Unit 1 - Working With Data Map 4c: Fill & Download for Free

No, AUSTRALIA wildfires and the weather in 2019 are not evidence of climate change. Bush fires have a long and natural history down under. The fires have been more severe in the past than this year, for example as recent as 1974 much greater fires when there was fear of global cooling. Most important bush fires have not been a problem for most of the past two decades. The bush fires today cannot be evidence of a trend or climate change as they only provide statistics for the weather of one year. We need many decades or better yet centuries of bush fires to see if there is a trend.HOT DRY WEATHER DOES NOT CAUSE BUSH FIRES.Overwhelming evidence shows humans are to blame for bush fires either intentionally or accidentally. In fact the weather is unusually cold in Australia with record cold temperatures in parts of the country.Weather is not the issue as most of the fires are started by humans either intentionally or accidentally. In fact temperatures are record cold in many parts of Australia.25+ LOCATIONS ACROSS SOUTH AUSTRALIA HAVE JUST SUFFERED THEIR COLDEST JANUARY DAYS EVER — MAINSTREAM MEDIA SILENTJANUARY 6, 2020 CAP ALLONParts of South Australia have just shivered through some of their coldest January days on record — with Adelaide missing out on beating its 1970 record by just 0.7C.The temperature at Adelaide’s West Terrace weather station reached just 16.6C on Sunday — about 13C below the average for the time of year, and below the city’s previous lowest January max temp on record, the 17.1C from 1970.However, because of the controversial way the BOM now measures Australia’s maximum temperatures “as the highest reading during the 24 hours to 9am each day,” an observation of 17.8C at Adelaide’s West Terrace site just before 9am on Monday has gone down as the official max for the 24 hour period.So Adelaide may have narrowly –and conveniently– missed out, but more than 25 locations across South Australia have just endured their coldest January days on record, as reported by www.adelaidenow.com.au and quietly logged by the BOM.Just look at the temp departures during the first week of the year:25+ Locations across South Australia have just suffered their Coldest January Days ever - Mainstream Media Silent - ElectroverseOne very hot year of bush fires in Australia cannot possibly be evidence of climate change (distorted meaning human forced change). One year of weather hot or cold is just weather because the climate is chaotic and non-linear incapable of prediction more than a few days out and changes very slowly.There must be weather data for a long time at least measured in many decades or centuries or thousands of years to see any trend, otherwise the weather data for a year or decade is just noise and irrelevant until more data happens.CLIMATE CHANGE IS UNSEENClimate change is any significant long-term change in the expected patterns of average weather of a region (or the whole Earth) over a significant period of time. Climate change is about abnormal variations to the climate, and the effects of these variations on other parts of the Earth. W.ROSS MCKITRICK“Climate change is as remote from our experience as the world of atomic movements, and we are just as unable to see or experience it directly in our daily lives. But that is because climate is too large and slow to see, rather than too small and quick…When you look out the window, the weather you see is not climate. As with atoms and molecules, you can only get some idea of it through indirect means. There may be palm trees or there maybe snow outside to give you a clue, but you cannot actually see climate itself with your own eyes. Our knowledge and experience of it is fundamentally indirect, accumulated from years of experience or from the prevailing plant life. We often defer to elders and look at records accumulated over generations to get a sense of it.”Taken by Storm: The Troubled Science, Policy, and Politics of Global Warmingby Christopher Essex (Author), Ross McKitrick (Author) page 64.“We have shown, page after page, that certainty on the subject of the future direction of climate is impossible; that anyone who thinks we can predict the climate only courts the laughter of the gods...BLACK THURSDAY 168 Years Ago : Bushfires Burn 5 Million Hectares or A Quarter Of VictoriaPosted: February 7, 2019 | Author: Jamie Spry |Black Thursday, February 6th. 1851, as depicted by William Strutt in 1864“People have been imagining that the climate is changing,exaggerating every weather event, getting widespread press coverage,and blaming it on man – for as long as there have been newspapers.”– Tony HellerClimate Change Insanity Never Changes“The only way to get our society to truly change is tofrighten people with the possibility of a catastrophe.”– emeritus professor Daniel Botkin***THE Black Thursday bushfires were a devastating series of fires that swept through Victoria on February 6, 1851. They are considered the largest Australian bushfires in a populous region in recorded history, with approximately 5 million hectares, or a quarter of Victoria, being burnt. Twelve lives were lost, along with one million sheep and thousands of cattle.THE year preceding the fires was exceptionally hot and dry and this trend continued into the summer of 1851. On Black Thursday, a northerly wind set in early and the temperature in Melbourne was reported to have peaked at 47.2 degrees C (117 degrees F) at 11:00am.“The temperature became torrid, and on the morning of the 6th of February 1851, the air which blew down from the north resembled the breath of a furnace. A fierce wind arose, gathering strength and velocity from hour to hour, until about noon it blew with the violence of a tornado. By some inexplicable means it wrapped the whole country in a sheet of flame — fierce, awful, and irresistible.” (Wikipedia)…IN 1851, carbon dioxide levels were around 285 ppm. Today, carbon dioxide“pollution” levels are around 400 ppm.CLIMATE change alarmists, like Tim Flannery ,their ABC, and The Greens claim Australian bush fires are unprecedented and becoming more extreme, thanks to human carbon dioxide “pollution” emissions.THEY tell you this because the ultimate prize of the Climate Crisis Industry is the control of carbon dioxide (energy). Virtually every human activity, including breathing, releases carbon dioxide. Consequently, greenhouse gases have become weaponised in the global effort to control every aspect of your life and lifestyle.WHY AUSTRALIA’S BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY HIDES PRE-1910 TEMPERATURESOn February 6, 1851 – Melbourne was 117°F at 8AM. Data like this wrecks the global warming story, so BOM simply makes them disappear..ASSOCIATE editor at The Australian and Sky news presenter Chris Kenny hits back with logic and reason to the lazy correlation by Leftist media and celebrities who associate every weather event and bushfire to man’s emissions, in an effort to improve ones virtue and morality over the next.The inanity of a) pretending we haven’t always faced horrendous fire conditions b) pretending Australian action can change the climate while global emissions growth dwarfs anything we do.This debate is conducted at an embarrasssingly low intellectual level. Fact averse. Quentin Dempster on TwitterBLACK THURSDAY 168 Years Ago : Bushfires Burn 5 Million Hectares or A Quarter Of Victoria— Chris Kenny (@chriskkenny) February 4, 2019 Yes 2019 is a very bad bush fire time but look at the previous two decades where bush fires were modest and the fact in 1974 bush fires far exceed today. These anomalies mean it is impossible to attribute today’s fires to climate change. There is no trend up or down.Ref for data is Climate Fraud Could Crush Australia’s EconomyWhen you see there were almost no bush fires in 2018 you are surely fooled by randomness to think one swallow doth a summer make. Climate change does not start and stop like a yoyo.The fires are often started by humans sometimes deliberately for managing grassland. The Australian soil is enhanced with grass fires from time immemorial and in fact Aborigines have used fire sticks for this purpose. Sometimes controlled burns get out of control.Aboriginal burn practices again used on countryA recent burn conducted at a bush reserve near Wedderburn held significance beyond being a land management tool.Members of the Dja Dja Wurrung community applied the burning practices of their ancestors to Bush Heritage Australia’s Nardoo Hills Reserve, a parcel of land set aside for bush regeneration and conservation.“Our fire management practice, which we call Djandak Wii, is an obligation we have to the land, and we love to see the greater biodiversity it brings, and the gradual return to health it brings to country,” Dja Dja Wurrung Clans Aboriginal Corporation chief executive officer Rodney Carter said.“BushfireIgnition SourceBushfires can originate from both human activity and natural causes with lightning the predominant natural source, accounting for about half of all ignitions in Australia. Fires of human origin currently account for the remainder and are classified as accidental or deliberate. Fires lit deliberately can be the result of arson or might be designed to achieve a beneficial outcome but conditions have changed, resulting in uncontrollable spread.Unfortunately deliberate and accidentally lit fires are more prevalent near populated areas and have a disproportionately higher risk of infrastructure impact. Arsonists place people and property at serious and unnecessary risk, particularly when igniting fires on extreme fire weather days.Where do bushfires occur?The Australian climate is generally hot, dry and prone to drought. At any time of the year, some parts of Australia are prone to bushfires. The widely varied fire seasons are reflected in the continent's different weather patterns. For most of southern Australia, the danger period is summer and autumn. For New South Wales and southern Queensland, the peak risk usually occurs in spring and early summer. The Northern Territory experiences most of its fires in winter and spring.Grassland fires frequently occur after good periods of rainfall which result in abundant growth that dries out in hot weather. Bushfires tend to occur when light and heavy fuel loads in Eucalypt forests have dried out, usually following periods of low rainfall.The potential for extreme fire weather varies greatly throughout Australia, both in frequency and severity. When potential extreme fire weather is experienced close to populated areas, significant loss is possible. In terms of the total area burnt, the largest fires are in the Northern Territory and northern areas of Western Australia and Queensland. Most loss of life and economic damage occurs around the fringes of cities where homes are commonly in close proximity to flammable vegetation.”Bushfire | Geoscience AustraliaBut weren't solar panels supposed to stop bushfires? Not a #ClimateEmergency it's a #ScienceEmergency. Don't leave a lot of fuel lying around. It's chemistry. 67 years of WA fires show..Climate Fraud Could Crush Australia’s EconomyPosted on December 28, 2019 by tonyhellerThe climate fear mongering being pushed by the press in Australia is off scale. Latest being that the five day Boxing Day cricket test match (Australia’s biggest sporting event according to MP Craig Kelley) is going to get too hot…>Climate Fraud Could Crush Australia’s Economy (Climate Fraud Could Crush Australia’s Economy)This year, which still has six weeks to run, sits fractionally behind 1984. Both are a long way behind 1974, when more than 3.5m hectares burned.COMMENTSCeri PhippsDecember 8, 2012 at 8:51 amI spent three weeks in the out back as a junior geologist doing field mapping back in 1986, I think it must have been October (ish) and I was on the north coast on the border of Wester Australia and the Northern Territories. While I was there, you could see wild fires every night in most directions. Mostly they were small areas burning at at any one time, and most were deliberately set to burn off dead grass to encourage the new growth. What surprised me, was although the fires would move through very quickly, you always ended up with a few old stumps and logs burning for up to a couple of days afterwards. We speculated that some of the bright spots you could see in the distance might be natural gas seeps burning, but we never investigated (we had other things to do) as I recall, the Australian geologist I was with referred to the night lights as ‘Ning Bings’JimboDecember 8, 2012 at 1:01 pmIf you want to know how to reduce fire risks in Australia – just ask the Indigenous Australians.Fire ecology and Aboriginal land management in central Arnhem Land, northern Australia: a tradition of ecosystem managementWe attribute the ecological integrity of the site to continued human occupation and maintenance of traditional fire management practice, which suppresses otherwise abundant annual grasses (Sorghum spp.) and limits accumulation of fuels in perennial grasses (Triodia spp.) or other litter. Suppression of fuels and coordination of fire use combine to greatly reduce wildfire risk and to produce and maintain diverse habitats. Aboriginal people derive clear economic benefits from this style of management, as evidenced by abundant and diverse animal and plant foods. However, the motives for the Aboriginal management system are complex and include the fulfillment of social and religious needs, a factor that remains important to Aboriginal people despite the rapid and ongoing transformation of their traditional lifestyles. The implication of this study is that the maintenance of the biodiversity of the Arnhem Land plateau requires intensive, skilled management that can be best achieved by developing co-operative programmes with local indigenous communities.http://tinyurl.com/d9qo7nnAs for earning carbon credits for what the have traditionally done is insane. A bit like paying oil companies for pumping co2 into wells when they have been doing it for almost 40 years now.http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=enhanced-oil-recoveryjanamaDecember 8, 2012 at 7:57 pmI agree with John Gardner – the bush fires in the top end occur in the winter and are all started by man. Station owners start them to get extra green grass for their cattle, indigenous peoples start them as it’s supposedly their tradition. Local land councils have people employed to start fires. Driving from Kununurra to Wyndham at dusk I noted fires had been lit every kilometer, the resultant fires burnt for days. From Broome in the west to Karumba on the Gulf was on fire!There’s a big difference between the original nomadic tribes wandering the area with a fire stick and a Toyota landcruiser troopee with 5 guys with diesel guns as occurs today.The burning of the top end of Australia every winter is IMHO one of the worst nature disasters on the planet. The vegetation can hardly survive it – small gum trees that have been ring barked by fire every year eventually give up and fall over – you see them everywhere. We called them “falldown trees” and they were great for firewood as they shattered into small pieces when they hit the ground. Broome to Fitzroy Crossing will eventually