textbook on surgery(1597)[64]The first modern pharmacopaedia, William Cullen (1776). The book became 'Europe's principal text on the classification and treatment of disease'. His ideas survive in the terms nervous energy and neuroses (a word that Cullen coined).[65]The first postcards and picture postcards in the UK[66]The first eBook from a UK administration (March 2012). Scottish Government publishes 'Your Scotland, Your Referendum'.[67][citation needed]The educational foundation of Ophthalmology: Stewart Duke-Elder in his ground breaking work including ‘Textbook of Ophthalmology and fifteen volumes of System of Ophthalmology’[68]Culture and the artsScottish National Portrait Gallery, designed by Sir Robert Rowand Anderson (1889): the world's first purpose-built portrait gallery.[69]Fictional charactersSherlock Holmes, by Sir Arthur Conan DoylePeter Pan, by J.M. Barrie, born in Kirriemuir, AngusLong John Silver and Jekyll and Hyde, by Robert Louis StevensonJohn Bull: by John Arbuthnot although seen as a national personification of the United Kingdom in general, and England in particular,[70] the character of John Bull was invented by Arbuthnot in 1712[71]James Bond was given a Scottish background by Ian Fleming, himself of Scottish descent, after he was impressed by Sean Connery's performance.Scientific innovationsLogarithms: John Napier (1550–1617)[72]Modern Economics founded by Adam Smith (1776) 'The father of modern economics'[73] with the publication of The Wealth of Nations.[74][75]Modern Sociology: Adam Ferguson (1767) ‘The Father of Modern Sociology’ with his work An Essay on the History of Civil Society[76]Hypnotism: James Braid (1795–1860) the Father of Hypnotherapy[77]Tropical medicine: Sir Patrick Manson known as the father of Tropical Medicine[78]Modern Geology: James Hutton ‘The Founder of Modern Geology’[79][80][81]The theory of Uniformitarianism: James Hutton (1788): a fundamental principle of Geology the features of the geologic time takes millions of years.[82]The theory of electromagnetism: James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)[83]The discovery of the Composition of Saturn's Rings James Clerk Maxwell (1859): determined the rings of Saturn were composed of numerous small particles, all independently orbiting the planet. At the time it was generally thought the rings were solid. The Maxwell Ringlet and Maxwell Gap were named in his honor.[84]The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution by James Clerk Maxwell (1860): the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, that speeds of molecules in a gas will change at different temperatures. The original theory first hypothesised by Maxwell and confirmed later in conjunction with Ludwig Boltzmann.[85]Popularising the decimal point: John Napier (1550–1617)[86]The first theory of the Higgs boson by English born [87] Peter Higgs particle-physics theorist at the University of Edinburgh (1964)[88]The Gregorian telescope: James Gregory (1638–1675)[89]The discovery of Proxima Centauri, the closest known star to the Sun, by Robert Innes (1861–1933)[90]One of the earliest measurements of distance to the Alpha Centauri star system, the closest such system outside of the Solar System, by Thomas Henderson (1798–1844)[91]The discovery of Centaurus A, a well-known starburst galaxy in the constellation of Centaurus, by James Dunlop (1793–1848)[92]The discovery of the Horsehead Nebula in the constellation of Orion, by Williamina Fleming (1857–1911)[93]The world's first oil refinery and a process of extracting paraffin from coal laying the foundations for the modern oil industry: James Young (1811–1883)[94]The identification of the minerals yttrialite, thorogummite, aguilarite and nivenite: by William Niven (1889)[95]The concept of latent heat by French-born Joseph Black (1728–1799)[96]Discovering the properties of Carbon dioxide by French-born Joseph Black (1728–1799)The concept of Heat capacity by French-born Joseph Black (1728–1799)The pyroscope, atmometer and aethrioscope scientific instruments: Sir John Leslie (1766–1832)[97]Identifying the nucleus in living cells: Robert Brown (1773–1858)[98]An early form of the Incandescent light bulb: James Bowman Lindsay (1799-1862)[99]Colloid chemistry: Thomas Graham (1805–1869)[100]The kelvin SI unit of temperature by Irishman William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907)[101]Devising the diagramatic system of representing chemical bonds: Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922)[102]Criminal fingerprinting: Henry Faulds (1843–1930)[103]The noble gases: Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916)[104]The cloud chamber recording of atoms: Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959)[105][106]The discovery of the Wave of Translation, leading to the modern general theory of solitons by John