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Q. What was the most interesting adventure of Lewis and Clark?A2A. HISTORY STORIES10 Little-Known Facts About the Lewis and Clark ExpeditionSacagawea (video)In 1804, Jefferson sends a team to explore lands acquired in the Louisiana Purchase. The Corps of Discovery will travel nearly 8,000 miles over three years, reaching the Pacific Ocean and clearing the path for westward expansion.In May 1804, President Thomas Jefferson dispatched Meriwether Lewis and William Clark’s Corps of Discovery on an expedition to explore the Louisiana Purchase and hunt for an all-water route across the North American continent. The two-and-a-half-year trek saw the men travel some 8,000 miles from St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back, mostly by boat and on horseback. By the time they finally emerged from the wilderness in September 1806, they had made contact with dozens of Indian tribes, survived repeated brushes with death and become the first U.S. citizens to lay eyes on the wonders of the uncharted West. Explore 10 surprising facts about one of America’s first and greatest expeditions of discovery.Lewis first met Clark after being court-martialed by the Army.Lewis (L) and Clark (R). (Credit: Jean-Erick PASQUIER/Getty Images)While serving as a frontier army officer in 1795, a young Meriwether Lewis was court-martialed for allegedly challenging a lieutenant to a duel during a drunken dispute. The 21-year-old was found not guilty of the charges, but his superiors decided to transfer him to a different rifle company to avoid any future incidents. His new commander turned out to be William Clark—the man who would later join him on his journey to the West.Thomas Jefferson believed the expedition might encounter wooly mammoths.Woolly Mammoth. (Credit: Royal BC Museum, Victoria, British Columbia)Before Lewis and Clark completed their expedition, Americans could only speculate on what lurked in the uncharted territories beyond the Rocky Mountains. Even Thomas Jefferson, who’d amassed a small library of books on the frontier, was convinced the explorers might have run-ins with mountains of salt, a race of Welsh-speaking Indians and even herds of wooly mammoths and giant ground sloths. The expedition failed to sight any of the long-extinct creatures, but Lewis did describe 178 previously unknown species of plants and 122 new animals including coyotes, mountain beavers and grizzly bears.The Spanish sent soldiers to arrest the expedition.Jefferson often described Lewis and Clark’s expedition as a scientific mission to study the lands acquired in the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, but the explorers’ central goal was to find a water route to the Pacific, which would increase trade opportunities and help solidify an American claim on the far Northwest. That was distressing news for the Spanish, who feared the expedition might lead to the seizure of their gold-rich territories in the Southwest. On the suggestions of U.S. Army General James Wilkinson—a Spanish spy—the governor of New Mexico dispatched four different groups of Spanish soldiers and Comanche Indians to intercept the explorers and bring them back in chains. Luckily for Lewis and Clark, the hostile search parties failed to locate them in the vastness of the frontier.Lewis and Clark’s arsenal included 200 pounds of gunpowder and an experimental air rifle.The Corps of Discovery carried one of the largest arsenals ever taken west of the Mississippi. It included an assortment of pikes, tomahawks and knives as well as several rifles and muskets, 200 pounds of gunpowder and over 400 pounds of lead for bullets. Lewis also had a state-of-the-art pneumatic rifle he used to impress Indian tribes on the frontier. After pumping compressed air into the gun’s stock, he could fire some 20 shots—each of them almost completely silent. Despite being armed to the teeth, most of the explorers never had to use their weapons in combat. The lone exception came during the return journey, when Lewis and three of his soldiers engaged in a gun battle with Blackfeet Indians that left two natives dead.Sacagawea reunited with her long lost brother during the journey.“Lewis & Clark at Three Forks,” mural in lobby of Montana House of Representatives. (Credit: Edgar Samuel Paxson)One of the most legendary members of the Lewis and Clark expedition was Sacagawea, a teenaged Shoshone Indian who had been kidnapped from her tribe as an adolescent. Sacagawea, her husband and her newborn son first joined up with the explorers as they wintered at a Hidatsa-Mandan settlement in 1804, and she later served as an interpreter and occasional guide on their journey to the Pacific. During a run-in with a band of Shoshone in the summer of 1805, she famously discovered the tribe’s chief was none other than her long lost brother, whom she had not seen since her abduction five years earlier. The tearful reunion helped facilitate peaceful relations between the explorers and the Shoshone, allowing Lewis to procure much-needed horses for his trek over the Rockies.Sacajawea as a little girl at sunset, by Allan BurchOnly one member of the expedition died during the trip.The Lewis and Clark expedition suffered its first fatality in August 1804, when Sergeant Charles Floyd died near modern day Sioux City, Iowa. Lewis diagnosed him as having “bilious colic,” but historians now believe he suffered from a burst appendix. Over the next two years, the expedition endured everything from dysentery and snakebites to dislocated shoulders and even venereal disease, but amazingly, no one else perished before the explorers returned to St. Louis in September 1806. One of the worst injuries came during the trip home, when an enlisted man accidentally shot Lewis in the buttocks after mistaking him for an elk. Though not seriously wounded, the explorer was forced to spend a few miserable weeks lying on his belly in a canoe while the expedition floated down the Missouri River.Clark adopted Sacagawea’s children.During her time with the Corps of Discovery, Sacagawea was accompanied by her newborn son, Jean Baptiste, whom the explorers nicknamed “Pomp.” William Clark took a shine to the boy, and when Sacagawea left the expedition in August 1806, he offered to adopt him and “raise him as my own child.” Sacagawea initially turned down the offer, but she later allowed Clark to provide for her son’s education in St. Louis. Following Sacagawea’s death in 1812, Clark became the legal guardian of both Jean Baptiste and her other child, a daughter named Lisette. Little is known about what became of Lisette, but Jean-Baptiste later traveled to Europe before returning to the American frontier to work as a trapper and wilderness guide.LEWIS & CLARKLEWIS AND CLARKLOUISIANA PURCHASECurrent government flags of some of the 60 tribes whose homelands were crossed by the Lewis & ClarkLewis and Clark Fun Facts (siuw.edu)April 30, 1803: Louisiana Purchase.Announced July 4, 1804. U.S. purchases 868,000 square miles, eventually 13 states, from Napoleon for $15 million dollars. Best real estate deal in history, only $ .03 an acre. Doubled size of the United States.Why did Napoleon sell? “I have given England a rival, who sooner or later, will humble her pride.”May 14, 1804—September 23, 1806: Expedition took 863 days, 7,689 miles the distance traveled by the expedition, through unmapped, unsettled wilderness.Costs of expedition: initial approved by congress $2,500. Grew to $38,722.25, 15x original amount. When you add in price of land each member received upon return as a reward, the total tops $136,000. In today’s dollars that is $126,000,000. It cost $25 billion to put a man on the moon.Permanent party: consisted of 33 to 35, including One woman, one baby and one dog.Expedition discovered 122 new animals and 178 new plants. Biggest tormentor expedition—mosquitoes!!Lewis designed a collapsible canoe with iron frame for journey. It could be covered with animal skins and could carry one ton. It weighed only 44 lbs and was named experiment.Used keelboat at beginning of journey—55’ long, 8’ wide with a 32’ tall, hinged mast. Held over eight tons of equipment & food.Doctor Benjamin Rush, the country’s most famous physician, provided 600 of rush’s thunderbolts his famous homemade laxative for the expedition.Each man