become like the Nullarbor – no trees – yet I eventually found a patch that hadn’t been burnt. It had tall beautiful trees, birds, roos and wildlife everywhere. The burning of the grasses takes away the seed for birds so you see few birds where there once used to be huge flocks. According to the owner of the Bird Park south of Broome whilst they continue the burning we’ll never see the huge flocks again.https://realclimatescience.com/2019/12/climate-fraud-could-crush-australias-economy/Man charged after allegedly starting fire with fireworksBy Sarah KeoghanIs climate change to be blamed for Australia’s fire?AllPhilip Brown, JD Law & Politics, St. John's University School of LawAnswered Nov 12No—in fact most scientists say there is no link between fires and Climate Change.Heat and hot weather do not cause fires! The Sahara Desert gets hotter and dryer and there ain’t no fires there!The biggest problem is the Green propaganda. The propaganda proscribes that everything in the forests/the bush to fully be allowed to grow. And there ought not be reasonable management and control of the forests. So, with all that can burn, it burns. Without management and control.That’s a helluva difference from Western Civilization. In which, the success of Western Civilization has been man’s ability to control nature. However, now we have developed this culture in which nature is glorified.And, as to the dryness of the forests, there is technology to do something about that—desalination, However, the Green movement opposes desalination. That is notwithstanding the people is Africa are starving due to the lack of water. Yet, the dogma provails.Philip BrownWith the impact of climate change, is Australia reaching a point where it becomes functionally uninhabitable for significant populations?Richard Simpson, lives in Sydney, AustraliaAnswered 10h agoMost of Australia has been “functionally uninhabitable for significant populations” since well before Western Settlement.Most of Australia has poor soils and low (or very intermittent) rainfall, which is why those parts of Australia do not now, and never have had “significant populations”.Australia is known as the “sunburnt country”, dry to an extent that other countries don’t understand. To try and give you some context, California (40 million people) has less than 20,000 firefighters. NSW (my state - 7.5 million) has more than 70,000 firefighters.Australia burns. Every year.But its critical lack is water. That is what makes parts of Australia unable to support significant populations.We have made it worse than it need have been, treating water like it was in boundless supply, granting “water rights” well beyond what can be supplied.For the last 20 years we have been working on ‘fixing’ that, but it is slow going, but we have to fix it if we are to thrive, so fix it we will.Is climate change making this worse?“climate change’ is a slow process, with small year-on-year effects, compared to the dramatic swings in the weather systems that bring “drought and flooding rains” - so it is hard to pick the “data” (from climate change) from the “noise” (the natural variation in the multi-year weather patterns).It is only when we look at multi-decade data that the trends become clearer - and even then it is possible that we are just seeing a multi-decade weather cycle. We don’t have enough recorded history to be sure.But yes, if climate change is indeed leading to a slow decline in rainfall across Australia (as the data suggests it is) then it will be an increasing problem for us, putting more and more pressure on our water supply and nibbling at the edges of what parts of Australia are lush and rich. (Note: I am using “lush” and “rich” in an Australian context, it would seem quite dry to a European)It is also possible that the warming of the oceans will result in dramatic changes in Australia’s weather and drive much more rainfall across currently arid regions. Possible but not likely and not something I would want to bet my kid’s future on.So in summary, climate change will likely present Australia with significant ongoing challenges to manage the impact, but we are a rich country with considerable skills and a functional political system (at least compared to much of the rest of the world) so I expect we will meet the challenges and Australia will not - even with a 4C world temp increase - become “functionally uninhabitable for significant populations”Much better to avoid the problem of course, but the world (and Australia’s Federal Government) appears intent on not acting in time to do that, so it seems we will just have to manage.With the impact of climate change, is Australia reaching a point where it becomes functionally uninhabitable for significant populations?It's weather, not climate change, Governor BrownGuest Blogger / February 16, 2018Weather, not human-caused CO2-fueled global warming, is responsible for California wildfiresGuest essay by Robert W. Endlich2017 featured incredibly intense, damaging wildfires in California: first the Wine Country fires of October, and later the massive Thomas Fire in December. Each destroyed hundreds of homes, the latter in many of the affluent suburbs and enclaves northwest of Los Angeles and Hollywood.The Thomas Fire is the largest in modern California history, with over 1000 structures destroyed. The fires and subsequent mudslides killed over 60 people and left many others severely burned or injured.California Governor Jerry Brown almost predictably blamed human-caused, carbon dioxide-fueled global warming and climate change, specifically droughts, as the cause of these conflagrations. During a December 9 visit to Ventura County, he again insisted that the drought conditions were the “new normal.” While acknowledging that California has experienced “very long droughts” throughout its history, he claimed that the returning dry spells of recent decades were “very bad” and would be “returning more often” because of manmade climate change.It’s a nice attempt to deflect blame from his state’s ultra-green policies and poor forest management practices. Moreover, Governor Brown is just wrong about the alleged role of manmade climate change, as an examination of meteorological and climate data demonstrates. NOAA’s rainfall records for California show rainfall slightly increasing in California over the 125-year period since rainfall records began.Meteorological conditions, as they develop over the course of a year, and during the multi-year El-Niño to La Niña cycles known as ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation), result in conditions that favor wildfires in California. Fire is a part of nature, much to the consternation of those who blame manmade climate change, and much to the dismay of those whose lives are disrupted by wildfire events such as these.Of course, they can be – and are – worsened and even made catastrophic by failures to manage forests properly, especially when hundreds of homes are built near forests, and when weather and climate cycles intersect with those failures and incidents that start a wildfire.In the United States, the “Sun Belt” from California to Florida receives that name because a feature of global circulation causes descending air about 30 degrees north and south of the equator. At the surface, this “Hadley cell” is evident in high pressure monthly and annual means (or averages); it’s also called the subtropical high and subtropical ridge.In the northern hemisphere, the position and strength of the subtropical ridge changes over the course of the year, getting stronger and moving further north in the summertime.In California that poleward migration of the subtropical ridge diverts rain-producing storm systems poleward to the north, resulting in an almost complete loss of rainfall in the summer. The annual Los Angeles climatology illustrated in Figure 1 helps tell the story of the California wildfire season.With this information, if we think critically, the usual situation is for vegetation to sprout in wet winter months, grow – and then dry out because of the lack of summer rainfall, causing vegetation to be driest in late summer and early fall.This is exactly the situation described in a recent article that mentions October as the worst month for wildfires and quotes University of California fire expert Max Moritz, who says “By the time you get to this season, right when you’re starting to anticipate some rain, it’s actually the most fire prone part of the year.” Power line and other management failures increase the likelihood of disaster.Yet another factor is the failure or refusal of government agencies to permit the removal of dead, diseased and desiccated trees and brush from these woodlands – especially in the broad vicinity of these communities. In fact, California forests have 129 million dead trees, according to the US Forest Service. Together, these factors all but ensure recurrent conflagrations and tragic losses of property and lives.As autumn sets in, the first cold frontal passages and cold air masses build into Nevada and adjacent states, and a northeasterly pressure gradient develops over California. Because of atmospheric physics, a process called adiabatic compression causes hot, dry winds to develop, often quickly and dramatically.The Wine country fires of 2017 began suddenly during the evening of October 8, with development of the first fierce Diablo Winds of the season. Contemporary news accounts link the onset of ten fires within ninety minutes to PG&E power poles falling, many into dry trees. In one account, a Sonoma County resident said “trees were on fire like torches.”The Mercury News carried a story saying that Governor Brown had vetoed a unanimously-passed 2016 bill to fund power line safety measures. But the governor wants to spend still more money combating manmade climate change and compelling a major and rapid shift from fossil fuels to expensive, unreliable, weather-dependent wind and solar power for electricity generationThere was a significant cooling of Pacific Ocean temperatures from the peak of the 2015-16 El Niño to December 2017, such that La Niña conditions have developed in recent months. This distinct pattern shift brought distinctly drier conditions from southern California and Arizona to Florida and South Carolina.This pattern shift is part of the evolution of temperature and precipitation change areas characteristic of the ENSO sequence of events. Contrary to Governor Brown’s politically inspired assertions, it clearly is not the result of human-caused, CO2-fueled global warming.This brings us to the devastating Thomas Fire, which began on the evening of 4 December 2017, and was not completely contained by New Year’s Eve, 31 December. Behavior of this fire was controlled by a large-in-extent and long-in-duration Santa Ana Wind event, and like the previous Wine Country Fire, was dominated by high pressure over Nevada and persistent hot, dry, strong down-slope winds that commonly occur during such meteorological conditions.In short, it is meteorological conditions which create the environment for the spread of such fires. This year’s changeover from wet El Niño to dry La Niña conditions played a significant part in the atmospheric set-up for the 2017 fires.In Australia, it is widely accepted that fuel reduction actions are an accepted practice in fire management.This is not the case in the USA, where considerable debate still rages over the issue, and where environmentalists, politicians, regulators and courts have united to block tree thinning, brush removal and harvesting of dead and dying trees. The resulting conditions are perfect for devastating wildfires, which denude hillsides and forest habitats, leaving barren soils that cannot absorb the heavy rains that frequently follow the fires – leading to equally devastating, equally deadly mudslides.In fact, environmental regulations associated with ill-fated attempts to help the spotted owl have eliminated logging and clearing throughout California and most of the Mountain West – with catastrophic results. Special legislation has been drafted to begin to address this problem.However, it is uncertain whether the legislation will be enacted and whether timber harvesting and/or fuel reduction strategies can be implemented in time to address the fuel excesses that exacerbate these dangerous conditions, setting the stage for yet another round of infernos and mudslides that wipe out wildlife habitats, destroy homes and communities, and leave hundreds of people dead, injured or burned horribly. When will the responsible parties be held accountable, and compelled to change their ways?Remember Australia endured a very early and record cold winter in 2019 that filled the mountains with snow.Australia ski resorts in heaven with record snowfall this year.Mother nature often causes a balance with an unusually cold winter followed by an unusually hot summer.The Snowy Mountains Is A Year-Round Attraction in AustraliaA region well worth visiting while on your Australia vacation is the Snowy Mountains. Ideal during both summer and winter months.The Snowy Mountains Is A Year-Round Attraction in Australia | GowayThe media have been fooled by this chaotic randomness and have ignored the record winter snowfall because it doesn’t fit their bias to prove runaway warming.IN fact the record mountain snowfall in Australia in 2019 winter (our summer) is making the climate colder through the albedo process of reflecting as much as 90% of sunlight away. Mountain snow climate impacts last beyond the winter cooling temperatures.The media are distorting reality once again. Wildfires do not have a continuing impact like the snowfall albedo.Are Australia’s wildfires natures balance from unusually cold winter (August 2019)? The August 9-12 weather event in Australia was one of the longest cold stretches and greatest snowfall totals so far in this century, according to climate and atmospheric scientists.”It was cold in Australia last weekend | EarthSky.orgKangaroos in the snow in Lyonville, in Victoria’s central highlands. Image via Nicholas Dunand/The Conversation.Australian climate and atmospheric scientists noted that it was one of the longest cold stretches and greatest snowfall totals in Australia in the 2000s. They said that, although snow falls on Australia’s mountains almost every year, it “only rarely” spreads down onto the plains and cities. And they explained:Last weekend’s event was probably the most significant snowfall since 2000 in parts of Victoria north of the ranges, and in southern inland New South Wales. In central and northern New South Wales, the last snowfall on this scale was in 2015, while in the hills around Melbourne it was on a par with 2008.FORTUNATELY THERE IS NO EVIDENCE FOR A GLOBAL CLIMATE CRISIS90 Leading Italian Scientists Sign Petition: CO2 Impact On Climate “UNJUSTIFIABLY EXAGGERATED” … Catastrophic Predictions “NOT REALISTIC”**90 Leading Italian Scientists Sign Petition: CO2 Impact On Climate “UNJUSTIFIABLY EXAGGERATED” … Catastrophic Predictions “NOT REALISTIC”** (90 Leading Italian Scientists Sign Petition: CO2 Impact On Climate “UNJUSTIFIABLY EXAGGERATED” … Catastrophic Predictions “NOT REALISTIC”)By P Gosselin (P Gosselin) on 4. July 2019*In 1517, a 33-year-old theology professor at Wittenberg University walked over to the Castle Church in Wittenberg and nailed a paper of 95 theses to the door, hoping to spark an academic discussion about their contents. **Source* (What Was Luther Doing When He Nailed His 95 Theses to the Wittenberg Door?). *The same is happening today in Italy concerning climate science as dogma*.