Scott Russell (1808-1882)[107]Statistical graphics: William Playfair founder of the first statistical line charts, bar charts, and pie charts in (1786) and (1801) known as a scientific ‘milestone’ in statistical graphs and data visualization[108][109]The Arithmetic mean density of the Earth: Nevil Maskelyne conducted the Schiehallion experiment conducted at the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion, Perthshire 1774[110]The first isolation of methylated sugars, trimethyl and tetramethyl glucose: James Irvine[111][112]Discovery of the Japp–Klingemann reaction: to synthesize hydrazones from β-keto-acids (or β-keto-esters) and aryl diazonium salts 1887[113]Pioneering work on nutrition and poverty: John Boyd Orr (1880–1971)[114]Ferrocene synthetic substances: Peter Ludwig Pauson in 1955[115]The first cloned mammal (Dolly the Sheep): Was conducted in The Roslin Institute research centre in 1996 by English scientists Ian Wilmut (born 1944) and Keith Campbell (1954–2012).[116]The seismometer innovations thereof: James David Forbes[117]Metaflex fabric innovations thereof: University of St. Andrews (2010) application of the first manufacturing fabrics that manipulate light in bending it around a subject. Before this such light manipulating atoms were fixed on flat hard surfaces. The team at St Andrews are the first to develop the concept to fabric.[118]Tractor beam innovations thereof: St. Andrews University (2013) the world's first to succeed in creating a functioning Tractor beam that pulls objects on a microscopic level[119][120]Macaulayite: Dr. Jeff Wilson of the Macaulay Institute, Aberdeen.[121]Discovery of Catacol whitebeam by Scottish Natural Heritage and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (1990s): a rare tree endemic and unique to the Isle of Arran in south west Scotland. The trees were confirmed as a distinct species by DNA testing.[122]The first positive displacement liquid flowmeter, the reciprocating piston meter by Thomas Kennedy Snr.[123]Sports innovationsMain article: Sport in ScotlandScots have been instrumental in the invention and early development of several sports:Australian rules football Scots were prominent with many innovations in the early evolution of the game, including the establishment of the Essendon Football Club by the McCracken family from Ayrshire[124][125][126][127][128]several modern athletics events, i.e. shot put[129] and the hammer throw,[129] derive from Highland Games and earlier 12th century Scotland[129]Curling[130]Gaelic handball The modern game of handball is first recorded in Scotland in 1427, when koKing James I an ardent handball player had his men block up a cellar window in his palace courtyard that was interfering with his game.[131]Cycling, invention of the pedal-cycle[132]Golf (see Golf in Scotland)Ice Hockey, invented by the Scots regiments in Atlantic Canada by playing Shinty on frozen lakes.Shinty The history of Shinty as a non-standardised sport pre-dates Scotland the Nation. The rules were standardised in the 19th century by Archibald Chisholm[133]Rugby sevens: Ned Haig and David Sanderson (1883)[134]The Dugout was invented by Aberdeen FC Coach Donald Colmanin the 1920sThe world's first Robot Olympics which took place in Glasgow in 1990.Medical innovationsPioneering the use of surgical anaesthesia with Chloroform: Firstly in 1842 by Robert Mortimer Glover then extended for use on humans by Sir James Young Simpson (1811–1870)[135] Initial use of chloroform in dentistry by Francis Brodie ImlachThe saline drip by Dr Thomas Latta of Leith in 1831/32The hypodermic syringe: Alexander Wood (1817–1884)[136]Transplant rejection: Professor Thomas Gibson (1940s) the first medical doctor to understand the relationship between donor graft tissue and host tissue rejection and tissue transplantation by his work on aviation burns victims during World War II.[137]First diagnostic applications of an ultrasound scanner: Ian Donald (1910–1987)[138]Discovery of hypnotism (November 1841): James Braid (1795–1860)[139]Identifying the mosquito as the carrier of malaria: Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932)[140]Identifying the cause of brucellosis: Sir David Bruce (1855–1931)[141]Discovering the vaccine for typhoid fever: Sir William B. Leishman (1865–1926)[142]Discovery of Staphylococcus: Sir Alexander Ogston (1880)[143]Discovering the Human papillomavirus vaccine Ian Frazer (2006): the second cancer preventing vaccine, and the world's first vaccine designed to prevent a cancer[144]Discovering insulin: John J R Macleod (1876–1935) with others[8] The discovery led him to be awarded the 1923 Nobel prize in Medicine.