consumed 9 pounds of meat per day when available.Tally of game killed on the expedition:Dear -- 1001Bear -- 56Turkey -- 9Elk -- 375Beaver -- 113Plovers -- 48Bison -- 227Otter -- 16Wolves -- 18 (only 1 eaten)Antelope -- 62Geese -- 104Indian Dogs -- 190 (purchased)Big Horned Sheep -- 35Grouse -- 46Horses -- 12This list does not include countless smaller game or more exotic animals such as hawk, coyote, fox, crow, eagle, gopher, muskrat, seal, turtle, crab, salmon and trout.April 13, 1806 “The dog now constitutes a considerable part of our subsistence and with most of the party has become a favorite food; certain I am… and from habit it has become by no means disagreeable to me, I preferred to venison or elk, and it is very far superior to the horse in any state.” --LewisAugust 20, 1804 (Day 99) Sgt. Floyd dies at age of 22. He was only member to die during expedition. Cause of death guessed as ruptured appendix.August 21, 1804 First election west of Mississippi. All men including York, a slave, elect Patrick Gass as new sergeant.February 11, 1805 “About five o’clock this evening one of the wives of Charbono (sacagawea) was delivered of a fine boy.” --LewisApril 1805 Lewis buys teepee from Sioux. Sacagawea takes down and puts up daily. Lewis, Clark, Sacagawea, pomp, Drouillard and Charbonneau sleep in nightlyAugust 17,1805 Sacagawea recognizes Cameahwait, chief of Shoshone as her long, lost brother. Guarantees cooperation by Shoshone with expedition.November 24, 1805 free vote on where to build winter fort. Unheard of in its day to vote on such matters.July 26, 1806 Only Native American fatalities caused by expedition members. Two Blackfeet killed.August 12, 1806 Lewis shot in buttocks by one eyed expedition member Cruzatte, who mistook him for an elk.The US Expands West | VOA Learning Englishhttps://projects.voanews.com/lewis-clark/out1/montana.mp4?v1231The Myths and Myopia of Lewis and ClarkLewis and Clark - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.comMeriwether Lewis was an American explorer, who with William Clark led the Lewis and Clark Expedition through the uncharted American interior to the Pacific Northwest in 1804–06. He later served as governor of Upper Louisiana Territory. The Lewis and Clark Expedition spanned 8,000 mi (13,000 km) and three years, taking the Corps of Discovery, as the expedition party was known, down the Ohio River, up the Missouri River, across the Continental Divide, and to the Pacific Ocean. Lewis served as the field scientist, chronicling botanical, zoological, meteorological, geographic and ethnographic information.Missouri CompromiseAmerican BuffaloNative American CulturesWORK FOR JEFFERSONAs a member of the state militia, Meriwether Lewis helped to quell the Whiskey Rebellion, a Pennsylvania uprising led by farmers against taxes, in 1794. The next year he served with William Clark, a man who would later help him on one of the greatest expeditions of all time. Lewis joined the regular army and achieved the rank of captain. In 1801, Lewis left the army and accepted an invitation to serve as Thomas Jefferson’s presidential secretary.Lewis had known Jefferson since he was a boy—he’d grown up on a Virginia plantation only a few miles from Monticello—and the pair went on to forge a mentor-protégé relationship while working together in the White House. When Jefferson conceived of his grand expedition into the lands west of the Mississippi in 1802, he named the rugged, intellectually gifted Lewis as its commander. Already eager to know more about these lands, Jefferson’s interest in the area increased with purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803. Jefferson asked Lewis to gather information about the plants, animals, and peoples of the region. Lewis jumped at the chance and selected old friend William Clark to join him as co-commander of the expedition. To help the young secretary prepare, Jefferson gave him a crash course in the natural sciences and sent him to Philadelphia to study medicine, botany and celestial navigation.Lewis's Monkey Flower (Mimulus lewisii) Collected: 1805 Aug 12 - Lemhi Pass, Montana and IdahoDid You Know?Congress allocated $2,500 for Lewis and Clark's expedition.THE EXPEDITION BEGINSLewis, Clark, and the rest of their expedition began their journey near St. Louis, Missouri, in May 1804. This group – often called the Corps of Discovery by historians – faced nearly every obstacle and hardship imaginable on their trip. They braved dangerous waters and harsh weather and endured hunger, illness, injury, and fatigue. Along the way, Lewis kept a detailed journal and collected samples of plants and animals he encountered. Lewis and his expedition received assistance in their mission from many of the native peoples they met during their journey westward. The Mandans provided them with supplies during their first winter. It was during this time that expedition picked up two new members, Sacagawea and Touissant Charbonneau. The two acted as interpreters for the expedition and Sacagawea, Charbonneau’s wife and a Shoshone Indian, was able to help get horses for the group later in the journey.Clarkston, Sacajawea State Park, The Dalles, Stevenson, Astoria, PortlandREACHING THE PACIFICThe Corps of Discovery reached the Pacific Ocean in November of 1805. They built Fort Clatsop and spent the winter in present-day Oregon. On the way back in 1806, Lewis and Clark split up to explore more territory and look for faster route home. Lewis and his men faced great danger when a group of Blackfeet Indians sought to steal from the corps in late July. Two Blackfeet were killed in the ensuing conflict. The next month, Lewis was shot in the thigh by one of his own men during a hunt. Lewis and Clark and their two groups joined up again at the Missouri River and made the rest of the trek to St. Louis together. In total, the expedition traveled roughly 8,000 miles by boat, on foot, and on horseback.RETURNING HOMETraveling home, Lewis and the other members of the expedition received a warm welcome from nearly place they went. Many towns held special events to herald the explorers’ return as they passed through. Once reaching the nation’s capital, Lewis received payment for his courageous efforts. Along with his salary and 1,600 acres of land, he was named governor of the Louisiana Territory. Lewis also tried to publish the journals that he and Clark wrote during their great adventure. Always prone to dark moods, he began to have a drinking problem and neglected his duties as governor.Famous Biographies (BIO.com)LEWIS & CLARKWESTWARD EXPANSIONWhat Was the Lewis & Clark Expedition? (all the illustrations)Legendary Lewis and Clark Expedition Characters (ndtourism.com)These characters organized and led the Corps of Discovery on the famous Lewis & Clark Expedition.Meriwether LewisThe Lewis and Jefferson families were long-time neighbors and family friends. Meriwether Lewis served as Thomas Jefferson’s personal aide prior to the expedition. Lewis had a lifetime’s experience as an outdoors man, hunter and herbal medicine expert, facts that influenced Jefferson’s decision to choose him as Corps leader.Lewis later died under mysterious circumstances.Meriwether Lewis. (Credit: Universal History Archive/Getty Images)Lewis battled depression and mood swings for most of his life, and his condition only worsened after he returned from the transcontinental expedition in 1806. He reportedly suffered from money troubles, and drinking too much.In September 1809, Lewis set out for Washington, D.C.. to answer complaints about his actions as governor of Louisiana. On the way, he stopped at an inn called Grinder's Stand, about 70 miles (110 km) from Nashville, Tennessee on the Natchez Trace on October 10, 1809. The next morning, servants found Lewis badly injured from multiple gunshot wounds to the head and chest. He died shortly after sunrise.While modern historians generally accept his death as a suicide, Some have since speculated he was murdered. Mrs. Grinder, the tavern-keeper's wife, claimed Lewis acted strangely the night before his death. She said that during dinner Lewis stood and paced about the room talking to himself in the way one would speak to a lawyer. She observed his face to flush as if it had come on him in a fit. After he retired for the evening, Mrs. Grinder continued to hear him talking to