**90 Italian scientists sign petition addressed to Italian leaders** (L'Opinione delle Libertà)**To the President of the Republic****To the President of the Senate****To the President of the Chamber of Deputies****To the President of the Council****PETITION ON GLOBAL ANTHROPGENIC HEATING (Anthropogenic Global Warming, human-caused global warming)**The undersigned, citizens and scientists, send a warm invitation to political leaders to adopt environmental protection policies consistent with scientific knowledge.In particular, it is urgent to combat pollution where it occurs, according to the indications of the best science. In this regard, the delay with which the wealth of knowledge made available by the world of research is used to reduce the anthropogenic pollutant emissions widely present in both continental and marine environmental systems is deplorable.But we must be aware that CARBON DIOXIDE IS ITSELF NOT A POLLUTANT. On the contrary, it is indispensable for life on our planet.In recent decades, a thesis has spread that the heating of the Earth’s surface of around 0.9°C observed from 1850 onwards would be anomalous and caused exclusively by human activities, in particular by the emission of CO2 from the use of fossil fuels in the atmosphere.This is the thesis of anthropogenic global warming [Anthropogenic Global Warming] promoted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the United Nations, whose consequences would be environmental changes so serious as to fear enormous damage in an imminent future, unless drastic and costly mitigation measures are immediately adopted.In this regard, many nations of the world have joined programs to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and are pressured by a intense propaganda to adopt increasingly burdensome programs whose implementation involves heavy burdens on the economies of the individual member states and depend on climate control and, therefore, the “rescue” of the planet.However, the anthropogenic **origin of global warming IS AN UNPROVEN HYPOTHESIS**, deduced only from some climate models, that is complex computer programs, called General Circulation Models .On the contrary, the scientific literature has increasingly highlighted the existence of a natural climatic variability that the models are not able to reproduce.This natural variability explains a substantial part of global warming observed since 1850.The anthropogenic responsibility for **climate change observed in the last century is therefore UNJUSTIFIABLY EXAGGERATED and catastrophic predictions ARE NOT REALISTIC.**The climate is the most complex system on our planet, so it needs to be addressed with methods that are adequate and consistent with its level of complexity.**Climate simulation models do not reproduce the observed natural variability of the climate** and, in particular, do not reconstruct the warm periods of the last 10,000 years. These were repeated about every thousand years and include the well-known Medieval Warm Period , the Hot Roman Period, and generally warm periods during the Optimal Holocene period.These PERIODS OF THE PAST HAVE ALSO BEEN WARMER THAN THE PRESENT PERIOD, despite the CO2 concentration being lower than the current, while they are related to the millennial cycles of solar activity. These effects are not reproduced by the models.It should be remembered that the **heating observed since 1900 has actually started in the 1700s**, i.e. at the minimum of the Little Ice Age , the coldest period of the last 10,000 years (corresponding to the millennial minimum of solar activity that astrophysicists call Maunder Minimal Solar ). Since then, solar activity, following its millennial cycle, has increased by heating the earth’s surface.Furthermore, the models fail to reproduce the known climatic oscillations of about 60 years.These were responsible, for example, for a warming period (1850-1880) followed by a cooling period (1880-1910), a heating (1910-40), a cooling (1940-70) and a a new warming period (1970-2000) similar to that observed 60 years earlier.The following years (2000-2019) saw the increase not predicted by the models of about 0.2 ° C [two one-hundredths of a degree]per decade, but a substantial climatic stability that was sporadically interrupted by the rapid natural oscillations of the equatorial Pacific ocean, known as the El Nino Southern Oscillations , like the one that led to temporary warming between 2015 and 2016.The media also claim that extreme events, such as hurricanes and cyclones, have increased alarmingly. Conversely, these events, like many climate systems, have been modulated since the aforementioned 60-year cycle.For example, if we consider the official data from 1880 on tropical Atlantic cyclones that hit North America, they appear to have** a strong 60-year oscillation, correlated with the Atlantic Ocean’s thermal oscillation called Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation** .The peaks observed per decade are compatible with each other in the years 1880-90, 1940-50 and 1995-2005. From 2005 to 2015 the number of cyclones decreased precisely following the aforementioned cycle. Thus, in the period 1880-2015, between number of cyclones (which oscillates) and CO2 (which increases monotonically) there is no correlation.The climate system is not yet sufficiently understood. Although it is true that CO2 is a greenhouse gas, according to the IPCC itself the climate sensitivity to its increase in the atmosphere is still extremely uncertain.It is estimated that a doubling of the concentration of atmospheric CO2, from around 300 ppm pre-industrial to 600 ppm, can raise the average temperature of the planet from a minimum of 1° C to a maximum of 5° C.**This uncertainty is enormous.**In any case, many recent studies based on experimental data estimate that the climate sensitivity to CO2 is CONSIDERABLY LOWER than that estimated by the IPCC models.Then, it is scientifically unrealistic to attribute to humans the responsibility for warming observed from the past century to today. The advanced alarmist forecasts, therefore, are not credible, since they are based on models whose results contradict the experimental data.All the evidence suggests that **these MODELS OVERESTIMATE the anthropogenic contribution** and underestimate the natural climatic variability, especially that induced by the sun, the moon, and ocean oscillations.Finally, the media release the message according to which, with regard to the human causeof current climate change, there would be an almost unanimous consensus among scientists that the scientific debate would be closed.However, first of all we must be aware that the scientific method dictates that the facts, and not the number of adherents, make a conjecture a consolidated scientific theory .In any case, **the same alleged consensus DOES NOT EXIST.** In fact, there is a remarkable variability of opinions among specialists – climatologists, meteorologists, geologists, geophysicists, astrophysicists – many of whom recognize an important natural contribution to global warming observed from the pre-industrial period and even from the post-war period to today.There have also been petitions signed by thousands of scientists who have expressed dissent with the conjecture of anthropogenic global warming.These include the one promoted in 2007 by the physicist F. Seitz, former president of the American National Academy of Sciences, and the one promoted by the Non-governmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC), whose 2009 report concludes that “Nature, not the activity of Man governs the climate”.In conclusion, given the CRUCIAL IMPORTANCE THAT FOSSIL FUELS have for the energy supply of humanity, we suggest that they should not adhere to policies of uncritically reducing carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere with THE **ILLUSORY PRETENSE OF CONTROLLING THE CLIMATE**.http://www.opinione.it/…/redazione_riscaldamento-globale-…/… (L'Opinione delle Libertà)**PROMOTING COMMITTEE:**ref. 90 Leading Italian Scientists Sign Petition: CO2 Impact On Climate “UNJUSTIFIABLY EXAGGERATED” … Catastrophic Predictions “NOT REALISTIC” (90 Leading Italian Scientists Sign Petition: CO2 Impact On Climate “UNJUSTIFIABLY EXAGGERATED” … Catastrophic Predictions “NOT REALISTIC”)**Smoke And Deception Blanket Australia: NASA GISS Fudges Data, Cooling Turns Into Warming** (Smoke And Deception Blanket Australia: NASA GISS Fudges Data, Cooling Turns Into Warming)By P Gosselin (P Gosselin) on 3. January 2020**By ****Kirye** (キリエ on Twitter)and P GosselinWe’ve been hearing much fake news about the Australian bush fires supposedly having been caused by man-made climate change. Yet it has emerged that Australian authorities were warned years ago that poor land management practices were in fact escalating the risk of devastating fires, according to an expert.**Forest fuel level highest in 1000 years**In 2015, bush fire scientist David Packham warned (Bushfire scientist David Packham warns of huge blaze threat, urges increase in fuel reduction burns) of a “huge blaze threat” and urged an “increase in fuel reduction burns”.“Forest fuel levels had climbed to their most dangerous level in thousands of years,” wrote Darren Gray here (Bushfire scientist David Packham warns of huge blaze threat, urges increase in fuel reduction burns) in 2015. Today the public is being misled by climate alarmists and the media on the real causes of the devastating bush fires now taking place.In fact NASA data shows that the area burned by global wildfires dropped by 25% since 2003, according to the Global Warming Policy Forum (GWPF) (NASA: Area Burned By Global Wildfires Dropped By 25% Since 2003 - The Global Warming Policy Forum (GWPF))**Misleading temperature trends**Unfortunately, deception is not only taking place in the communication of Australian bush fires, but also authorities (NASA GISS) are grossly misleading the public in terms of temperature trends in Australia.What follows are the curves of six Australian station that go back to the late 19th century. The comparator shows the plots of GISS “unadjusted data compared to the “homogenized” data:*Data: **NASA GISS* (https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/station_data_v4_globe/)**Before the homogenization, the unadjusted data from 4 of the 6 stations showed cooling.**But after NASA changed the data, the cooling disappeared and all 6 stations showed warming!Looking at the three stations Yamba. Moruya and Darwin, here we see that NASA dropped the early part of the temperature record (because they showed warm temperatures?). The result of course is a greater warming trend.Look at NASA GISS data plots for Darwin Airport (https://data.giss.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/gistemp/stdata_show_v4.cgi?id=ASN00014015&dt=1&ds=15) for example. See the huge differences between the versions:So whenever people claim warming is man-made, they are right. But it’s not so much because of the CO2 emitted by man, but rather it is because of the statistical fudging of data at NASA GISS."Not here to worship what is known, but to question it" - Jacob Bronowski. Climate and energy news from Germany in English - by Pierre L. Gosselin "Not here to worship what is known, but to question it" - Jacob Bronowski. Climate and energy news from Germany in English - by Pierre L. Gosselin ("Not here to worship what is known, but to question it" - Jacob Bronowski. Climate and energy news from Germany in English - by Pierre L. Gosselin)

Ok so when your device is connected to an AC wall charger this is when it says “AC” and when connected to a computer it says this as well.On to your problem it is likely either the battery, the charger, or the charging port that is damaged to some degree.You can buy battery on amazon.Cameron Sino 2550mAh / 9.69Wh Replacement Battery for Huawei Honor 4CHere is some information on your phone from the web that may help you in your journey.Fix: Huawei Honor 4X Battery Drain/OverheatingDoes your Huawei Honor 4X battery drain very fast? Or does your Honor 4X overheat? This is a common problem among Honor 4X users, however, there are a few things that you can try to do to fix the issue. Sometimes the draining is a direct result of apps installed on your device. It could be that you have not optimized your battery settings and other settings on your device for optimal performance. Over the next few minutes you are going to learn what to do if your Honor 4X battery drains fast so read on for all the possible causes and solutions to your problem. We will begin with the battery draining issue and the possible causes and fixes, after which, we will talk about overheating issues and the possible causes and fixes for that problem in the second section.METHOD 1: USE AN APP TO REDUCE BATTERY DRAIN ON THE HONOR 4XMETHOD 1: USE AN APP TO REDUCE BATTERY DRAIN ON THE HONOR 4XMETHOD 2: CHANGE HONOR 4X SETTINGS TO EXTEND BATTERY LIFECONTINUE TWEAKING GPS SETTINGS TO IMPROVE YOUR HONOR 4X BATTERY LIFEMODIFYING THE SYNC SETTINGS ON YOUR HONOR 4X TO STOP THE BATTERY FROM DRAINING FASTCHECK TO SEE WHICH APPS ARE DRAINING YOUR HONOR 4X BATTERYCalibrate your Huawei HONOR 4X batteryHow to calibrate HONOR 4X battery without root access?Method 1How to calibrate HONOR 4X battery with root access?Method 2HOW TO CHECK THE HUAWEI HONOR 4X TO SEE IF THE BATTERY IS OVERHEATING?ACCESS THE HONOR 4X BATTERY INFORMATIONPHYSICAL INSPECTION OF HONOR 4X BATTERY (ADVANCED USERS ONLY)THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN DEALING WITH A DEFECTIVE HONOR 4X BATTERYWARRANTYPURCHASING ANOTHER BATTERYHONOR 4X BATTERY GETTING HOT!BEFORE WE GET STARTED – HONOR 4X’S CAN GET WARMWHERE DOES YOUR HONOR 4X SEEM TO BE GETTING HOT?BACK OF THE HONOR 4X GETTING HOTBOTTOM OF THE HONOR 4X GETS HOTHONOR 4X GETTING HOT ON THE BACK ABOVE THE BATTERY COMPARTMENTHONOR 4X HEATS UP BY THE SPEAKERHUAWEI HONOR 4X SCREEN SEEMS TO BE TOO HOTHOW TO FIX A HUAWEI HONOR 4X THAT KEEPS OVERHEATING?TO MANY THINGS RUNNINGTO HEAVY OF A LOAD FOR TOO LONG OF A TIMEHEAVY STREAMINGHEAVY GAMINGBAD BATTERYVENTILATIONHOT IN THE POCKET/BAG/ETC.HONOR 4X HOT IN CASEOTHER POSSIBLE REASONSWATER DAMAGENO RESTDISABLE UNNEEDED FUNCTIONS AND FEATURESOVERCLOCKINGOUTDATED SOFTWAREHARDWARESOFTWAREWHAT NOT TO DO WHEN YOUR HONOR 4X IS OVERHEATINGHUAWEI HONOR 4X STILL GETTING HOT!The first thing you can do to help save battery life on the Honor 4X is install an app. I would suggest Greenify. This useful app allows you to place all your apps in a state of hibernation and they will only be activated when you choose to launch the app yourself. After you have finished using the app, the Greenify application checks for the amount of time that the app has been inactive and then places it back into hibernation. With no apps running in the background, you will definitely see an increase in battery health on your Honor 4X device. You can read this article to learn how to use the Greenify app