[145]Penicillin: Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955)[7]General anaesthetic - Pioneered by Scotsman James Young Simpson and Englishman John Snow[146]The establishment of standardized Ophthalmology University College London: Stewart Duke-Elder a pioneering Ophthalmologist[68]The first hospital Radiation therapy unit John Macintyre (1902): to assist in the diagnosis and treatment of injuries and illness at Glasgow Royal Infirmary[147]Pioneering of X-ray cinematography by John Macintyre (1896): the first moving real time X-ray image and the first KUB X-ray diagnostic image of a kidney stone in situ[147][148][149]The Haldane effect a property of hemoglobin first described by John Scott Haldane (1907)[150]Oxygen Therapy John Scott Haldane (1922): with the publication of ‘The Theraputic Administration of Oxygen Therapy’ beginning the modern era of Oxygen therapy[151]Ambulight PDT: light-emitting sticking plaster used in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treating non-melanoma skin cancer. Developed by Ambicare Dundee's Ninewells Hospital and St Andrews University. (2010)[152]Discovering an effective tuberculosis treatment: Sir John Crofton in the 1950s[153]Primary creator of the artificial kidney (Professor Kenneth Lowe - Later Queen's physician in Scotland)[154]Developing the first beta-blocker drugs: Sir James W. Black in 1964[155] The discovery revolutionized the medical management of angina[156] and is considered to be one of the most important contributions to clinical medicine and pharmacology of the 20th century.[157] In 1988 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine.Developing modern asthma therapy based both on bronchodilation (salbutamol) and anti-inflammatory steroids (beclomethasone dipropionate) : Sir David Jack in 1972Glasgow coma scale: Graham Teasdale and Bryan J. Jennett (1974)[158]Glasgow Outcome Scale Bryan J. Jennett & Sir Michael Bond (1975): is a scale so that patients with brain injuries, such as cerebral traumas[159]Glasgow Anxiety Scale J.Mindham and C.A Espie (2003)[160]Glasgow Depression Scale Fiona Cuthill (2003): the first accurate self-report scale to measure the levels of depression in people with learning disabilities[161]ECG [Electrocardiography]: Alexander Muirhead. First recording of a human ECG (1869)[162][163]The first Decompression tables John Scott Haldane (1908): to calculate the safe return of deep-sea divers to surface atmospheric pressure[164]Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS): Strathclyde University (2014) A laser and nanoparticle test to detect Meningitis or multiple pathogenic agents at the same time.[165]Household innovationsThe television: John Logie Baird (1923)The refrigerator: William Cullen (1748)[166]The first electric bread toaster: Alan MacMasters (1893)The flush toilet: Alexander Cumming (1775)[167]The vacuum flask: Sir James Dewar (1847–1932)[168]The first distiller to triple distill Irish whiskey:[169]John Jameson (Whisky distiller)The piano footpedal: John Broadwood (1732–1812)[170]The first automated can-filling machine John West (1809–1888)[171]The waterproof macintosh: Charles Macintosh (1766–1843)[172]The kaleidoscope: Sir David Brewster (1781–1868)[173]Keiller's marmalade Janet Keiller (1797) - The first recipe of rind suspended marmalade or Dundee marmalade produced in Dundee.The modern lawnmower: Alexander Shanks (1801–1845)[174]The Lucifer friction match: Sir Isaac Holden (1807–1897)[175]The self filling pen: Robert Thomson (1822–1873)[176]Cotton-reel thread: J & J Clark of Paisley[177]Lime cordial: Lauchlan Rose in 1867Bovril beef extract: John Lawson Johnston in 1874[178]The electric clock: Alexander Bain (1840)[179]Chemical Telegraph (Automatic Telegraphy) Alexander Bain (1846) In England Bain's telegraph was used on the wires of the Electric Telegraph Company to a limited extent, and in 1850 it was used in America.[180]Barr's Irn Bru, refreshing soft drink produced by Barr's in Cumbernauld Scotland and exported to all around the world, The drink is so widely popular that in Scotland outsells both American colas Coca-Cola and Pepsi. And ranks 3rd most popular drink in the UK with Coca-Cola and Pepsi taking the first two spots.[181]Weapons innovationsThe carronade cannon: Robert Melville (1723–1809)[182]The Ferguson rifle: Patrick Ferguson in 1770 or 1776[183]The Lee bolt system as used in the Lee–Metford and Lee–Enfield series rifles: James Paris Lee[184]The Ghillie suit[185]The percussion cap: invented by Scottish Presbyterian clergyman Alexander Forsyth[186]Miscellaneous innovationsBoys' Brigade[187]Bank of England devised by William PatersonBank of France devised by John LawThe industrialisation and modernisation of Japan by Thomas Blake Glover[188]Colour photography: the first known permanent colour photograph was taken by James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)[189]Buick Motor Company by David Dunbar Buick[190]New York Herald newspaper by James Gordon Bennett, Sr.