himself. At some point in the night she heard multiple gunshots, and what she believed was someone asking for help. She claimed to be able to see Lewis through the slit in the door crawling back to his room. She never explained why, at the time, she didn't investigate further concerning Lewis's condition or the source of the gunshots.When Clark and Jefferson were informed of Lewis' death, both accepted it as suicide, but his family contended it was murder. In later years a court of inquiry explored whether they could charge the tavern-keeper with Lewis' death. They dropped the inquiry for lack of evidence or motive.Four years after Lewis' death, Thomas Jefferson wrote: “Of courage undaunted, possessing a firmness and perseverance of purpose which nothing but impossibilities could divert from its direction, ... honest, disinterested, liberal, of sound understanding and a fidelity to truth so scrupulous that whatever he should report would be as certain as if seen by ourselves, with all these qualifications as if selected and implanted by nature in one body for this express purpose, I could have no hesitation in confiding the enterprise to him.”Lewis was buried not far from where he died, honored today by a memorial along the Natchez Trace Parkway. Despite his tragic end, Lewis helped change the face of the United States by exploring uncharted territory – the American West. His work inspired many others to follow in his footsteps and created great interest in the region. Lewis also advanced scientific knowledge. Through his careful work numerous discoveries of previously unknown plants and animals were made.William ClarkWilliam Clark was born in Caroline County, Virginia, on August 1, 1770, the ninth of the 10 children of John and Ann Rogers Clark. Clark was an adjutant and quartermaster while in the militia. He resigned his commission on July 1, 1796 due to poor health, returning to Mulberry Hill, his family plantation near Louisville.Prior to his resignation, Meriwether Lewis was assigned to Clark's unit as an ensign under Clark's command. In 1803, Clark was asked by Lewis to share command of the newly-formed Corps of Discovery. Clark spent three years on the expedition, and although technically subordinate to Lewis in rank, he exercised equal authority at Lewis' insistence. He concentrated chiefly on drawing of maps, management of the expedition's supplies and leading hunts.After the Expedition, he served in a militia and as governor of the Missouri Territory. From 1822 until his death he held the position of Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Clark married Julia Hancock on January 5, 1808, at Fincastle, Virginia, and they had five children. Julia died in 1820 and William Clark then married her first cousin Harriet Kennerly Radford, and they had three children. His second wife died in 1831.Clark died in St. Louis on September 1, 1838, and was buried in the Bellefontaine Cemetery, where a 35-foot gray granite obelisk was erected to mark his grave. Although his family had established endowments to maintain his grave site, by the late 20th century the grave site had fallen into disrepair. His descendants raised $100,000 to rehabilitate the obelisk and celebrated the re-dedication with a ceremony May 21, 2004, on the bicentennial of the start of his famous expedition. The ceremony was attended by a large gathering of his descendants, re-enactors in period dress, and leaders from the Osage Nation, and the Lemhi band of the Shoshone Native American people.Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), the principle author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the ideals of republicanism in the United States. Major events during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806).As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment and knew many intellectual leaders in Britain and France. A man of many talents, Jefferson achieved distinction as, among other things, a horticulturist, statesman, architect, archaeologist, inventor and founder of the University of Virginia. When President John F. Kennedy welcomed 49 Nobel Prize winners to the White House in 1962 he said, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent and of human knowledge that has ever been gathered together at the White House – with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone." To date, Jefferson is the only president to serve two full terms in office and to veto no bill of Congress. Jefferson has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. presidents.York (Clark brought his slave on the journey)York statue by Ed Hamilton. (Credit: Dennis Macdonald/Getty Images)York was born in Caroline County near Ladysmith, Virginia. He was William Clark's servant from boyhood, and was left to William in his father's will. He had a wife, and possibly a family, before the Lewis and Clark Expedition.In 1804, York joined more than two-dozen enlisted men and officers, the Corps of Discovery on the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The expedition's journals present York as a large, strong man who shared the duties and risks of the expedition in full. He was the only African American member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and in the wilderness served as an equal member, with freedoms and responsibilities unlike back East. The tall manservant was a hit with frontier tribes, many of whom had never seen a person with dark skin. The Arikara people of North Dakota even referred to York as “Big Medicine” and speculated that he had spiritual powers. Though not an official member of the Corps of Discovery, York made the entire journey from St. Louis to the Pacific and back, and became a valued member of the expedition for his skills in scouting, hunting and field medicine.When the expedition reached the Pacific Ocean, York and the Shoshone interpreter Sacagawea voted along with the rest as to where the Expedition would build winter quarters. As historian Stephen E. Ambrose later noted, this simple show of hands may have marked the first time in American history a black man and a woman were given the vote. Most significantly, at a time in which slaves were forbidden to carry weapons, York not only carried a firearm but also frequently shot game such as buffalo. York was never granted his freedom.Fort Clatsop, where Lewis and Clark expedition settled from 1805-1806Recruitment at Fort Massac, 1803, by Michael HaynesSergeant Charles Floyd (pbs.org)Sergeant Floyd was born in Kentucky, and was among the first to volunteer for service in the Corps, joining on August 1, 1803. Among those included as one of the "Nine young men from Kentucky," Floyd was a cousin of the expedition's Sergeant Nathaniel Pryor. Considered a "man of much merit" by Captain Clark, he kept an uninterrupted daily record from May 14, 1804, until August 18, two days prior to his untimely death on August 20. Floyd's death was the only fatality among expedition members during the two years, four months and nine days of their transcontinental odyssey.In the spirit of President Jefferson's instructions and perhaps drawing from an agrarian background, Floyd judged land quality, including soil conditions, en-route up the Missouri. Unfortunately, Floyd's contributions to the journey, together with his journal, ended with his premature death. As "Diagnosed" by the captains, Floyd's illness was considered to be a "bilious cholic."Today, Floyd enjoys the honor of having had erected at his gravesite in present Sioux City, Iowa, the most prestigious memorial of the explorers. A 100-foot-high sandstone masonry obelisk, second in size only to that of the Washington Monument, was dedicated in fitting ceremonies on Memorial Day 1901.Toussaint Charbonneau - WikipediaCharbonneau was born in Boucherville, Quebec (near Montréal), a community with strong links to exploration and the fur trade.It was likely that while working with the North West Company that Charbonneau encountered the established settlement of Mandan and Hidatsa tribes on the upper Missouri River, near present-day Bismarck, North Dakota. He settled amongst these tribes, according to his own report around 1797. The area would remain his home for the rest of his life. Charbonneau became a free agent, working on his own and for several different fur companies operating in the area, as