to extend battery life on your Huawei Honor 4X.METHOD 2: CHANGE HONOR 4X SETTINGS TO EXTEND BATTERY LIFEThe first thing you need to do is turn off the automatic brightness feature and set the brightness to a lower setting manually (not so low that you can hardly see the screen). Turning your Honor 4X display brightness down is a simple way to seriously improve battery life. The next thing you might want to do is limit location services. One of the most power consuming features of the Honor 4X is the GPS location services. And you might be surprised to know that it is used for more than just Google Maps. Social networking apps like Facebook, Twitter and even WhatsApp make use of the GPS functionality of your Honor 4X which in turn drains your battery even more. And while location services are useful, limiting those settings boosts battery life and this is what we are focused on. In order to limit the location services on you Huawei Honor 4X, do the following:CONTINUE TWEAKING GPS SETTINGS TO IMPROVE YOUR HONOR 4X BATTERY LIFEGo into Settings > Location > Mode and you will find three options: High Accuracy, which uses GPS, Wi-Fi and the mobile network to determine your position, which in turn uses quite a lot of power to do so; Battery Saving which, as the name suggests, reduces battery drain; and Device Only, which only uses the on-board GPS. You can also turn off location services altogether, but of course that then limits your devices capabilities. You can adjust the settings to your liking. I personally use the battery saving option, unless I am out for a jog or walk, in which case I will momentarily use the High Accuracy setting.MODIFYING THE SYNC SETTINGS ON YOUR HONOR 4X TO STOP THE BATTERY FROM DRAINING FASTAnother setting that you can tweak is the Sync setting. This is used to deliver push notifications such as emails to your Honor 4X smartphone. When you disable syncing you also prevent a ton of app update notifications, which gives you time to actually connect your device to a charge port to install the updates. Of course, you can choose to disable certain sync features while leaving the important ones (email delivery) enabled. Again, this is totally up to you. Lastly you can explore the battery settings on your Honor 4X. This way you can get of feel of what is using up your battery life and take steps to reduce the load on the battery. Android devices have lots of settings that can reduce battery drain.CHECK TO SEE WHICH APPS ARE DRAINING YOUR HONOR 4X BATTERYGo into Settings > Device > Battery and you will see exactly what’s making your Huawei Honor 4X battery drain very fast – and if you tap on each of the apps you can then adjust the settings to improve battery performance. Click on the dotted icon at the top right of the screen and you’ll see the option for Battery Saver. If you enable this you can specify when it should activate (never, 5% battery or 15% battery), and when it does it’ll seriously limit the over-usage of your battery. It’ll reduce app activity, disable syncing for some apps, reduce vibration, dim the screen, etc. You can choose to customize these features to your liking for optimal battery performance on your Honor 4X. However, none of them are mandatory and you will know what works best for you. To be honest the Greenify app already saves a ton load of battery life on my device and the extra settings that can be tweaked are only used when I really need to squeeze the extra life out of my battery.Calibrate your Huawei HONOR 4X batteryThe Android operating system has a feature called Battery Stats, which keeps track of battery capacity, when it is full or empty. The problem is that it sometimes it become corrupted and starts displaying data that isn’t real, which, for example, causes the phone to turn off before reaching 0 percent. Calibrating your Android battery simply means getting the Android OS to correct this information so it is reflective of your actual battery levels once again. It's important to understand that you can't actually calibrate the battery: it is, after all, just a cell that stores and discharges. However, lithium-ion batteries do include a printed circuit board (PCB) that serves as a protection switch to stop them from exploding or deep discharging.How to calibrate HONOR 4X battery without root access?Method 1Discharge your HONOR 4X fully until it turns itself off.Turn it on again and let it turn off.Plug your phone into a charger and, without turning it on, let it charge until the on-screen or LED indicator says 100 percent.Unplug your charger.Turn your phone on. The battery indicator will likely not say 100 percent, so plug it in (leave your phone on for this) and continue charging until it says 100 percent on-screen as well.Unplug your phone and restart it. If it doesn't say 100 percent plug the charger back in until it says 100 percent on screen.Repeat this cycle until it says 100 percent (or as close as you think it's going to get) when you start it up without being plugged in.Now, let your battery discharge all the way down to 0 percent and let your phone turn off again.Fully charge the battery one more time without interruption and you should have reset the Android system's battery percentage.Please remember that it is not recommended to perform this process all the time. Even when your battery is so dead your phone won't even turn on, your battery still has enough reserve charge to avoid system damage. Perform this process once every three months at the most. If it is required more often than that you have bigger problems at hand.Put plainly: fully discharging a battery is bad for it. Trying to overload a battery is also bad for it. The good news is that charging batteries automatically shut off when their safe limit is reached and there's always a little in reserve even if your HONOR 4X won't start. But again: do this only when really necessary, because it does have a negative impact on battery life.How to calibrate HONOR 4X battery with root access?Even though it is not clear if clearing the batterystats.bin file has any meaningful effect on how the Android system reports remaining battery charge, there are those who swear by this method. So in the interests of fairness the process is included for you here (it is true that different manufacturers use the batterystats.bin file for different things). It's basically the same process as above but with the added step of a root-enabled app.Method 2Discharge your HONOR 4X fully until it turns itself off.Turn it on and let it discharge and turn off again.Plug your phone into a charger and, without turning it on, let it charge until the on-screen or LED indicator says 100 percent.Unplug your charger.Turn your phone on. The battery indicator will likely not say 100 percent, so plug it in (leave your phone on) and continue charging until it says 100 percent on the screen as well.Unplug your phone and restart it. If it doesn't say 100 percent, plug the charger back in until it says 100 percent on screen.You want to repeat this cycle until it says 100 percent (or as close as you think it's going to get) when you start it up without being plugged in.Now, install the Battery Calibration app and, before launching it, make sure your battery is at 100 percent again, then restart.Immediately launch the app and recalibrate your battery.Once you've calibrated your battery, discharge it all the way down to 0 percent and let your phone turn off again.Fully charge the battery one more time without interruption and you should have reset the Android system's battery percentage.Now We’re going to go through the problem of the Honor 4X or the battery of your Honor 4X overheating. Please read on for more information on how to deal with this particular issue. Below you will find out how to find the cause of the overheating and what you can do to help resolve the issue.HOW TO CHECK THE HUAWEI HONOR 4X TO SEE IF THE BATTERY IS OVERHEATING?If your Honor 4X or its battery is hot and you are looking for a way to check the temperature of your battery then you are in the right place. If you are unsure whether it’s your Honor 4X or the battery that’s heating up or getting hot, then there are ways to know for sure which of the components is causing the overheating. You can use these tips/tricks to help you find the root of the problem.ACCESS THE HONOR 4X BATTERY INFORMATIONHere, you need to use the most insightful tidbit of information in order to diagnose the battery on your Honor 4X device. In order to get this information, you will need to access an in depth analysis of your device’s battery. There is a simple way to get this information however, this tool does not come installed on every Android device and it may also be absent depending on the version of Android on your device, and sometimes the carrier that you are subscribed to.Nonetheless, there are still many devices that use the code to bring up information on your device’s battery, you can try this first before installing any of the recommended apps to find your Honor 4X in-depth battery information. If it does not work, then please use one of the recommended apps outlined below to find gain access.Start by opening the dial pad, as though you were going to dial a telephone number, and type in ##4636##. If this feature is available on your device, then a screen should automatically appear. You can choose and open the option that says Battery Information (there are quite a few other options as well).You should then see the following information about your battery including:Battery Status: should show whether the device is charging or if the battery is full.Power Plug: shows how the device is charging, AC (wall charger), USB (computer) etc.Battery Level: shows what percentage the battery is charged.Battery Scale: should read “100”.Battery Health: should say “Good”. If your Androids Battery Health shows “unknown” or “unknown error” then your phones battery might be having issues. If you see anything other than “Good” then I recommend that you power cycle (turn the phone off than on), enter the code again, open the Battery Information again and see if this option has changed. If it still doesn’t say good. Then there is a good chance the battery itself is defective.Battery Voltage: really isn’t something the average phone user is going to need to worry about (unless perhaps it’s abnormally high) but from my experience I have found that the voltage for the battery of an Android cell phone is usually around 3.7V-4.2V.Battery Temperature: this is the option that you want to check when your device seems to heat up or has started getting HOT as it should allow you to check the temperature of your cell phones battery. If the batteries temperature is above normal, then it would likely indicate the battery is heating up but if the battery temperature doesn’t seem to be too hot then the issue could be that the phone itself is heating up. Battery temperatures are going to vary of course but the battery in an Android cell phone often remains in the 30C range sometimes in the low 40s depending on the phones usage (86 °F – 104 °F) …Battery Technology: usually just shows Li-ion (because of the common Lithium Ion batteries found in the majority of Android devices).Time Since Boot: shows the amount of time since you last booted up or turned on the phone.If the code does not work for your device, then here are the alternatives. These apps can provide you with the same insightful data as the ##4636## code so, after reading the description of each, download and install the one you’re most comfortable with.Battery Drain Analyzer is a sophisticated app that tracks your battery and power usage behind-the-scenes to give you an idea of what’s using the most juice. Think of it as Android’s built-in battery usage app on steroids; it offers tons of statistics and numbers that should satisfy even the most demanding power user.As the name implies, the app will analyze app and power usage and let you know which apps are draining the most power, or if it’s even an app that’s causing battery drain. The Analyzer screen shows what percentage of app drain is caused by what system activity, whether that’s your screen, applications, phone idling, Wi-Fi or Bluetooth radios, etc. Below that, it shows which applications are consuming the most battery, including the infamous Android OS battery drain, rated by percentages. If Facebook is using 65% of the battery drain caused by apps, for example, you’ve got a pretty good idea of what’s causing your power usage.Play Store Download LinkBattery Doctor is a helpful battery analyzer and extender that also has a few tricks in its toolbox that you won’t find in other apps. On the surface, it offers a very clean interface for checking out your battery life. It gives a rough estimate for how much battery life left you have left in your current charge based on your usage habits at the time, but it goes a step further by showing how much potential battery life you can save by turning off specific radios or application syncing. Turning off that Bluetooth radio that you aren’t using might squeeze an extra hour out of your current charge, for example. It can also estimate how much battery life you’ll get if you start doing things like playing games or streaming music. If you’re stuck at work for an extra few hours, this is a great tool for managing what you need to turn off to make your battery last for the rest of the day.The really great part of Battery Doctor is the actual Doctor part of the application. It acts as a personal battery adviser by giving you tips on when to charge your battery for maximum battery life and what apps and hardware functions you can disable to extend your charge. Disabling haptic feedback, for example, gives a little more juice than you think it would.Play Store Download LinkThere are many other apps on the Google Play Store but these are the ones recommended. You can check out some more of these apps here. Once you have the app then you can proceed to analyze your Honor 4X battery statistics to find the root cause of your battery overheating issue.PHYSICAL INSPECTION OF HONOR 4X BATTERY (ADVANCED USERS ONLY)This one is a bit tricky. Sometimes it is best to check the battery of your device as a whole. What you’re checking for is to see if the Honor 4X battery is bloated or malformed in anyway. If the device is designed in such a way that you cannot remove the battery, then do not proceed as taking your phone apart will void your warranty. If you can gain access to the battery by removing the back cover then do so and perform a visual inspection of the battery.If you cannot see any malformations, then set the battery down on a flat surface and see if it remains flat or if it rocks back and forth in anyway. Should the battery not sit flat then you may need to replace your battery.THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN DEALING WITH A DEFECTIVE HONOR 4X BATTERYWARRANTYIf your device is still under the Manufacturer’s warranty which will also cover defective or malfunctioning parts, then you should take it in to have your device or battery replaced. If there is no physical or water damage on your battery and it’s less than a year old, then you will likely get a replacement battery at no cost to you. Give your service provider a