[190]Pinkerton National Detective Agency by Allan Pinkerton[190]Forbes magazine by B. C. Forbes[190]The establishment of a standardized botanical institute: Isaac Bayley Balfour major reform, development of botanical science, the concept of garden infrastructure therein improving scientific facilities[191]London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine: founded by Sir Patrick Manson in 1899[78]SERIES-B by JAC Vapour - first UK designed and engineered electronic cigarette[192]See alsoList of British innovations and discoveriesList of domesticated Scottish breedsHomecoming Scotland 2009References"BBC - History - James Watt". Retrieved 2008-12-31."BBC - History - Kirkpatrick Macmillan". Retrieved 2008-12-31."Encyclopædia Britannica: John Loudon Mcadam (British inventor)". Retrieved 2010-06-13."Scottish Science Hall of Fame - Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)". Retrieved 2010-02-20."BBC - History - John Logie Baird". Retrieved 2008-12-31.The World's First High Definition Colour Television System. McLean, p. 196."Nobelprize.org: Sir Alexander Fleming - Biography". 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There is no one action or theory that changed military strategy. Military science is a continuum of theory, practice, failure, success, and rethinking. Throughout the decades, these ideas were incorporated into a worldwide concept of modern conventional (non-nuclear) war.The dawn of the industrial age marked the beginning of a significant change in the protocols and responsibilities of military planners. Military observers closely monitored the progress of the British, French, and other European powers. The experiences of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) in particular, had revealed serious deficiencies in the training and knowledge of engineering officers and men in the conduct of siege operations and bridging that needed to be addressed. Hundreds of articles were published about the new technologies that were being deployed or tested for possible use in warfare.Unfortunately (or fortunately, depending on your point of view), the Napoleonic Wars, which ended in 1815, were followed by an entire generation of relative international peace that allowed Napoleonic tactics to take on the patina of standard operating procedures for military education — especially the theoretical strategic principles of Antoine-Henri Jomini and Carl von Clauswitz. The bulk of modern military terminology can be traced back to the works written by two 19th-century men of war: Clausewitz (On War c.1832) and Jomini (The Art of War c.1838). Most of the wars fought in the second half of the 19th century followed Napoleonic Era theory.As with any set of military concepts proposed in an environment of budget constraints, radically new ideas often were met with reluctant disbelief by traditional military leaders. Nonetheless, in the 20th century, the intellectual leadership of British military theorists such as John F. C. Fuller and Basil Liddell Hart helped pioneer the use of tanks, and the complete mechanization of the U.S. Army received aid from an unlikely source, that is, former horse cavalry officer George S. Patton. Nonetheless, it was German theorist Heinz Guderion who developed the tactical use of tanks in large formations and combined them with air power into the blitzkrieg that made the operations of other nations look like child’s play.In terms of naval theory, no author is more important (IMHO) than Alfred Thayer Mahan. In The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 (1890). Mahan's arguments influenced the naval policies of governments around the world for decades. Almost all of the great naval leaders of WWII had been in the Naval Academy together as midshipmen between 1901 and 1905. If they had any ideas about naval strategy, they probably reflected the theory of seapower as developed by Alfred Thayer Mahan at the Naval War College. In 1924, at the rank of captain, Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was part of the Japanese delegation visiting the Naval War Collage, and as a student at Harvard he was familiar with America. The idea that one great naval battle fought by surface ships could gain command of the sea and deny its use to the enemy had come from Mahan. Partly for this reason the interwar navy had remained a battleship force despite the advances in naval aviation and undersea warfare. Yamamoto began to seriously consider the idea of an air attack on Pearl Harbor at the end of November 1940, having been deeply impressed by the British air raid on the Italian fleet at Taranto (Italy) earlier that month.The Aichi D3A1 Val dive-bombers and Nakajima B5N Kate torpedo planes of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) that had attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941 would be set against the SBD Dauntless dive-bomber and Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo planes of the US Navy in a series of decisive naval air battles in 1942 in the Pacific. In 1922, the Navy commissioned its first aircraft carrier, USS Langley (CV-1), converted from a collier. Two partially completed battle cruisers, Lexington (CV-2) and Saratoga (CV-3), were converted to aircraft carriers, commissioned in 1927. Domination of the Navy by "battleship admirals" continued, however, and they decreed that the primary task for aircraft carriers was the protection of battleships. By the mid-1930s the Bureau of Construction and Repair had demonstrated that new technologies had made the twenty-eight knot battleship feasible without sacrificing firepower or protection. This meant that all future cruisers, destroyers, and aircraft carriers would have to be faster in order to screen the battleline. The Navy’s answer to this conundrum was to predicate a “balanced fleet” approach to its operations in which no type of vessel would have undue prominence.The concepts of warfare in the air, visualized as early as the 18th century, became a reality during World War I with the introduction of dirigibles, fighter planes, and fixed-wing bombers. American General Billy Mitchell endangered his military career in the period between the world wars advocating the feasibility of a modern air arm (particularly the use of bombers and carrier-based aircraft against naval vessels) to a military hierarchy firmly rooted in traditional operations, and the Soviet Marshal M. N. Tukhachevsky took the lead in developing the concept of vertical warfare in 1928 with the introduction of paratroops, gliders, drop-platforms for artillery, and bombers converted to troop transports.During the first year of World War II in Europe (1939), military aviation had proved disappointingly ineffective in its capacity to strike at the naval fleets of its enemies at sea. In this regard, four great carrier air battles between the US Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy suggest themselves. These battles took place between fleets out of sight of one another between May and November 1942 well before the outcome of WWII in the Pacific theater was evident. The Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4-8, 1942) was the first carrier v carrier air battle in history, and it resulted in a serious setback for the IJN in the war. Dive-bombers played an important role in this operation, and both antagonists utilized them to good effect. As with most major naval engagements, the course of the battle has been described as “extraordinarily complicated.” At Midway (June 4-7), the Japanese found that even their best pilots could not protect their vessels from concerted American air attacks. Most of the carriers and the Japanese heroes that had attacked Pearl Harbor were gone in a single day.U.S. airborne theory, tactics, and basic rules of engagement were developed slowly by Col. James M. Gavin and Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway in combination with other Allied officers, and the development of German airborne theory usually is attributed to Gen. Kurt Student who commanded the airborne arm of the Luftwaffe from its inception to the end of WWII. Ridgway held several major commands and is most famous as the commander of the famed 82nd Airborne Division during WWII and for resurrecting the United Nations (U.N.) war effort during the Korean War.The idea was to form an infantry unit that had integrated air mobility. In 1963, the 11th Air Assault was called to field test that concept–the unit had to function like any other light infantry unit, but with helicopters replacing their wheeled and tracked vehicles. The “air vehicles” would not just supplement the ground units, but rather become their backbone. For more than two years, all aspects of this theory were refined and field tested in several war games, and by June 1965 a permanent unit was organized: the 1st Cavalry Division Airmobile, or “1st Aircav.” The use of helicopters on such a large scale as troop carriers, cargo lift ships, medevacs, and as aerial rocket artillery, was never before implemented, but by doing so it freed the infantry from the tyranny of terrain to attack the enemy at the time and place of its choosing. The division's first major operation was to help relieve the Siege of Plei Me and the pursuit of the withdrawing People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) which culminated in the Battle of Ia Drang, described in the book We Were Soldiers Once...And Young by Harold Gregory Moore Jr., and was also the basis of the film We Were Soldiers.