a trapper, laborer and an interpreter of the Hidatsa language.Soon after his arrival, Charbonneau purchased two captive Shoshone women: Sacagawea (Bird Woman) and "Otter Woman," from the Hidatsa, The Hidatsa had captured these two young women on one of their annual raiding and hunting parties to the west. Charbonneau eventually considered these women to be his wives, though whether they were bound through Native American custom or simply through common-law marriage is indeterminate.Charbonneau was a particular individual, the least liked of all the members of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Lewis referred to him as “a man of no peculiar merit”. Historians have portrayed him as a coward who hit his wife and had a particular attraction to young Native American girls. He is referred to as Mr. Sacagawea.In 1804, Sacagawea became pregnant with their first child. It was during this year that Meriwether Lewis and William Clark came to the area, built Fort Mandan, and recruited members to the Corps of Discovery. Charbonneau was interviewed to interpret Hidatsa. Lewis and Clark, however, were not overly impressed with him; Charbonneau spoke no English. Although several in the expedition party could translate from French, Charbonneau did not appear to know Hidatsa all that well. (By his own admission, over thirty years later, he still could not speak the language well although he had lived with the Hidatsa nearly continuously.) However, when Lewis and Clark learned that his wives were Shoshone, they were eager to have them interpret this language as well. Sacagawea spoke Shoshone and Hidatsa, and Charbonneau Hidatsa and French. They hired Charbonneau on November 4, and he and Sacagawea moved into Fort Mandan a week later.In the winter, as the expedition was preparing to get underway, Charbonneau had second thoughts about his role. He quit the expedition, having said he was dissatisfied that he would be required to stand guard, perform manual labor, etc. But, on March 17 he returned and apologized, saying he would like to re-join the company; he was re-hired the following day. At age 47, Charbonneau was the oldest member of the expedition. His performance during the journey was mixed: Meriwether Lewis called him "a man of no peculiar merit," and many historians painted Charbonneau in a distinctly unfavorable light.Charbonneau, however, did make several contributions to the success of the expedition. He was helpful when the expedition encountered French trappers from Canada. He served as a cook; his recipe for boudin blanc (a sausage made from bison meat) was praised by several members of the party. Additionally, his skill in striking a bargain came in handy when the expedition acquired much-needed horses at the Shoshone encampment.Sakakawea (Sacagawea)Sacagawea was born into the Lemhi Shoshone tribe in Idaho. In 1800, when she was about twelve, she and several other girls were kidnapped by a group of Hidatsa (also known as Minnetarees) in a battle that resulted in the death of four Shoshone men, four women and several boys. She was then taken to a Hidatsa village near present-day Washburn, North Dakota.At about 13 years of age, Sacagawea was taken as a wife by Toussaint Charbonneau, a French trapper living in the village, who had also taken another young Shoshone wife named Otter Woman. Charbonneau is said to have won both wives from the Hidatsa while gambling. Sacagawea was pregnant with her first child when the Corps of Discovery arrived near the Hidatsa villages to spend the winter of 1805-1806. Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark built Fort Mandan and interviewed several trappers who might be able to translate or guide the expedition further up the Missouri River in the springtime. They agreed to hire Charbonneau as an interpreter when they discovered his wife spoke the Shoshone language, as they knew they would need the help of the Shoshone tribes at the headwaters of the Missouri.Lewis recorded the birth of Jean Baptiste Charbonneau on February 11, 1805, noting that another of the party's interpreters administered crushed rattlesnake rattles from Lewis' specimen collection to speed the delivery. The boy was called "Little Pomp" or "Pompy" by Clark and others in the expedition.In April, the expedition left Fort Mandan and headed up the Missouri River in pirogues, which had to be poled and sometimes pulled from the riverbanks. On May 14, 1805, Sacagawea rescued items that had fallen out of a capsized boat, including the journals and records of Lewis and Clark. The corps commanders, who praised her quick action on this occasion, would name the Sacagawea River in her honor on May 20.When the corps reached the Pacific Ocean at last, all members of the expedition—including Sacagawea and Clark's black manservant York—were allowed to participate in a November 24 vote on the location where they would build their fort for the winter.On the return trip, they approached the Rocky Mountains in July 1806. On July 6, Clark recorded "The Indian woman informed me that she had been in this plain frequently and knew it well.... She said we would discover a gap in the mountains in our direction..." which is now Gibbons Pass. A week later, on July 13, Sacagawea advised Clark to cross into the Yellowstone River basin at what is now known as Bozeman Pass, later chosen as the optimal route for the Northern Pacific Railway to cross the continental divide. While Sacagawea often appears in romantic depictions as a guide for the expedition, she provided direction in only a few instances. Her translation efforts also helped the party to negotiate with the Shoshone. However, her greatest value to the mission may have been simply her presence, which indicated their peaceful intent. While traveling through what is now Franklin County, Washington, Clark noted "The Indian woman confirmed those people of our friendly intentions, as no woman ever accompanies a war party of Indians in this quarter" and "the wife of Shabono our interpreter we find reconciles all the Indians, as to our friendly intentions a woman with a party of men is a token of peace."After the expedition, Charbonneau and Sacagawea spent three years among the Hidatsa before accepting William Clark's invitation to settle in St. Louis, Missouri in 1809. They entrusted Jean-Baptiste's education to Clark, who enrolled the young man in the Saint Louis Academy boarding school.Sacagawea carrying PompeyJean Baptiste Charbonneau (Pompey)Jean Baptiste Charbonneau was born at Fort Mandan in North Dakota, the encampment at which the Lewis and Clark Expedition wintered in 1804-1805. His father, French Canadian trapper Toussaint Charbonneau, had been hired by the expedition as an interpreter. Captains Lewis and Clark agreed to bring along his then-pregnant Native American wife Sacagawea when they learned she was of the Shoshone people, as they knew they would need to negotiate with the Shoshone for horses and guides at the headwaters of the Missouri River. Meriwether Lewis noted the boy's birth in his journal:“The party that were ordered last evening set out early this morning. the weather was fair and could wind N. W. about five oclock this evening one of the wives of Charbono was delivered of a fine boy. it is worthy of remark that this was the first child which this woman had boarn and as is common in such cases her labour was tedious and the pain violent; Mr. Jessome informed me that he had frequently administered a small portion of the rattle of the rattle-snake, which he assured me had never failed to produce the desired effect, that of hastening the birth of the child; having the rattle of a snake by me I gave it to him and he administered two rings of it to the woman broken in small pieces with the fingers and added to a small quantity of water. Whether this medicine was truly the cause or not I shall not undertake to determine, but I was informed that she had not taken it more than ten minutes before she brought forth perhaps this remedy may be worthy of future experiments, but I must confess that I want faith as to it's [sic] efficacy.”Charbonneau traveled from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean and back as an infant, carried along in the expedition's boats or upon his mother's back. His presence is often credited with reassuring the native tribes the