call and ask them about your cell phones warranty.Note: most cell phones and cell phones batteries will have what is referred to as an LDI (Liquid Damage Indicator) somewhere on the device which, if exposed to moisture or liquid, will change from white to pink or red. If your battery’s LDI has been activated and contains any pink or red, then that battery is no longer covered under warranty and you will likely need to purchase a new battery instead.PURCHASING ANOTHER BATTERYIf you’re going to purchase a new battery, then its best to go to a repair shop to have it replaced. This is your best chance at having a safe “procedure”.HONOR 4X BATTERY GETTING HOT!A hot Honor 4X battery does not necessarily indicate a bad or defective battery. It may also indicate an issue with the Honor 4X itself and before you go off to replace the device or the battery, you ought to consider reading on below for some great suggestions on how to fix a Huawei Honor 4X battery that’s really hot or overheating.BEFORE WE GET STARTED – HONOR 4X’S CAN GET WARMThe fact is that your Honor 4X will get warm. After all, they are electronic devices. This is why you should not panic if your Honor 4X is getting a bit warm. However, your Honor 4X should never getHOT! If your Honor 4X is getting hot so much so that it is actually over heating then you might risk damage to your device, yourself or those around you. What you need to do is figure out what is causing the problem and learn how to prevent your device from overheating.WHERE DOES YOUR HONOR 4X SEEM TO BE GETTING HOT?The first thing that you can do is to find the location where the device is getting hot. It does not necessarily have to be the phone that I getting hot but it could be the battery or the charger and even the speakers that are causing the problem. So, where exactly does your Honor 4X have overheating problems?BACK OF THE HONOR 4X GETTING HOTWhen your device starts to get warm does it seem to be the whole phone or does it seem to be mostly on the back area where the battery sits? Perhaps it’s not device that’s overheating but the battery inside.BOTTOM OF THE HONOR 4X GETS HOTIs the device getting warm towards the bottom where you plug in the charger? Is your device only getting warm while being plugged into the charger? If so, then there might be an issue with the charger itself. Make sure to try a different charger, preferably one approved by the manufacture of your device, to see if your device continues to heat up.If a new charger fixes the problem, then you can get rid of your previous charger and enjoy work with the new charger. If it’s not the charger, then continue the guide.HONOR 4X GETTING HOT ON THE BACK ABOVE THE BATTERY COMPARTMENTIf the back of the device seems to be getting hot and it’s not exactly where the battery sits then there is a good chance that the Honor 4X itself is overheating. If this is the case, then there can be a few reasons why this is happening. Read on for a bit of info on this.HONOR 4X HEATS UP BY THE SPEAKERIf the part of your device that you hold up to your ear or where you hear music/sound from is getting hot, it can indicate a high possibility that there is an issue with the device itself. Don’t worry we’re getting to the troubleshooting tips soon.HUAWEI HONOR 4X SCREEN SEEMS TO BE TOO HOTYour device’s screen can get warm of course but if the touch screen or display screen is getting too warm or even hot then this is another indicator that there is an issue with the device itself.The tips outlined below will help resolve the issue with your device as it pertains to overheating and burning.HOW TO FIX A HUAWEI HONOR 4X THAT KEEPS OVERHEATING?Now that you have narrowed down the overheating issue to the device and not necessarily an issue with the battery or the charger, it’s time to find out what you need to do to get the heating down. Below is a list of the most common reasons and best resolutions that you can use to combat overheating on your cell phone.TO MANY THINGS RUNNINGThings on your Honor 4X are the same as any other thing that you have around your household. Things can get cluttered and become overwhelming for your device. If your device has started to unexpectedly get warm or hot then there is a good chance that your cell phone has processes, such as applications, that are running in the background and you don’t even know that they are running. Some of which might even start running as soon as you power on your phone.If you’ve read the article from the top, then you already know that you need to uninstall a few of these apps or put them in hibernation mode whenever they are not in use. As suggested, Greenify is a great app for getting this done.TO HEAVY OF A LOAD FOR TOO LONG OF A TIMEThe Honor 4X is a powerful device! That’s one thing we can be certain of. You can play games, watch YouTube videos, listen to music, capture pictures, watch movies, search the web, send messages and make phone calls.While all this is good, there is a limit that you need to pay attention to. This limit affects how long and how often you can do the same things over and over before they take a toll on your Honor 4X’s performance. Let’s have a look at a couple of the things that your Honor 4X can do well but which might cause it to overheat in the long run.HEAVY STREAMINGWatching videos and other media content is one of the things that can make your Honor 4X a great device. Watching a movie when traveling can make the time it takes to get to your final destination go by a lot faster. Watching movies and playing videos constantly however, can certainly require more work from the Honor 4X processor and not only can it consume a lot of battery power but it can cause things to get warmer over time as well, especially as our standards for media consumption moves to using streams that offer clearer picture with a higher definition.Combine the load of playing a video with the load of a data connection when streaming content along with other processes running in the background (and over time your phone might start to get a little warm to the point of overheating.HEAVY GAMINGThe Android App store has a pretty wide selection of some pretty fun and entertaining games and more and more applications are being created and released every day. Some of these games and applications require more processing power than others depending on the complexity of the app and when you add this required processing power with lengthy usage then things can start to heat up a bit.What you have to remember is that many of these games might very well require you to use other resources on your Honor 4X. Many of them require a data connection which means that your Honor 4X now has to maintain an active internet connection via mobile data or Wi-Fi connectivity, the app might require to access your contacts both on your device and social media accounts, etc. All these things add up and your device can get extremely hot over time.BAD BATTERYIf the battery itself isn’t heating up, then the problem is less likely your battery that’s causing the problems but if your battery is old or malfunctioning (even if it passes the battery test mentioned above) then you might want to consider replacing the battery.If your battery is defective or malfunctioning and you have had it (and your device) for less than a year, then you might be able to get a free replacement battery/device. If your device is a little older and no longer covered under warranty then you might be able to find a great deal on a new replacement battery/device online from stores like Amazon or eBay.VENTILATIONHOT IN THE POCKET/BAG/ETC.If your Honor 4X seems to start overheating when it’s in your pocket/bag/etc., then take it out of the confining area to let it have a bit of fresh air. If you need to keep your device nearby then you can keep it in a backpack (non-cluttered), locker, or in a protective case on your waist.HONOR 4X HOT IN CASEProtective cases are one of the best investments that you can make for a device. They help keep your device well protected and can certainly help save the phone from accidental falls or accidental damage. While it is recommended that you invest in a good case for your smartphone you may want to try using your phone outside of the case for a little while to see if the phone continues to overheat or if it helps prevents the phone from getting hot.OTHER POSSIBLE REASONSOther less common but possible reasons a Honor 4X can get hot.WATER DAMAGEDo you listen to music from your device while taking a shower? Do you keep your device in a sweaty pocket? Or has your device simply had an accident where you dropped it in some sort of liquid? Power issues and overheating are common problems that a water damaged Honor 4X can experience.You might want to try and locate the LDI (Liquid Damage Indicator) sticker(s) on your device to just make sure that your cell phone is not experiencing any side effects of moisture or liquid damage. Your phone may very well have moisture damage and you might not even know it.NO RESTWhen was the last time your device got to rest for a few minutes? Does your Honor 4X remain turned on constantly throughout the day then remains on and plugged into a charger all night? It might just need to be powered off to rest for a little bit.As Androids get used apps and processes can start to run and continue to run until they are manually stopped or the device reboots (which was mentioned above) but being constantly powered on can also cause minor software problems which can often be solved by simply restarting the phone.DISABLE UNNEEDED FUNCTIONS AND FEATURESThis suggestion kind of goes hand in hand with too many things running at once but if you have an animated wall paper with 10 different widgets such as a clock widget, a weather widget, a favorite contacts widget, an alarm widget, a calendar widget, a music widget, etc. then these things are going to be running all at once, and they are going to be causing your Honor 4X to work harder, and could be causing your device to heat up. Chances are your Honor 4X has some widgets on its home screen(s) and you didn’t even know it.OVERCLOCKINGIf you don’t know what overclocking means, then you can likely disregard this little piece of advice all together but your device is just like a computer. If you have manipulated or customized the software on your Honor 4X to get it to go faster or run differently then you may have inadvertently caused the overheating on your device.Just remember that if you choose to overclock your Android and as a result it’s getting hot, heat can lead to a shorter life span for your device and can even result in hardware damage depending on how hot your phone is getting.OUTDATED SOFTWAREOutdated software is not likely the culprit for your phone heating up but I thought that I would add this to the list as updated software can help a cell phone run smoother which can cause less strain on your phone and might help to lower its average temperature.HARDWAREMuch like the possibility of liquid or moisture damage if a part of the device itself has become damaged then that part may need to be repaired or replaced in order for your device to function properly again; in this case for your device to stop overheating.Try to think back to when your mobile phone started to get hot. Can you remember anything happening to the device around that time that could shed light on the recent overheating issues? Was the device dropped accidently? Are there any signs of physical damage on the device? If so, then this might be the culprit and fixing it might be more of a challenge as the damaged piece that’s causing the device to heat up would have to be located and repaired or replaced.SOFTWAREJust like a possible hardware issue can you remember downloading any new applications or programs etc. around the time that your Honor 4X started to get hot? If so, then you may want to locate that application and disable it or even temporarily uninstall it just to rule out the possibility that it’s not that app that’s causing any problems on your device.This should go hand in hand with checking your running applications, which was mentioned earlier. If you notice that a certain application is running every time that your phone starts to heat up and you have to force stop or force close that application to get your phone to cool off, then you might need to decide if it’s worth it to continue to use that application. You might want to rule out that application completely by temporarily uninstalling it. If you uninstall it and your device seems to stop getting hot, then you will have located the issue and you could try re-installing it to see if a fresh copy helps but if not you might need to decide to keep that app (or apps) off your phone.If you have done everything that you can think of to try and get your Honor 4X to stop heating up and it’s still getting hot, then you might also want to consider backing up all of your device’s important information and then perform a hard reset on the unit. A hard reset or factory data reset removes all user data from the device and it back to like new condition. This can help rule out the possibility that something found its way onto your device and is causing problems as the reset would help remove that “something” (whatever it may be) from the device. The only catch is that it removes all of your other information as well.WHAT NOT TO DO WHEN YOUR HONOR 4X IS OVERHEATINGDo NOT put your device into the fridge or worse a freezer. Exposing your cell phone to extreme temperatures coupled with moisture is just a bad idea all around and is definitely not recommended.HUAWEI HONOR 4X STILL GETTING HOT!If you have tried ALL of the suggestions in this article, then chances are your device is experiencing a hardware malfunction or another issue that cannot be resolved through standard troubleshooting and at this point you will likely need to look into your possible repair or replacement options. Luckily if your Honor 4X is still less than a year old and doesn’t have any physical or liquid damage it is highly likely that your device is still going to be covered under the manufactures warranty. If so, then your cell phones manufacture may be responsible for the repair or replacement of your unit.If you have confirmed that your Honor 4X’s battery is at fault and is getting hot to the point of overheating, then you may need to consider a replacement battery. You don’t want a hot battery to cause damage to your cell phone and cause even more trouble later on.