6 Insane Coincidences You Won't Believe Actually Happened#6. A Terrifyingly Accurate Prediction by Edgar Allan PoeIn 1838, future horror-god Edgar Allan Poe released a book called The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket, his only full novel. The book was such a bomb that Poe eventually agreed with his critics that it was "a very silly book" (yet still good enough to inspire heavyweights like Jules Verne and Herman Melville to write Moby Dick and An Antarctic Mystery--yes, Poe was a badass).PIMP.Where it Gets Weird:Poe did a Blair Witch thing with his novel, which claimed to be based on true events. This turned out to be a half-truth: The real life events simply had not happened yet.One scene in The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket visits a whaling ship lost at sea, taking with it all but four crewmen. Out of food, the men drew lots to see who would be eaten, the unfortunate decision landing on a young cabin boy named Richard Parker.Before fathering Spider-Man and being double-crossed by the Red Skull!Editor's note: Change that. You're an idiot.Forty-six years later, there was an actual disaster at sea involving the Mignonette. It became famous due to the legal consequences of some gruesome events on board, specifically the way the men drew lots and decided to eat their cabin boy...Where it Gets Even Weirder:...who was named Richard Parker.Richard Parker: aged 17 years.The bizarre story was discovered decades later by Nigel Parker, a distant cousin of the Richard Parker who got eaten. You can only imagine what the fuck went through his mind when he stumbled upon the connection.Hell, this was us!And that would go down as the freakiest unintentional prediction of future events in a work of fiction, if it were not completely blown away by...#5. Morgan Robertson Writes About the Titanic... 14 Years EarlyA hundred years before James Cameron turned douchebaggery into an art form at the Oscars, American author Morgan Robertson wrote a shitty book called Futility, or the Wreck of the Titan, about the sinking of an "unsinkable" ocean liner. When you see the cover, you figure you're pretty clearly looking at a fictionalized version of the Titanic story.No surprise there; it's a story that's been told over and over (there were 13 Titanic movies before Cameron's, including one by the Nazis) but Robertson's book was first.Where it Gets Weird:He was so eager to be first, apparently, that he didn't bother to wait for the Titanic to actually sink before writing about it. The Wreck of the Titan was published in 1898, 14 years before RMS Titanic was even finished being [cheaply] built.The similarities between Robertson's work and the Titanic disaster are so astounding that one has to imagine if White Star Line built Titanic to Robertson's specs as a dare. The Titan was described as "the largest craft afloat and the greatest of the works of men," "equal to that of a first class hotel," and, of course, "unsinkable".Both ships were British-owned steel vessels, both around 800 feet long and sank after hitting an iceberg in the North Atlantic, in April, "around midnight." Sound like enough to keep you up at night? Maybe that's why Robertson republished the book in 1912 just in case enough people didn't know that he wrote it.And you thought this guy was an ass.Where it Gets Even Weirder:While the novel does bear some curious coincidences with the Titanic disaster, there are quite a few things that Robertson got flat wrong. For one, the Titanic did not crash into an iceberg "400 miles from Newfoundland" at 25 knots. It crashed into an iceberg 400 miles from Newfoundland at 22.5 knots.Wait, what the fuck? That's one hell of a lucky guess!What 41.1 million square miles looks like.But maybe the weirdest thing about Titan were points that had nothing to do with the story, but check out after numerous inquires and expeditions to the Titanic wreck site.For one, both the Titan and the Titanic had too few lifeboats to accommodate every passenger on board; the Titan carrying "as few as the law allowed." While Robertson decided to be generous and include four lifeboats more on his ship than Titanic, it's an odd point to bring up when you consider that lifeboats had nothing to do with the fucking story. When Titan hit the iceberg (starboard bow, naturally), the ship sank immediately, making the point made about lifeboats inconsequential. Why the fuck mention this?!It'd be like HAL 9000 addressing the danger posed by O-rings at low temperature decades before the Challenger disaster.