expedition encountered, as it is said they believed that no war party would travel with a woman and child.Clark paid for young Jean Baptiste to attend school there at St. Louis Academy, now known as St. Louis University High School, and continued to oversee his care and schooling. Sakakawea returned up the Missouri River with the elder Charbonneau. In May 1866, while en route from California to the new gold fields around Virginia City, Montana, Charbonneau died of pneumonia near Danner, Oregon, at age 61.Seaman, the dogSeaman, a black Newfoundland dog, became famous for being a member of the first American overland expedition from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast and back. He was purchased for $20 by Captain Meriwether Lewis for his famed Lewis and Clark expedition. During the expedition, around May 14, 1805, both Captains performed surgery on one of Seaman's arteries in his hind leg, as it had been severed by a beaver bite. In early 1806, as the expedition was beginning the return journey, Seaman was stolen by Indians and Lewis threatened to send three armed men to kill the Indian tribe.Smithsonian Magazine Lewis and Clark Astoria Column25 Facts About Sacagawea and the Lewis and Clark Expedition (owlcation.com)MarieU.S. Sacagawea Golden Dollar | Source25 fascinating and insightful facts , true story of a young Native American girl who was kidnapped as a young teenager by a rival tribe and passed on to be the wife of a French-Canadian fur trapper.Sacagawea was employed, along with her husband, Toussaint Charbonneau, to go with the great Lewis and Clark Expedition, or the Corps of Discovery, on a 3,700-mile trek. She aided the expedition with her skill in interpreting for trades with Native Americans on the journey.She also helped to guide the way on the long trek. She cooked, cleaned and mended clothes —all while caring for her tiny baby son. She was a remarkable symbol of independence and endurance. Her spirit lives on to this day.3 Facts About Sacagawea's NameSacagawea statue at Lewis & Clark College | Source1. The name is often pronounced sack-uh-guh-wee-a. There are many variants of her name but this is the spelling used most by modern historians andappeared on the year 2000 Dollar coin which features her.2. She is also known as Sakakawea, an anglicized form, which is said to be derived from tsakaka wia from the Hidatsa (Minnetarees) language. This spelling means bird woman - sakaka meaning bird and wea meaning woman. Her husband told other people that her name had this meaning which seems to corroborate it.3. The Lemhi Shoshone, the Northern Shoshone tribe that she was born into, refer to her as Sacajawea which comes from the Shoshone word for her name, Saca tzah we yaa. This variant of her name means boat puller or boat launcher.4 Facts About Her Early Life4. Not a great deal is known or recorded on her early years. She was born around 1788 as the daughter of a Lemhi Shoshone chief and was of the Akaitikka, Agaideka or Eaters of Salmon tribe. They were traditionally based near the Idaho upper Salmon River, hence the 'Eaters of Salmon' name.5. Sacagawea was kidnapped along with several other girls in 1800. At that point, she would have been about 12 years old. The kidnappers were an enemy tribe called the Hidatsa Indians (Minnetarees) who took the girls to what is the present-day North Dakota.6. At the tender age of 13, she was either bought or won in gambling by a man called Toussaint Charbonneau. He took her and another woman to be his wives.7. Her husband, Charbonneau, was a French-Canadian Trapper, originally from Quebec. He worked as a fur trapper and also an interpreter of the Hidatsa tribes when he settled among them. He is not written about in a particularly favorable light.8 Facts About the Lewis and Clark ExpeditionLewis & Clark The Journey Begins | Source8. Sacagawea and Charbonneau were invited to join an expedition by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. The trip which started on the 14th May 1804, is often referred to as the Corps of Discovery. It was a 3,700-mile journey from the Mississippi River to explore newly acquired western lands and find a route to the Pacific Ocean. She was the only woman on the trip and was there as a Shoshone interpreter.9. During the expedition, Sacagawea and Charbonneau worked as translators or language interpreters. Sacagawea didn't speak English so she conversed with the Shoshone and then translated to Hidatsa to her husband. Charbonneau, who also didn't speak English, translated this into French to another expedition member, Francois Labiche, who then translated this into English for the expedition leaders.10. She gave birth to her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, on February 11, 1805. The boy was given the nickname Little Pomp or Pompey from the expedition leader, Clark and other members.11. The Sacagawea River in Montana was named in her honor on the 20th May 1805 after she rescued journals and records by Lewis and Clark after a canoe boat almost capsized in a storm.Surprise Reunion (wrighthotel.com)12. During the expedition, she had an emotional reunion with her brother, Cameahwait, who was now a chief in a band of the Shoshone Indians. Their meeting, in August 1805, was one of happy chance. The expedition party needed to trade with the Shoshone for horses so they could cross the Rocky Mountains.13. The Lewis and Clark expedition had a difficult time traveling over the Rocky Mountains, so bad that they might have had to survive by eating beef fat tallow candles. Sacagawea helped the group regain strength when they got to the other side of the mountains by cooking camas roots.14. Sacagawea's blue beaded belt was used to barter for a beautiful fur robe made of sea otter skins that Lewis and Clark wanted for a gift for the then president Thomas Jefferson.15. Sacagawea was useful to the expedition which ended in September 1806 in a variety of roles. She was an interpreter but also as an occasional guide, a symbol of peace to Indian tribes who they encountered along the way which discouraged their party from being attacked. She was also a food gatherer and cook, a cleaner and someone who could repair clothes.6 Facts About the Expedition's Aftermath16. Sacagawea was never actually paid for her part in the expedition. Because she was a woman, it was her husband who was paid with money and land for his and his wife's help and assistance on the trip.17. After the expedition, Charbonneau and Sacagawea spent 3 years among the Hidatsa before settling down in 1809 in St. Louis, Missouri.18. A daughter, Lizette or Lisette, was born sometime after 1810. Not much is known about Lizette and may have died in childhood.19. Sacagawea is reported to have become sick in 1811 and died in 1812.20. Jean Baptiste, along with his younger sister, Lizette, was adopted by the expedition leader, Clark, after she died. Clark was very fond of Jean Baptiste and had stated his desire to raise him as his own son at the end of the expedition. In fact, Jean Baptiste had been entrusted into Clark's care before the death of his mother and given a boarding school education.21. Jean Baptiste, held a kind of celebrity status as the only child who went on the Lewis and Clark expedition. He spent 6 years living with German royalty after he was befriended by a prince.4 Final FactsSacajawea of the Shoshonis | Source22. During the expedition, she had been given certain rights such as the permission to vote for where a fort would be built that the expedition party could stay in during the winter months. Sacagawea became a bit of a role model for suffragists, such as The National American Woman Suffrage Association of the early 20th century. She was adopted as a symbol of independence.23. Many tributes to her and her contribution to the Corps of Discovery have been created such as place names, statues, lakes, and buildings.24. The picture on the year 2000 dollar coin is not actually Sacagawea because no-one knows what she looked like and no picture exists. The face on the coin was that of a modern Shoshone-Bannock woman called Randy'L He-dow Teton.25. She was featured in the 2006 comedy movie, Night at the Museum. The night guard, played by Ben Stiller, had real trouble pronouncing her name. She has been in many books, documentaries, movies and even songs. Her spirit really does live on.