Maybe that if 😁 rhizome solarization on ginger seeds for 2 to 4 h reduced bacterial wilt by 90–100% 120 d after planting, and that ginger seeds sterilized with discontinuous microwaving (10-s pulses) at 45°C reduced the incidence of wilt by 100%The aim of this study was to investigate the effects on the cell membranes of Escherichia coli of 2.45-GHz microwave (MW) treatment under various conditions with an average temperature of the cell suspension maintained at 37°C in order to examine the possible thermal versus nonthermal effects of short-duration MW exposure. To this purpose, microwave irradiation of bacteria was performed under carefully defined and controlled parameters, resulting in a discontinuous MW exposure in order to maintain the average temperature of the bacterial cell suspensions at 37°C. Escherichia coli cells were exposed to 200- to 2,000-W discontinuous microwave (DW) treatments for different periods of time. For each experiment, conventional heating (CH) in a water bath at 37°C was performed as a control. The effects of DW exposure on cell membranes was investigated using flow cytometry (FCM), after propidium iodide (PI) staining of cells, in addition to the assessment of intracellular protein release in bacterial suspensions. No effect was detected when bacteria were exposed to conventional heating or 200 W, whereas cell membrane integrity was slightly altered when cell suspensions were subjected to powers ranging from 400 to 2,000 W. Thermal characterization suggested that the temperature reached by the microwave-exposed samples for the contact time studied was not high enough to explain the measured modifications of cell membrane integrity. Because the results indicated that the cell response is power dependent, the hypothesis of a specific electromagnetic threshold effect, probably related to the temperature increase, can be advanced.The interaction of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and various life processes has been studied and debated for more than half a century. Identifying and evaluating the biological effects of microwaves (MW) is complex and controversial. Whereas one of the current theories is that heat generation induced by microwaves is responsible for biological effects, there has been a persistent view in the physical and engineering sciences that microwave fields are unable to induce bioeffects other than by heating (1) (2). Because of the scarcity of information on the mechanism of interaction between microwave and biological systems, this controversy endures.A great number of studies of the thermal versus nonthermal bioeffects of low-power MW were performed with various cellular functions, including gene expression (3) and mutation (4), enzyme activity (5), unfolding of proteins (6), biochemical cell systems (7), cell wall (8), cell morphology (9), and cell proliferation (10,–13). Whereas several authors showed nonthermal effects, safety standards have been set based solely upon the thermal effect of MW. The main reason was that no satisfactory mechanism was proposed to explain the nonthermal bioeffects.When applied at high power, MW bioeffects induced by heating constitute one of the modern approaches for sterilization and decontamination processes in the food industry. In fact, microwaves have long been known to induce a rapid rise of temperature due to intermolecular friction (14, 15). Several studies which have dealt with the effect of microwaves on microorganisms (16,–21) showed that the bactericidal effect of microwaves was due to thermal mechanisms. However, possible nonthermal effects of microwaves on biological systems had been discussed in numerous reports. Some authors (22,–25) have mentioned nonthermal or enhanced thermal effects of microwaves, while others (26, 27) have refuted the nonthermal effects of microwaves.One of the main reasons for these conflicting conclusions, for either low- or high-power MW, is the difficulty in keeping and controlling isothermal conditions during MW irradiation.Home - Université de LillePrésidence Direction générale des services Retrouvez les organigrammes des directions et services Direction générale des services adjointe - projets transversaux Direction aide au pilotage et qualité Direction données personnelles et archives Direction générale déléguée recherche et valorisation Direction appui à la recherche Direction valorisation de la recherche Direction transversale ingénierie et management de projets Direction générale déléguée relations internationales Direction mobilités internationales Direction développement international et pilotage Direction générale déléguée formation tout au long de la vie Direction ingénierie de formation Direction scolarité Direction formation continue et alternance Direction innovation pédagogique Observatoire de la direction des formations Direction entrepreneuriat étudiant Service universitaire d’aide, d’insertion et d’orientation (SUAIO) Bureau d’aide à l’insertion professionnelle (BAIP) Centre de langues de l’Université de Lille (CLIL) (Rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Direction générale déléguée vie universitaire Direction vie étudiante Direction culture Direction développement durable responsabilité sociale Service universitaire médecine de prévention et de promotion de la santé (SUMPPS) (rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Service universitaire activités physiques et sportives (SUAPS) (rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Direction générale déléguée relations humaines (DRH) Direction gestion des personnels enseignants Direction gestion des personnels BIATSS Direction développement et gestion prévisionnelle des compétences Direction environnement social au travail Direction pilotage et affaires générales RH Service inter universitaire des pensions Service social des personnels Service santé au travail Service commun affaires sociales (SCAS)(rattachement fonctionnel - service commun) Direction générale déléguée immobilier logistique Direction stratégie, programmation et maîtrise d’ouvrage Service valorisation des installations sportives Imprimerie Direction campus Cité Scientifique Direction campus Pont-de-Bois Direction site Lille centre Direction site Roubaix-Tourcoing Direction site Grande région Direction générale déléguée affaires financières (DAF) Direction commande publique Direction budget Direction gestion Direction générale déléguée systèmes d’information (DSI) Direction développement et exploitation des systèmes d’information Direction infrastructure et support informatique Services centraux - les directions : Direction communication Direction affaires juridiques Direction prévention des risques Direction U-link Direction sécurité défense Coordonnateur médecine de prévention Conseiller de prévention Fonctionnaire sécurité défense Agence comptable Maison de la médiation Délégué à la protection des données Les services communs (au sens de l'article 714-1 du code de l'éducation) Service commun de documentation Service universitaire d’activités physiques et sporthttps://www.univ-lille.fr/home/SCIENTIFIC CITE CAMPUShttps://www.univ-lille.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/autres/Plan-site-Ulille-contact-cite%CC%81-scientifique.pdfFaculty of Science and Technology (FST)Faculty of Economic and Social Sciences (FSES)UFR of Geography and PlanningUFR of Mathematics, Computer Science, Management and EconomicsDepartment of Adult Education and Training (SEFA)Cité Scientifique - 59650 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 43 43 43Polytech'LilleCité Scientifique, avenue Paul Langevin59655 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 28 76 73 00University Institute of Technology - IUT ACité Scientifique, avenue Paul Langevin - BP 9017959653 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 59 63 21 00IUT A, The collectionRue de la Recherche - BP 9017959653 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 67 73 10/73 20Visites virtuelles Université de LilleLoading... Please enable Javascript!https://visites-virtuelles.univ-lille.fr/jpo2021/in 360 ° immersive versionFLERS-CHATEAU CAMPUSHigher National Institute for Teaching and Education365 bis rue Jules Guesde59650 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 79 86 00MOULINS-LILLE CAMPUSFaculty of Legal, Political and Social Sciences (FSJPS) Institute of Criminology and Criminal Sciences Institute of Construction, Environment and Town Planning (ICEU) Institute of Preparation for General Administration (Ipag) Institute of Sciences du travail (IST) Institute of Judicial Studies (IEJ) 1, Place Déliot - BP 629 - 59024 Lille Cedex Tel. : +33 (0) 3 20 90 74 01 // + 33 (0) 3 20 90 74 00IAE Lille University School of Management( merger of IAE Lille and FFBC-IMMD, faculty of finance, banking, accounting and Institute of Marketing and Distribution Management )104 Avenue du Peuple Belge,59043 Lille cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 12 34 50CAMPUS PONT-DE-BOIShttps://www.univ-lille.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/autres/Plan-site-Ulille-contact-PdB.pdfFaculty of Humanities (except the plastic arts center)Faculty of Foreign Languages, Literatures and Civilizations (LLCE)social development, education, culture, communication, information, documentation (Deccid)Department of PsychologyRue du Barreau BP 60149 59650 Villeneuve d'AscqTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 70 58/67 58ROUBAIX-TOURCOING CAMPUSFaculty of Applied Foreign Languages ​​(LEA)651 avenue des Nations Unies - BP 44759058 Roubaix cedex 01Tel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 74 00IAE Lille University School of Management( merger of IAE Lille and FFBC-IMMD, faculty of finance, banking, accounting and Institute of Marketing and Distribution Management )104 Avenue du Peuple Belge,59043 Lille cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 12 34 50University Institute of Technology - IUT CRond Point de l'Europe, BP 557 59060 RoubaixTel. : +33 (0) 3 28 33 36 20- 25-27 rue du Maréchal Foch 59100 RoubaixTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 65 95 50UFR Deccid, Infocom departmentRue Vincent Auriol, 59051 RoubaixTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 74 5Faculty of Humanities - plastic arts center29-31 rue Leverrier -59333 Tourcoing CedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 41 74 90University Institute of Technology - IUT B35 rue Sainte BarbeBP 70460 - 59208 Tourcoing cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 76 25 00HEALTH CAMPUSFaculty of Pharmaceutical and Biological SciencesInstitute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Albert Lespagnol3 Rue du Professeur Laguesse, BP 83 - 59006 Lille cedexTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 96 40 40Faculty of dental surgeryPlace de Verdun - 59000 LilleTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 16 79 00Faculty of Engineering and Health Management (ILIS)42, rue Ambroise Paré - 59120 LoosTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 62 37 37Henri Warembourg Faculty of MedicineSpeech therapy instituteTraining center - Avenue Eugène Avinée59120 LoosTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 62 69 00Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education (FSSEP)9 Rue de l'Université, 59790 RonchinTel. : +33 (0) 3 20 88 73 50In order to understand the mechanisms of interaction between MW and microorganisms, this study was designed using accurately controlled experimental conditions and well-defined MW exposure parameters. Moreover, in order to clearly differentiate thermal and nonthermal MW effects, temperature distributions have been carried out with the discontinuous-microwave (DW)-exposed cell suspension, and the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method was used to determine the specific absorption rate (SAR) spatial distributions in the tube (28). In this study, the bacterial effects of microwave irradiation were investigated using flow cytometry (FCM) in conjunction with propidium iodide staining to monitor cellular viability in addition to the assessment of intracellular protein release in bacterial suspensions.An indigenous strain of Escherichia coli, initially isolated from the municipal wastewater of the city of Limoges, France, was used throughout this study. It presented the following physiological characteristics: nonsporulating mobile Gram negative, cytochrome c oxidase negative, capable of aero/anaerobic growth, and exhibiting the API 20E profile 5044 552.A starter culture of Escherichia coli was grown on a rotary shaker (250 rpm) at 37°C for 12 h to late exponential phase in peptone water (Difca; Becton, Dickinson, MD, USA), containing 10 g/liter peptone and 5 g/liter sodium chloride at pH 7.4. The cell concentration was estimated by measuring the absorbance at 580 nm and adjusted to 108 cells/ml using sterile culture medium. Five milliliters of this bacterial suspension was used for conventional heating (CH) and discontinuous microwave (DW) exposure.Culturability of bacteria of each sample was evaluated by the plate count method. After serial dilutions in a sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution, 0.- ml aliquots of the dilutions were inoculated into aerobic plate count agar (Difco, Detroit, MI, USA). Each dilution was spread in triplicate. CFU were then determined after incubation at 37°C for 24 h. Each result was the arithmetic mean from triplicates.For flow cytometry, exposed and control samples were diluted in PBS buffer to obtain a 106 cells/ml suspension.Cells were stained using propidium iodide (PI) (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA), a DNA binding probe (molecular weight, 668.4). Since it could diffuse into cells only if their membranes are damaged, PI is also considered a valuable probe for the evaluation of membrane integrity (29). A stock solution of PI was prepared at a final concentration of 0.5 mg/ml in distilled water and was stored in the dark at 4°C. PI was added to bacterial suspensions at a final concentration of 25 μg/ml during CH or DW treatments or immediately after exposure depending on the type of experimentation. Cells suspensions were incubated in the presence of the probe for a total time of 5 min at room temperature before cytometry analyses.Flow cytometry analyses were performed using a FACSVantage cell sorter (Becton, Dickinson, MD, USA) equipped with a 488-nm (excitation wavelength of PI) argon laser. PI red fluorescence was collected with a long-band-pass filter, and bacterial green autofluorescence was collected with a 530-nm-band-pass filter. Four parameters were recorded: forward scatter (FSC), related to cell size, side scatter (SSC), related to cell structure, red fluorescence of PI, related to cell membrane integrity, and green autofluorescence of bacteria. The results were analyzed with red versus green fluorescence cytograms, since bacterial green autofluorescence enables a better bacterial population separation from background noise and cellular debris than FSC or SSC. FSC and fluorescences were collected in a 4-decade logarithmic scale, whereas SSC was collected in linear scale. The photomultiplier voltage was chosen such that control suspension (untreated Escherichia coli suspension) had no red fluorescence above the first decade. A minimum of 10,000 cells were analyzed at a flow rate of approximately 500 cells/s.The amount of protein released from the DW- and CH-treated cells was measured after adaptation of the Bradford method (30) at 595 nm using the Bio-Rad protein assay dye reagent (Bio-Rad S.A., Germany). Bovine serum albumin was used as the standard protein. After treatment (CH or DW exposure), an aliquot of 1 ml was centrifuged at 9,000 rpm (Biofuge Fresco; Heraeus Instruments, Germany) and subjected to protein measurement.CH was performed in a shaking water bath (model A120T; Lauda, Germany) at 37°C ± 1°C. As for DW exposure, glass tubes containing 5 ml of bacterial suspensions were used. The temperature of the cell culture in the test tube was