#4. The Civil War Keeps Finding Wilmer McLeanWhen the American Civil War erupted in 1861, Wilmer McLean of Virginia was too old and "whatever" for warfighting. Unfortunately, he also happened to live smack dab on the road between Washington, DC and Richmond, VA, the respective capitals of the Union and Confederacy.The first battle of the Civil War pretty much happened at this guy's place. The Battle of Bull Run, broke out on July 21, 1861 near Manassas, Virginia--McLean's hometown. Confederate Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard needed a building to serve as headquarters for his staff and many initials, and when he saw Wilmer McLean's cozy house, he figured "what the fuck..." and camped there.Major war foul.This immediately subjected the building to artillery fire, and one cannonball somehow found its way down the poor bastard's chimney. The entire building should have gone up like the Death Star, yet miraculously no one was hurt.Where it Gets Weird:But, hey, an insane amount of fighting occurred along that road. A lot of people between Richmond and DC could say a battle happened on their front lawn. And, after this narrow escape with the Reaper in his very own home, McLean figured that moving his family out of No Man's Land would be a smart bet.However, the man took so long to skip town that when 1862 rolled around, a battle nearly twice as large and four times as bloody exploded just outside his front door again--the Second Battle of Bull Run. After dodging this second bullet the size of Civil War battlefield, McLean finally sold and moved his family as far away as he could afford.Where it Gets Even Weirder:When Wilmer settled on a cottage in Clover Hill, Virginia, the town that later changed its name to Appomattox Court House. By 1865, Robert E. Lee's "invincible" Army of North Virginia was too busy having the ever-loving shit kicked out of it by General Ulysses S. Grant of the Union Army to defend Richmond. So after abandoning their capital, Lee's sorry-excuse-for-an-army was chased by Grant all across Virginia to... fucking Appomattox Court House.The armies of the Civil War, taking the battle to wherever Wilmer happened to be that day.On April 9, 1865, General Lee officially surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant, effectively ending the American Civil War. The site for his surrender: the parlor of Wilmer McLean's new home.Once the two armies left (and helped themselves to some furniture as souvenirs), the now-bankrupt McLean remarked: "The war began in my front yard and ended in my front parlor," which is probably the classiest way a man can handle the single most shit-luck in American history.Should've just moved to Gettysburg.#3. Ohio is Full of AstronautsQuick: What's special about Ohio? Nothing? Well, hold on to your ass.The first two aviators in both Ohioan and American history were Orville and Wilbur Wright, who successfully demonstrated the world's first airplane in 1903. Yeah, it was a piece of shit and it could only fly for 12 seconds, but at least it got them out of Ohio and onto the sandy beaches of North Carolina to test it. Once it landed, aviation was born."We will call it the 'Get Out of Ohio Machine.'"So Ohioans helped mankind take to the skies. So what was the next step?Well, 59 years later, another Ohioan heard that the U.S. government was shooting people into space. Since this offered him a chance to get further away from Ohio than any aircraft, he replied "Sign my ass up." Unfortunately, the man was dangerously unqualified for the job, but despite lacking the necessary college requirements, NASA figured "what the hell... he's from Ohio" and let him go. On February 20, 1962, he became the first American shot into orbit. His name is John Glenn.Just look how happy he is! (Not pictured: Ohio)First in flight, first into orbit, and Ohio was two for two.Where it Gets Weird:So the Wright Brothers and John Glenn all came from the same state. Big whoop, right? The odds of that happening are like 1:48 (excluding Hawaii, Alaska, and the rest of the freakin' planet). But then John F. Kennedy vowed to land an American on the Moon by the decade's end and this promise was fulfilled on July 20, 1969 by Neil Armstrong. Want to guess what state Neil Armstrong was from?Ohio, the "I'm outta here" state.First in flight, orbit and the moon--Ohio, Ohio and Ohio. And so ends the story of Ohio's great aviation history...Where it Gets Even Weirder:Oh, wait, no. The state produced another 22 freaking astronauts along the way. What the fuck? The last one you probably heard of was Jim Lovell. Who's Jim Lovell?This guy.Seriously, NASA even has a thing on its website practically apologizing for the fact that a state containing just 3% of America's population so utterly dominates the frontiers of human flight.