routinely measured by a Teflon-coated thermocouple (CTX 1200; Avantec, France). The time needed for the cell suspension in the water bath to reach 37°C from room temperature was determined to be 75 s using the fluoroptic probe (model 501; Luxton, California, USA). The test tube was regularly gently shaken.The DW exposure system (Fig. 1) consisted of a function generator (model 33120A; Agilent, California, USA) (G1), a 2.45-GHz-microwave generator (model GMP 20KE/D; Sairem, France) (G2) containing an internal cooling system for the magnetron, and an isolator (IS) with another cooling system for dissipating the reflected power and protecting G2, a bidirectional coupler (BC) with two power meters: PM1, which measures incident power (Pi), and PM2, which measures reflected power (Pr). A metallic cylindrical cavity (A) (Fig. 2) was used to expose the samples. Five milliliters of bacterial suspension was exposed in glass tubes.Schematic principles of the experimental DW exposure system. (a) Scheme of the experimental device. (b) Main components: function generator (G1), 2.45-GHz microwave generator (G2), isolator (IS), bidirectional coupler (BC), power meters (PM), and applicator (A).Schematic drawing of the cylindrical applicator containing the test tube and of the waveguide R26 (86 mm by 43 mm).Due to cavity dimensions, a transverse electric TE111mode was excited. It presented maximum E-field values in the center of the cavity when the cavity was empty. The resonant frequency was adjusted by changing the cavity height (after screwing two dumbbells). A good isolation was obtained using quarter-wavelength transitions (30.5 mm). The cavity was fed by a rectangular wave guide (WR340; size, 86 by 43 mm) through a circular aperture. A manual tuner (MT) (Fig. 1) (A13SMA 2450/340; Sairem, France) was used to match the system and reduce the standing wave ratio (SWR).The test tube was placed inside the cavity through a circular aperture centered in the dumbbell. The cutoff frequency of the wave guide defined by this aperture was higher than the working frequency (2.45 GHz), and the evanescent wave was strongly attenuated because of the dumbbell length.The function generator (G1) was programmed to deliver repetitive square wave pulses. Sequences for DW exposure were defined according to the microwave power and the average final temperature desired (37°C). They involved the two following stages: an initial heating exposure phase (H), necessary to rise from room temperature to 37°C, and a second phase, required for maintaining the average temperature at 37°C, corresponding to repetitive sequences of exposure (E) and nonexposure (NE). A 2.45-GHz continuous-wave (CW) microwave process was used during H and E phases.This technology, being an original example of this operating system (including temperature evolution and duration of the different phases), will appear in Results.The temperature of the cell culture in the glass test tube was routinely measured with a Teflon-coated thermocouple (CTX 1200; Avantec, France). Temperature measurements were done both before exposure and immediately after gentle shaking following the exposure. As shown in Fig. 3, the maintenance of temperature at 37°C was not strictly obtained, and this parameter effectively varied between 37°C and a little more than 35°C.Protocol for DW exposure at 37°C. The description corresponds to a 200-W exposure power. The experimental procedure remains the same for the other exposure powers studied, with the exception of the phase durations, which varied from a given power to another. H, heating phase for rising from room temperature up to 37°C; M, temperature was maintained between 35 and 37°C during this phase. The M phase consisted of two subphases: NE, a nonexposure phase, and E, an exposure phase.Control cells and sham exposed cells were maintained at room temperature (20°C) and gently sequentially shaken. For CH experiments, sham-exposed cells were placed directly in the metallic cavity in the absence of microwave exposure.As appearing in Results and Discussion, the heating duration corresponds to the total heating length. In the case of DW, the convention for expressing exposure duration is more subtle. For a given experiment, the total exposure time (TE) (considered as duration) is given by equation 1:TE = H + n × (NE + E)(1)where H is the preliminary temperature increase duration under microwave exposure necessary to reach 37°C from room temperature, NE is the no-exposure period duration, E is the microwave exposure period duration, and n is the number of times when the sequence (NE + E) was made.Thermal characterization of exposed cells was performed using a fluoroptic thermometer (model 501; Luxtron, California, USA). This system is based on a fluoroptic fiber optic sensor to measure temperature. It is immune to electromagnetic fields, and the probe is dedicated for temperature control of microwave processes and for temperature gradient mapping of fast temperature ramps. Typically, the response time is 0.25 s in stirred water, and the fluoroptic sensor, located at the end of the optic fiber, has a diameter of 0.8 mm and a thickness of 0.2 mm. Four samples were recorded per second for temperature measurement. These characteristics allow measuring a temperature in a volume that can be estimated around 1 and 2 mm3. In a previous study, we have estimated a 200-mK standard deviation for the temperature measurement (31), and we have demonstrated the ability of this probe to measure this parameter in small volumes. It was used to compare computational and experimental estimates of the specific absorption rate (SAR) distribution in a chamber containing a volume of 0.5 ml of Hanks buffered salt solution (HBSS) (2-mm height) exposed to microwaves (32).Point-to-point thermal measurements were carried out over the 3 dimensions of the tube volume with 1- or 2-mm spacing along the height of the sample and 3-mm spacing in the two other dimensions. For each measurement, the bacterial sample was maintained at room temperature (20°C) and the temperature was recorded during the initial exposure phase (H) and for 1 min after the end of H (i.e., during NE phase). The spatiotemporal distribution of temperature was monitored in the cell suspension for exposure of 200, 400, 800, 1,400, or 2,000 W.The finite difference time domain (FDTD) method (33,–35) was used to determine the electromagnetic field and the SAR distributions in the tube as described in a previous study (28). The electromagnetic field is calculated using the FDTD method applied to Maxwell's equations. The time-dependent equations were solved using space and time derivatives. The FDTD algorithm is based on a space grid where the electromagnetic field components were computed at each time step in the whole discretized volume. A criterion linking time step and spatial grid is used for algorithm stability. If needed, the free space can be considered using the highly effective, perfectly matched layer (PML) (36). The shortest wavelength of the spectrum is required to be at least 10 times as great as the spatial grid size for appropriate spatial discretization. At 2.45 GHz, the wavelength is 12.2 cm in free space and around 1.5 cm in the solution, where the relative dielectric permittivity is around 75 (depending on the temperature). The finest resolution used was 0.33 by 0.33 by 0.33 mm. The waveguide, matching system, metallic cylindrical cavity, and coupling aperture were simulated. The excitation was done with a rectangular waveguide. The dielectric parameters used in this study were those of a typical aqueous medium. At 2.45 GHz and 37°C, the biological medium was simulated with a relative dielectric permittivity of 75, a conductivity of 2.85 S/m, and a density of 1,000 kg/m3. The glass material of the tube was modeled as lossless with a relative permittivity of 7.5. The computations were performed on a NEC SX8 vectorized supercomputer.To quantify the amount of power absorbed per unit of mass of the solution, the specific absorption rate (SAR), expressed in W/kg, can be computed from the electromagnetic field with equation 2:where E is the electric field (E-field) amplitude (V/m), σ is the electrical conductivity (S/m), and ρ is the density (kg/m3). In each elementary cell, the E field and the SAR were computed. The calorific dissipated power (σE2 in W/m3) is directly proportional to the SAR and induces temperature elevation.Exposures were compared with simultaneous sham and control cells in both cases. All the results presented in this study come from a minimum of four independent experiments. Assays on cell properties (culturability, membrane integrity, and protein leakage) for control cells, sham-exposed cells and CH- or DW-exposed cells were performed for 9 independent experiments with 5 measures per experiment. All data are expressed as means ± standard deviations (SD). For group comparison, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was used. According to the weakness of microwave nonthermal effects and experimental facilities, statistical significance was defined as a P value of <0.01. Statistical analyses were carried out using the software program SYSTAT version 13.0.A new technological approach was elaborated to study the effect of MW exposure at a quasiconstant and sublethal temperature, as previously described in Materials and Methods. An example of temperature variations in parallel with time evolution appears at Fig. 3. At 200 W, the H phase duration was 2.3 s. At the end of this phase, the temperature reached 37°C. A no-exposure phase (NE) followed (60 s). The temperature progressively decreased to 35°C. A 0.2-s MW exposure phase (E) was sufficient to increase temperature to 37°C. Another NE phase followed, etc. The addition of NE + E phases constituted the global (M) phase. M phase varied from 0 to 30 min in the range from 0* to 5 to 10 to 20 to 30 min. 0* is the initial time for M phase, corresponding to the end of H phase. At time zero*, the physiological state of cells is the one resulting from the impact of a rapid temperature increase during H phase.Table 1 shows the variations of H phase duration (for a constant nonexposure [M] period fixed at 60 s) when the MW power varied from 200 to 2,000 W. This table also shows that the duration of H and E phases evolved as a function of time in a quasi-inversely proportional mode.TABLE 1Duration of DW exposure at 37°CPhaseaDuration (s) of exposure to:200 W400 W800 W1,400 W2,000 WH2.31.150.5750.3280.23NE6060606060E0.230.110.050.0280.02Thermal and Nonthermal Effects of Discontinuous Microwave Exposure (2.45 Gigahertz) on the Cell Membrane of Escherichia coliThe aim of this study was to investigate the effects on the cell membranes of Escherichia coli of 2.45-GHz microwave (MW) treatment under various conditions with an average temperature of the cell suspension maintained at 37°C in order to examine ...https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC4135774/table/T1/?report=objectonlya“H” corresponds to the heating phase, “E” to exposure, and “NE” to nonexposure phases (“E” + “NE” correspond to the M phase, which maintains the temperature).The effects of DW exposure on Escherichia coli were compared to the ones obtained after conventional heating (CH) in a water bath at sublethal temperatures (Table 2). Whatever the exposure mode, and after pour spreading on agar plates, no apparent death was noticed at 37°C for contact times increasing up to 30 min and for microwave power values (in the case of DW) varying from 200 to 2,000 W. In addition, another parameter was studied, the amount of protein released in the medium, since the leakage of cell components could be an indicator of the loss of membrane integrity. Exposure to CH in a water bath or to DW induced no statistically significant effect on protein leakage, regardless of the microwave power and the exposure time at least in the case of DW investigation. Membrane damage, if any, at this temperature and under these conditions could be repaired, showing a little impact of exposure on cellular revivification.TABLE 2Effects of DW exposure and conventional heating on culturable cell concentration and protein leakage in comparison with results for the control (sham-exposed cells)ParameterValue for cell group at time (min)Control cellsSham-exposed cellsCH-exposed cellsDW-exposed cells030030030030No. of CFU/ml1 × 108 ± 1 × 1079 × 107 ± 1 × 1071.1 × 108 ± 1 × 1071 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.8 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.9 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.2 × 108 ± 1 × 1071.1 × 108 ± 1 × 107Concn of leaked proteins (μg/ml)0.31 ± 0.030.30 ± 0.030.35 ± 0.040.38 ± 0.040.51 ± 0.050.48 ± 0.050.41 ± 0.040.44 ± 0.04The physiological state of the bacterium differed according to the mode of exposure at the temperature of 37°C, and noticeable differences appeared when the contact was realized under CH or under DW (Fig. 4). Cell membrane integrity was assessed using propidium iodide (PI) incorporation detected by FCM. PI is a DNA binding probe that diffuses only into the cells with a damaged membrane. Specific PI-DNA binding then results in a red fluorescence emission that can be detected by FCM. As a positive control, a conventional heat-treated sample (95°C during 15 min) was used. The FCM analyses reveal around 100% of permeabilized cells after heat treatment (data not shown).Cytograms for untreated (A), conventionally heated (B), or 400-W-DW treated (C) Escherichia coli suspensions stained with PI. The cytogram (A) corresponds to control cell suspension maintained at room temperature. Cell treatments for panels B and C were performed at 37°C during the heating phase (temperature increase from room level up to 37°C). Windows R1, R2, and R3, respectively, corresponded to highly, low-level-, and no PI-stained cells.An example of the cytograms of the different samples obtained after FCM analysis in conjunction with PI appears in Fig. 4. Cytogram A corresponds to a control cell suspension maintained at room temperature. Cell treatments for cytograms B and C were performed at 37°C during the heating phase (increase from room temperature to 37°C) with conventional heating (B) or DW heating (C) (400 W in this example).Red versus green fluorescence intensities showed clearly three cell populations after DW exposure: a highly PI-stained cell population (R1), a low-level-PI-stained cell population (R2), and a no-PI-stain cell population (R3). The cell response to temperature exposure varied according to the contact mode. Cell suspension at 37°C with CH exhibited 0.4 to 0.7% of R1 permeabilized cells regardless of the exposure duration (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). Under such conditions, no statistically significant differences of membrane integrity were found compared to results obtained with control and sham-exposed cell suspensions maintained at room temperature, which exhibited 0.3 to 0.5% of R1 cells (Fig. 4A).Evolution of R1/T = f(W) for different exposure times. Time 0* corresponds to the time required for increasing the temperature to room level up to 37°C. In other terms, 0* is the length of the H phase, which varied from a given W (exposure power) value to another. T, total population.DW