#2. America's Freak Luck During the Battle of MidwayThe Battle of Midway may be remembered as one of the most spectacular naval battles in history and one of the huge turning points in the Pacific theater, but it started out as a pure clusterfuck for the Americans.Despite going into battle with most of Japan's game plan in their pocket thanks to American codebreakers/Bothan spies, the U.S. Navy had little to show for it in the early hours of June 4, 1942. Just about every aircraft that took on the Japanese that day was destroyed, and all without delivering any serious damage. In short, the Battle of Midway started off like the Battle of Endor, only with every fighter in the Rebel Fleet crashing into the Death Star's deflector shield.Where it Gets Weird:There was one squadron of American dive bombers lead by Lieutenant Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. that got lost on the way to the battle. So lost that they entirely missed out on the initial bloodbath that got all of their fellow planes killed. Nearly out of fuel and flying blind in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, commander McClusky nevertheless put his enormous balls to the walls and kept searching for the real life Imperial Fleet.His squadron started dropping like flies until, in an act of sheer luck that would make even J.K. Rowling roll her eyes, McClusky stumbled across a Japanese destroyer. Once he lifted his eyes to scan the horizon, the bastard saw the Rising Sun of the Imperial Japanese Fleet staring back at him and realized, "Holy shit! Just the enemy navy I was looking for!" Of course, judging by what had been happening prior to that, this meant certain death.Where it Gets Even Weirder:While finding the ships at all was luck, by some kind of ridiculous freak luck McClusky's squadron arrived at the precise moment when all three Japanese carriers were reloading and rearming their aircraft.In a matter of minutes, Japanese fleet carriers Kaga, Akagi, and Soryu--along with all their airplanes--were destroyed in an attack that cost the Imperial Navy some of its finest sailors and pilots. The fourth carrier Hiryu was sunk in a counterattack the next day, effectively wiping out the same Strike Force that made up the attack on Pearl Harbor.This winning of the lottery twice in the same day dealt the Japanese Navy's first defeat in almost 300 years, and a lopsided victory for the Americans that the Imperials never recovered from.It'd be like this happening four times, and all in one battle.#1. The July Fourth CurseFor those of you who don't keep up with America, July Fourth is a big thing here because that's the day the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, effectively creating the U.S. (OK, in reality the Declaration was likely signed on a later date and in intervals, but keeping it to just the one day saves a lot on fireworks).So it's one of those "more ironic than weird" coincidences that one of the founding fathers and second President of the United States, John Adams, met his maker on July 4, 1826: 50 years to the day after America was born.Where it Gets Weird:Right before John Adams died, he muttered, "Thomas Jefferson survives," since the two enjoyed a bit of a bromance in the twilight of their lives (Jefferson of course taking the White House right after Adams)....when he wasn't busy being a pimp.However, little did the Adams's (or the country) know, Jefferson had just died a few hours prior, also on the fiftieth anniversary of American independence.Commence mindfucking.We admit that having just one of these men die on July 4, 1826 as opposed to any of the 18,261 other days after signing the Declaration is kinda weird, but having both these men die on this day?Where it Gets Even Weirder:So, two of the nation's first three presidents died on the same day. So by our calculations, it'd be like a thousand presidents before you'd have another die on the Fourth of July.Or, you know, two. Our fifth President, James Monroe, died on July 4, 1831. Yep, three of our first five Presidents died on Independence Day.While we're on the July 4th thing, can we also throw in the Battle of Gettysburg, the largest and most pivotal battle in the Civil War, a day that determined the fate of the nation Adams and Jefferson helped create? It ended on July 4, 1863.And that victory was crucial for the Union forces because, in a completely unrelated battle, Union General Ulysses S. Grant's six-month campaign against Vicksburg, Mississippi finally ended in the city's unconditional surrender.Also on July Fourth."Fucking a." - Ulysses S. Grant, before puking.By the way, we said July Fourth was a big deal here, that may not go for places like Vicksburg, who didn't celebrate it as a holiday until after World War II. Possibly because they were still bitter over the Civil War thing, or because they're just worried that the vengeful July 4 spirit will return to take out another president.Did you know there were like three different books about gawky, dark-haired 12-year-olds going to wizard school before Harry Potter? Two separate inventors actually filed patents for the telephone on the exact same day. On Monday's Cracked podcast, Jack O'Brien, Jason Pargin (aka David Wong) and Kristi Harrison went head-to-head-to-other-head and talked about great ideas a bunch of people had simultaneously:Read more: 6 Coincidences You Won't Believe Actually Happened: Update