exposure induced approximately 8% of R1 cells at the maximum (Fig. 4C and ​and5).5). Variations in results were statistically significant (P = 0.001) from 400- to 2,000-W exposure. For all exposure durations, the percentage of R1-permeabilized cells was slightly greater for bacterial suspensions exposed to 400 or 800 W than for suspensions exposed to 1,400 or 2,000 W (Fig. 5). No statistically significant effect on cell permeability was detected for 200-W-DW exposure compared to results with CH treatment.By adding both R1 and R2 cell levels, 9 to 10% of cells with modified membrane integrity were found for a 400-W-DW exposure (Fig. 4A), whereas only 0.8 to 1% of cells of the same type were recorded for a 200-W-DW exposure (Fig. 4B) or after CH and 0.5 to 1% for control and sham-exposed cells maintained at 20°C. Control and sham-exposed cells maintained at 20°C exhibited only 0.5 to 1% of membrane-permeabilized cells.Results shown in Fig. 4 were obtained after a contact time (TE) of 5 min. Increasing exposure times up to 30 min did not induce any increase in the percentage of permeabilized cells (Fig. 5). Thus, the H phase appeared to be the most responsible for the measured effects of microwaves on the membrane integrity. Moreover, when a cell suspension previously heated at 37°C under the conditions of CH was then immediately subjected to the M phase under DW conditions, no effect on membrane integrity was seen even after a 15-min contact time. Since it is known that microwaves effects are heterogeneous when applied to living cells or organisms (2, 6,–9, 37), the hypothesis of local superheating within the E. coli population during the H phase was suggested. In order to determine at which temperature a biological denaturation effect begins to occur, with close to the 8% of R1-permeabilized cells obtained after DW exposure, as appearing at Fig. 4, the effect of increasing temperature in CH conditions was studied. The results showed that conventional heating at 47°C for 10 min or at 48°C for 5 min was necessary to induce approximately the same effect as DW exposure (Fig. 6).Effect of conventional heating at different temperatures on membrane permeability. Results are expressed as the evolution of R1/T = f(t) for different T (°C) values (where t is time). The curve named “37 to 46°C” corresponds to the average value of the results obtained at 37, 40, 42, 45, and 46°C, since percentages of highly stained cells were similar.The SAR distribution was investigated using FDTD numerical simulation in order to characterize the microwave exposure conditions. Simulation of SAR distributions in a DW-exposed cell sample showed a great heterogeneity: simulated SAR could reach 0.89 W/g at the maximum for 1-W incident power (Table 3).Simulated SAR values in the tube exposed in the metallic cylindrical cavity for 1 W of incident poweraParameterMeanSDMaxMinSAR, W/g for 1 W0.1890.1980.894.10−4E, V/m for 1 W3643737905.3Thermal and Nonthermal Effects of Discontinuous Microwave Exposure (2.45 Gigahertz) on the Cell Membrane of Escherichia coliThe aim of this study was to investigate the effects on the cell membranes of Escherichia coli of 2.45-GHz microwave (MW) treatment under various conditions with an average temperature of the cell suspension maintained at 37°C in order to examine ...https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC4135774/table/T3/?report=objectonlyaMax, maximum value; Min, minimum value.The spatial SAR distribution is presented in Fig. 7. In order to illustrate the SAR distribution in the whole medium, a three-dimensional (3D) view of the solution and slices along the test tube was plotted. It can be observed that the SAR distribution is not homogenous and highlights two SAR hot spots near the top and the bottom of the test tube, where the maximum SAR values are obtained.3D SAR distribution: whole-volume and 5-mm slices. In this view, the FDTD spatial resolution was 1 mm3, and the SAR values were normalized for 1-W incident power.During the initial phase (H), SAR peak values were very high, ranging from 38 W/g for 200-W incident power up to 380 W/g for 2,000-W power (Table 4). In the M phase, the whole-volume SAR reached 0.125 W/g (125 W/kg), averaging values over the time for all applied incident powers (Table 4). Nevertheless, this phase did not induce any temperature rise due to the temperature difference between the cell sample (at an approximate average temperature of 37°C) and the surrounding atmosphere in the cavity (approximately at room temperature). For both treatments (CH or DW), the numeration of culturable cells on nutrient solid medium after treatment did not show any statistically measurable cell mortality (data not shown).Simulated SAR values for the heating phase (H) and the phase which maintains temperature (M) according to the exposure time durationPhaseParameterValue at incident power (W)2004008001,4002,000HSAR peak (W/g)3876152304380Time duration (s)2.301.150.5750.2870.23MSAR mean (W/g)0.1250.1250.1250.1250.125Time duration of E (s)0.230.1150.05750.02870.023Because modifications of the cell membrane integrity after cell exposure might be attributed to localized thermal effects, further investigations were carried out to search for the existence of thermal hot spots in the cell suspension. Temperature measurements were carried out with DW-exposed samples during H and NE phases, corresponding to 1-min acquisition. The spatiotemporal temperature distributions were similar for the different power levels (200 to 2,000 W). Figure 8 represents the temperature distribution along the central axis of a 400-W-DW-exposed sample. The results showed a heterogeneous spatiotemporal distribution of temperature: the top of the cell suspension was warmer than what was observed at the bottom of the last one (Fig. 8). However, the cooling time rate was shorter at the bottom than at the top of the suspension, probably because of the existence of convection phenomena. A rapid rise of temperature during this H phase was observed in all measured sampling points. Nevertheless, point-to-point measurements over the three dimensions of the sample volume did not show the presence of localized thermal hot spots corresponding to temperatures higher than 45 ± 1°C after the end of H phase. The area containing the measurement spots higher than 37°C was located approximately between 0 and 8 mm below the meniscus of the cell suspension (Fig. 8). The SAR hot spots induced a temperature gradient, and considering thermal phenomena, conduction, and especially convection, this heterogeneity causes a significant fluid motion, as illustrated in the experimental measurements and numerical simulation, including the fluid velocity in the heat transfer equation (28). This analysis supports the concept that SAR hot spots do not directly induce thermal hot spots, as illustrated in the temperature measurements (Fig. 8).Despite many studies on effects of low- and high-power MW on biological systems, the mechanism responsible for the observed bioeffects remains uncertain. Because of the lack of information on the mechanism of interaction between microwave and biological systems, a low-temperature process based on DW energy was developed to investigate their effects on microorganisms under sublethal conditions.Our results showed that DW exposure at 37°C did not induce any significant E. coli mortality (culture on solid medium) but had an effect on membrane integrity (PI staining) of a small part of the bacterial population. Indeed, we found approximately 8% of R1-permeabilized cells after exposure, while conventional heating at 37°C did not induce any effect on membrane permeability compared to that of untreated cell suspensions. Moreover, it can be noticed that conventional heating at 47°C for 10 min or at 48°C for 5 min was necessary to induce the same effects. From these results, it is not possible to establish a direct link between the effect on membrane permeability and a temperature increase after microwave exposure. The challenge in investigating the specific effects of microwave exposure on microorganisms at sublethal temperatures involves the inherent difficulty in measuring the temperature of a sample during microwave processing and the inaccuracies in measurement that can result (9). For this reason, this study was designed using accurately controlled experimental conditions and well-defined microwave parameters. Special attention was paid to temperature measurements using a fast-response probe immune to electromagnetic fields, which integrates temperature on a volume of the order of cubic millimeters with a time resolution shorter than 0.25 s. Under these experimental conditions, thermal characterization during the heating step clearly revealed a heterogeneous temperature distribution in the cell suspension, but no spots above 45 ± 1°C were measured over the cell suspension volume.Moreover, if the observed membrane damage was the consequence of a thermal effect, these effects would be observed regardless of the applied powers (with a temperature increase around 17°C in the H phase). In our study, the cell response is power dependent: no effect was observed at 200 W, whereas significant effects were pointed out for power equal to or higher than 400 W. No more severe damage related to the applied power increase was observed over 400 W. From these results, the hypothesis of a specific electromagnetic threshold effect can be advanced. For 400-W and 800-W incident powers, the results appear very similar, whereas for higher power, the percentage of damaged cells slowly decreases. This phenomenon could be explained by the exposure duration, which is shorter for highest powers. These remarks can complete the analyses provided by Shamis et al. (9) in their recent study. According to these authors, there is a possible specific effect of 18-GHz microwave radiation at sublethal temperatures on bacteria very similar to that of electroporation of the cell membrane and which appears to be electrokinetic in nature (9, 38).Whereas a number of studies investigating the bactericidal effects of microwaves exist, few data on the specific effects of microwaves on prokaryotic cell membrane are available. In the electroporation theory (39), cell membrane pore formation generally results in cell material leakage and sometimes in cell lysis. The fact that no protein leakage was measured in DW-exposed samples was probably due to the low percentage of permeabilized cells. Moreover, the nature and extent of membrane damage might be insufficient to allow release of cell components, at least proteins. Those effects led us to think that DW exposure under the experimental conditions of this study might induce reversible membrane fluidity modification. Such a hypothesis could join that of a study by Orlando et al. (1994) of liposomes (40). These authors reported that microwaves could not induce membrane disruption but could induce pore formation. Consequently, the dielectric cell membrane rupture theory (41) may not be advanced to explain the DW-induced effects on membrane permeability. Instead of this theory, a phenomenon close to the electroporation theory appears more convincing. Although the mechanism by which electroporation occurs is incompletely understood, it is generally believed that a rapid structural rearrangement of the membrane occurs, whereby some or many aqueous pores perforate the membrane. When an imposed transmembrane potential reaches a threshold value, a rearrangement in the molecular structure of the membrane occurs, leading to the formation of pores and a substantial increase in cellular permeability to ions and molecules. Depending on the field strength and exposure time, the subsequent removal of the electric field may then allow the cell membrane to regain its structural integrity (9).The temperature assessment is a key step in such experiments. Even if those experimental data suggested that the temperature reached by the microwave-exposed samples for the contact time studied was not high enough to explain the measured modification of cell membrane integrity, the heterogeneity should be considered.This study focuses on characterization of microwave effects at the macroscopic level, corresponding to bulk solution measurements. In such experiments, two kinds of temperatures can be considered: i) the bulk temperature, or the average fluid bulk temperature, which is a convenient reference point for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer, and (ii) the instantaneous temperature, which is here a function of microwave power and is not directly measurable due to its short existence and molecular nature (38). As has been well discussed in a recent review from Shamis et al. (2012) (38), the instantaneous temperature principle suggests that a “nonthermal” effect cannot be considered to exist in microwave processing without careful control of this instantaneous temperature, since an unmeasured energy transfer is occurring between the microwaves and the sample. According to these authors, for microwave effects that cannot be accounted for by changes to bulk solution, the expression “specific microwave effects” may be more suitable than “nonthermal effects.”Conclusion.This study showed that 2.45-GHz-DW exposure at 37°C induced Escherichia coli membrane modifications. The heating phase, in which the temperature increases from room level up to 37°C, appeared to be the most responsible for the measured effects of microwaves on membrane integrity. Increasing exposure times up to 30 min did not induce any increase in the percentage of permeabilized cells.Approximately 8% of permeabilized cells appear after microwave exposure, while conventional heating at 37°C did not induce any effect. Moreover, the results showed that conventional heating at 47°C for 10 min or at 48°C for 5 min was necessary to induce the same effects. From these results, a direct link between the effect on membrane permeability and the temperature increase after microwave exposure cannot be established.Thermal characterization during the heating step revealed clearly a heterogeneous temperature distribution in the cell suspension, but no spots above 45 ± 1°C were measured over the cell suspension volume. Even if those experimental data suggested that the temperature reached by the microwave-exposed samples for the contact time studied was not high enough to explain the measured modification of cell membrane integrity, the heterogeneity should be considered. The SAR distribution was computed for the whole sample. The results showed a nonhomogenous SAR distribution and highlight two SAR hot spots near the top and the bottom of the test tube (0.89 W/g at the maximum for 1-W incident power).The results of this study seem to indicate that the cell response is power dependent: no effect was observed at 200 W, whereas significant effects were pointed out for power equal to or higher than 400 W. No more severe damage related to the applied power increase was observed over 400 W. From these results, the hypothesis of a specific electromagnetic threshold effect can be advanced.This study focuses on characterization of microwave effects at the macroscopic level, corresponding to bulk solution measurements. 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