© 2011 MarieLewis and Clark Expedition - WikipediaA Journey into the UnknownThe Corps of Discovery entered North Dakota in mid-October, 1804, wintered here and ventured west in April 1805, stepping off the map of the known world. Some of the most important and dramatic events of their journey happened here, particularly meeting a young Indian woman named Sakakawea (Sacagawea). She lived in a settlement of 4,500 people now known as the Knife River Indian Villages. The populations of the villages was greater than the cities of Washington D. C. and St. Louis at the that time.Lewis and Clark spent the winter among five Mandan and Hidatsa earthlodge villages, located at or just below the mouth of the Knife River where they constructed Fort Mandan, named in honor of their new friends on the plains. During their time at Fort Mandan, Captain Lewis hired Sakakawea’s husband, Toussaint Charbonneau, “with his wife, as an interpreter” and later helped deliver her son, Jean Baptiste.Sakakawea’s mere presence on the expedition, with a baby in tow, announced in a universal language that theirs was a peaceful mission.www.nps.gov/nr/travel/lewisandclark/journey.htmTimeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition - WikipediaLewis And Clark Expedition (history.net)

This image represents Bekenstein’s approach to what became Holographic Theory. It started off as Black Hole physics, then turned into thermodynamics. Bekenstein then turned it into information.It was based on an equation by Bekenstien, after a few generations evolved to:In this equation, N refers to bits of information. However, as of yet that remains undefined, but I will derive what a ‘bit’ of information is a little further on.Lp is the Planck length (10^-35 meters), tp will be the Planck unit of time (10^-44 seconds). These are the smallest slice of space and of time possible in normal space-time. They are the Zero Point for space and time, in a quazi logical way.For those who suspect space-time is infinitely divisible, not quantized, see my former discussion at Bill Bray's answer to Why is it impossible for anything to be smaller than the Planck length?Where N refers to the number of ‘bits’ of information and AΩ is our world-sheet, as we fill that empty void with information (N) we inadvertently create the world-sheet AΩ. In order to derive the value of what 1 ‘bit’ of information is, we can simply do this:Setting ‘c’ as a natural number and equal to 1: Lp = tpthenGiven Einstein’s filed equationsreduces the geometry of space-time toNoting that G on the left referring to the geometry of G(uv), as well as G being on the right hand side of the equation, leads to a self-similar (fractal)we end up withThe geometry of space-time is an emergent phenomenon of Information, as a fractal.Also, the term T(uv) is supposed to represent the tensor that describes the forceful bending of space-time. However, since its internal components (uv) are on both sides of the equation (u and v represent rows and columns of values) these values are also fractals. Thus, the term (the tensor) is a highly localized phenomenon. This is what Wheeler was searching for but never found. The tensor is a fractal that starts nearly flat, then becomes increasingly fracked. THIS DOES NOT HAPPEN BECAUSE OF MASS - IT HAPPENS BECAUSE OF THE DENOMINATOR, N. AKA, the presence of information.The error for the past century was to assume that because mass and gravitation seem to always be in the same place, that there is a needy relationship. However, the recent discovery that Gravity Waves exist by the LIGO interferometer proves Wheeler’s description: Gravitation without mass, as he was referring to Gravity Waves. The Gravity Wave has information present, but no information that describes mass.If there were information in the gravity wave that described mass, then the gravity wave would possess mass, it does not. LIGO is an interferometer, just like the Michelson moerley, that functions by detecting its own change of state under a Schwarzschild transformation in General Relativity, which incontrovertible dismisses all prior art regarding frame of reference in General Relativity. All mythos regarding falling into a black hole, spinning black holes, black holes with magnetic fields, Hawking radiation, are collectively dismissed, and no evidence has ever supported such null hypotheses.The urban myth, mass brings about gravity and gravity tells mass where to go is incorrect. Gravitation is a fractal that results from the presence of information that may or may not describe mass. A Gravity Wave represents the fractal above, but the information in the wave does not describe the presence of mass.The termCan only be interpreted as:However, a triangle is impossible because of the hypotenuse and height not being integers of LpWe run into the same problem with a cube (your pixel) because it is wrought with non-integers of LpA circle has pi (not even a rational number)Since every possible shape is wrought with values that are not integers of Lp, no shape is possible on a Planck Scale.On a Planck scale, space-time is shapeless. In 1957 Wheeler derived the equations for Lp and tp, in the study of the propagation of Gravity Waves, and found what he referred to as the ‘Quantum Foam.’ It is a turbulent, dynamic shapeless domain where virtual particles pop in and out f existence at a very high rate.In 2004 Wilczek (a friend of Wheeler’s) earned the Nobel in Physics for measuring the effect of the Quantum Foam on the Strong and Weak forces.As for ‘pixelation,’ we can only regard the cosmos as a 2-dimensional rendering of a 4-dimensional facade. And in this 2-dimensional, holographic construct, time is not a valid dimension.That statement is fully compatible with the AdS description.This is Holographic Theory. From Holographic Theory we are finding emergent space-time, mass-energy, and the forces of nature. For instance, above we saw the short version of how space-time actually emerges from Information along with its geometry (gravitation). Note that we are on our way to a Quantum Description of Gravitation without any Higg’s Bosons. In fact, if the Higg’s really does exist (I’m not a ‘believer’) it is emergent from the description above.Mass-energy arises from quantum entanglement and superposition within this geometry we have made out of our world-sheet AΩ. Let me find that - wait; here it is:If we take into account Wheeler’s Space-time Foam on a quantum scale, [John Archibald Wheeler with Kenneth Ford. Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam.1995 ISBN 0-393-04642-7.] we might conclude that as a part of this foamy characteristic of space-time on a quantum scale is the motion of a macroscopic object progressing forward in this go-stop-go fashion described above at v=c and v=0. In today’s vernacular we might say that the object were moving as though pixelated, and as we back out from the quantum to the macroscopic we no longer see the pixelated but a ‘normal’ progression of a macroscopic object. However, there can be no ‘pixelation’ on a quantum scale, as I will describe later on, because of the foamy characteristic of space-time on a quantum scale. In fact, there can be no shape, again, this will be described.Wheeler first describes the Quantum Foam as early as 1955 [Wheeler, J. A. (January 1955). "Geons". Physical Review. 97 (2): 511. Bibcode:1955PhRv...97..511W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.97.511]The Quantum Foam in short, is an extension of the existence of Virtual Particles that come into existence via the Uncertainty Principle. The very brief and over simplified description of this Quantum Foam is that in any volume of empty space, virtual particle-antiparticle pairs are being created and annihilated constantly. The other characteristic is that space-time on a Planck scale can conform to no shape, because every plausible shape has characteristics that are not integer values of the Planck interval. We discussed this characteristic at length in The Holographic Principle of Quantum Mechanics. These particle-antiparticle pairs arise from the Quantum Electro Dynamic Vacuum Energy, that is, they 'borrow' energy from Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle. The virtual particle-antiparticle pairs exist for extremely brief periods of time, and recombine to annihilate themselves back into nothingness again. This occurs at a very high rate of speed and is constant, on the order of 10-44 seconds. We say that space, therefore, has foam like character that is referred to as the Quantum Foam. The Quantum foam plays a direct role in the Quantum Electrodynamic Vacuum Energy, on the order of 10120 joules of energy per cubic centimeter of absolute nothingness (described in the glossary).However, borrow is a metaphor. They merely exist for a short time.The effect they have on a Planck scale (of size, 10-35 meters) is to curve Space-Time in such a way as to give space-time a 'foamy' characteristic. A few -1.Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps.2.W. W. Norton. pp. 494–496. ISBN 0-393-31276-3.3.Ian H., Redmount; Wai-Mo Suen (1994). "Quantum Dynamics of Lorentzian Space-time Foam". Physical Review D 49: 5199. Doi: 10.1103/PhysRevD.49.5199. arXiv:gr-qc/93090174.Moyer, Michael (17 January 2012). "Is Space Digital?:". Scientific American. Retrieved 3 February 2013.5.Baez, John (2006-10-08). "What's the Energy Density of the Vacuum?". Retrieved 2007-12-18.6.John Archibald Wheeler with Kenneth Ford. Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam. 1995 ISBN 0-393-04642-7This describes the ‘quantum foam,’ a characteristic of space-time that describes the dynamic structure on the Planck scale. There is a short review of this by wilczek, who actually measured the quantum foam’s effect on the strong and weak forces (for which he earned a Nobel, at 48 minutes into: https://youtu.be/914jzZ4LXcUIn this 4Lp^2, we either have information in it, or there is no information in it. That is, it is a shapeless bit of space-time (but we use the trigonal pyramid for visual purposes) is either empty or filled.If there is information in it, it by definition is entangled with some other bit of information somewhere in the universe; because they (we’ll call the two N and N’) were created as a particle/antiparticle pair vie the HUP. However, they do not have to be a particle/antiparticle pair. As we saw with the Gravity Wave, the information (N) does not have to describe mass. It will describe energy, but although we can stick the energy in an equation (E=mc^2, the Compton Wavelength, DeBroglie Wavelength, and so on) that doesn’t mean it actually has mass. In fact, it does suggest momentum either. As an example, a Gravity Wave can and does (see Lin-Shu Density Wave) keep a spiral galaxy and all of the massive stars in place, it possesses neither mass nor momentum.As the distance between these two bits N and N’ increases, the probability that they are quantum entangled decreases, because the wave function in the HUP limits the amount of time such a thing can exist, and thus the distance. If N is entangled with N’, then each has an element a or its symmetric partner a’.We’ll call the information in N has two possibilities (such as spin) a and a’. We’ll use a real particle for a moment and say they are an electron positron pair. Spin +1/2 is a, spin -1/2 is a’. So, each N can have a or a’. Also, N’ can have a or a’. So I’ll use an over simplified braket notation and refer to the systems as<a|N|a’> and <a|N’|a’>If N has a, then N’ has a’, If N has a’, then N’ has a. It’s either/or.If there is no N’ then there is no space-time in this scenario. If there is an N’, then time limits us to the probability that it contains either a or a’. From this time constraint, the number of possible superpositions is defined, and so the size of our world sheet, AΩ.That is, as the number of superpositions increases, we have entropy, as the number of superpositions decreases, we have Ordiny. Gravitation is unidirectional Ordiny. So is a magnetic dipole. The Strong Force has two components, the Internal Strong Force that binds hypothetical ‘quarks’ together; Ordiny, and the Intermediate Strong Force (mediated by mesons) the binds protons and neutrons together, more Ordiny.The Weak force can be viewed as a form of entropy, as a W boson escapes the nucleus, decaying into an electron and electron-antineutrino.This interplay between entropy and riding is the direct observation of force, and displaced the mythos of delta S as some ‘arrow of time' which is a non sequitur. A 19th century gas law does not describe the visible cosmos. The notion that entropy is ‘the loss of information regarding the Microsystems of a system' is obviously a pure technological limitation, not a priority of nature. It is less of a limitation every year, in fact. Every limit, every unexplained thing becomes the magic black box for physics, sad.The number of available superposition describes the entropy vs ordiny that yields force. this I laid out in a series of papers on Researchgate.For the most part, the forces of nature represent Ordiny. Entropy occurs under extreme conditions only, such as the Big Bang and Black Holes. Irreversible entropy that is.To simplify again, the surface of our world-sheet AΩ is defined by the number of Lp^2 available on this 2-dimensional surface. As the number increases, the number of possible superpositions increases and entropy emerges. If the number decreases, the number of possible superpositions decreases, and Ordiny emerges.This is how space-time is then an emergent form from information entropy vs. Ordiny. You may also note that ‘c’ is not a velocity, it defines the relationship between the world-sheet AΩ with respect to Lp and tp (space and time). It is not a ‘speed limit’ it is the definition of space-time. The ‘speed limit’ is actually the result of c=1Lp/1tp.At such time you are at c, you are superposition across the AdS horizon. There is no velocity other than c, only c exists, all else is a facade velocity. That was derived by Einstein Maric in the original 1905 paper, but no one has read it, that is true. There are only 50 citations to it, none in a century. There are millions of citations to papers about it, none of those papers have read the original, which bears no resemblance to modern convention whatsoever. So I wrote a paper breaking all convention and showing images of the original, and it has a jaw dropping response in physics. QFT physicists think I am Satan, because I do not violate axiom and theorem, introduce un observable dimensionality of the gods to explain clearly observable things, with math that isn't upside down.by convention, the constancy of c is purely rhetorical. However, it is the associative property of addition in the 1905 document. As the acid test, find the derivation of the constancy of c, that is in an observable dimension set and real.1.Arntzenius, Frank. (2000) “Are there Really Instantaneous Velocities?”, The Monist 83, pp. 187-208.2.Barnes, J. (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers, Routledge & Kegan Paul:3.Barrow, John D. (2005). 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Theory Change, Ancient Axiomatics, and Galileo’s Methodology, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht.25.Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, eds. (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.26.Maddy, Penelope (1992) “Indispensability and Practice,” Journal of Philosophy 59, pp. 275-289.27.Matson, Wallace I (2001). “Zeno Moves!” pp. 87-108 in Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy VI: Before Plato, ed. by Anthony Preus, State University of New York Press: Albany.28.McCarty, D.C. (2005). “Intuitionism in Mathematics,” in The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic, edited by Stewart Shapiro, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 356-86.29.McLaughlin, William I. (1994). “Resolving Zeno’s Paradoxes,” Scientific American, vol. 271, no. 5, Nov., pp. 84-90.30.Owen, G.E.L. (1958). “Zeno and the Mathematicians,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, vol. LVIII, pp. 199-222.31.Posy, Carl. (2005). “Intuitionism and Philosophy,” in The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic, edited by Stewart Shapiro, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 318-54.32.Proclus (1987). Proclus’ Commentary on Plato’s Parmenides, translated by Glenn R. Morrow and John M. Dillon, Princeton University Press: Princeton.33.Rescher, Nicholas (2001). Paradoxes: Their Roots, Range, and Resolution, Carus Publishing Company: Chicago.34.Pages 94-102 apply the Standard Solution to all of Zeno's paradoxes. Rescher calls the Paradox of Alike and Unlike the "Paradox of Differentiation."35.Rivelli, Carlo (2017). Reality is Not What It Seems: The Journey to Quantum Gravity, Riverhead Books: New York.36.Rivelli's chapter 6 explains how the theory of loop quantum gravity provides a new solution to Zeno's Paradoxes that is more in tune with the intuitions of Democratus because it rejects the assumption that a bit of space can always be subdivided.37.Russell, Bertrand (1914). Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy, Open Court Publishing Co.: Chicago.38.Russell champions the use of contemporary real analysis and physics in resolving Zeno’s paradoxes.39.Salmon, Wesley C., ed. (1970). Zeno’s Paradoxes, The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc.: Indianapolis and New York. Reprinted in paperback in 2001.40.Szabo, Arpad (1978). The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics, D. 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This is a disputable issue.This one of the most scientific article on this issueScythians Ethnic AffiliationScythians Ethnic AffiliationThe following discourse addresses the reasons for the current universal acceptance by the scientific community of the preposition that the Scythians were unambiguously Indo-European, and specifically Iranian speaking, and the methods to reach this conclusion. It does not address the attribution of the Scythians to a particular ethnic community. The acceptance of the Indo-European theory has a long history, and its history in itself is an interesting subject of study. The scholars of a number of nations were involved in the Scythian studies, because geographically, the Scythian area covers an enormous territory. The Russian politicians and scientists, who had a special interest in these studies, and the German scholars, who made decisive contributions to the subject, led the way in establishing the criteria, methods, and conclusions currently shared by the scientific community at large. Since I am more familiar with the history and attitudes in the Russian studies, I will mostly stay within the limits of the Russian science.In pre-1700’s, the Scythians were known in the Western Europe, and from there in Russia, from the works of the ancient writers, principally Herodotus. At that time, the accepted wisdom was that the Herodotus’ Scythians were the precursors of Türks, with the Türks branching into Slavic, Mongol, Finnish, Baltic, Ugrian, and unspecified other variations. There was a millennia-long string of historical references linking Herodotus’ Scythians with the Türks, so there was no need to question this postulate. That is, until the Northern Pontic area fell into the lap of the Russian Empire, there was no archeology to contend with. And only when the kurgans and their contents became known in the West, the question of their attribution came to the attention of the Western scientists. The archeological excavations in the 19th c. showed that Herodotus and other historians faithfully recorded the specks of the history of the Eurasian peoples. The archeological excavations created a tremendous opportunity to analyze and absorb the newly found predecessors into the “We-world” of the Western Europe.A Polish aristocrat in the service of Russia, Jan Potocki at about 1805 gave instruction to Heinrich Julius von Klaproth (1783-1835) for ethnographic journey to the recently seized N. Caucasus, who published the work "Reise in den Kaukasus und nach Georgien unternommen in den Jahren 1807 und 1808" (I-II, Halle and Berlin 1812-14); in an appendix, entitled "Kaukasische Sprachen", for the first time von Klaproth formulated a hypothesis of Scytho-Sarmatian origin of Ossetic. In his later work, "Memoire dans lequel on prouve 1'identite des Ossetes, peuplade du Caucase, avec les Alains du moyen-age" (Nouvelles annales des voyages 16, 1822, p. 243-56), von Klaproth completed the sequence Scytho-Sarmatians > Alans > Ossetes. (9)That hypothesis was furthered by K. Zeiss with a work published in the 1837 in Munich, that suggested to identify Scythians with the Iranian-lingual tribes based on the religion, territory of Iranians and the common Scythian and Persian words (1). At that time, in the Western culture the contemporary concept of racism did not exist, it was perfectly clear that the humans are divided into superiors and inferiors, and that anything worth of attention was produced by the superior races. The inferiors could at best only approach the superiors, and in the worst case were savages. The superior art and skills of the kurgan burials, brought to the attention of the Western European scientists, were undoubtedly civilized, i.e. European. The extent of the classification was matching the erudition and mindset of the classifier (2). This trend endured in the consecutive European research. The 2000 monograph that compiles sources on the Alans, is outstanding in bringing into the scientific fold a listing of 200 sources, but in a peculiar tunnel vision it ignores obvious non-IE etymologies, while repeating the improbable dainties of count Vs. Miller in service of Russia, and V.I.Abaev in service of Russia (9, a shy tiny footnote on page 2 is all it takes to base a scientific analysis of a major work).In the era when a peer review was not yet canonized, the flattering deductions of the urban dwelling sedentary Indo-European cabinet scientists were received with enthusiasm accorded to the reputation of the experts. There were alternate opinions, like those of K. Neumann, 1855 (3), who came to differing conclusions. The alternate opinions managed to introduce a factor of inconclusiveness in the concept, but failed to impress the scientific community into revising the upsurging concept. Some scholars hedged their opinions by qualifiers. The others dropped the shades and selected sides, joining the universal acceptance by the scientific community of the Indo-European concept.One of the reasons that unbalanced the scales was the geographical extent of the archeological artifacts. In the 19-20 centuries, though the most prominent kurgans were concentrated in the vicinity of the Northern Pontic, the European kurgan burials were found in the area that extended from the southern desert to the forest zone in the north, and from the German lands to Volga. The organized and civilized societies they represented were not savages, i.e. could not be Mongolian, Finnish, Ugrian, Türkic, Bask, Albanian etc., but definitely the civilized Indo-European. Europe could not be inhabited by the non- Indo-Europeans, not to that extent.The “discovery” of kurgans coincided with the discoveries in the Russian historical studies of the times. Early in the 18th century, ruler of the emerging Russian Empire, Peter I, undertook to hire the best European historians to write a Russian history. At the time, the budding Empire was a quilt of recently subjugated nations, including Slavic and foreign. The need for a unifying ideology was urgent, and so was the need for the ideological justifications of the future acquisitions. The superiority of the Slavs was an axiom, but it needed a historical validation. After a much reading into the Russian Primary Chronicles, it was re-established that the Russian ruling class descended from the Scandinavians, and the Slavic folks came from the Carpathians. V.Tatischev, M.Lomonosov, and N.Karamzin suggested that the Slavs traced back to Scythians or Sarmatians. The Scythians at that time were regarded as Turkic, and the Sarmatians as multi-ethnic Indo-Europeans. Both classifications were mostly of a speculative nature.Today, the search for the Slavic roots has a 300 years history. Among the main autochthonous theories is the Vistula basin, Dniepr, and Carpathians. The supposed historical predecessors are Veneds and Balto-Slavs for the folks, and Scandinavians and Balto-Slavs for the ruling class. Thousands of history books and encyclopedias were published in the past 3 centuries. The fabled Solovyev history is contained in 50-some volumes. To whatever detail went the search, it stopped down at the 9th century, taking a super vague view to the time before that. Up until now, the recorded facts related to the pre-9th century Slavic history do not exist as far as the Russian historiography is concerned.The Russian historiography cannot reconcile the record about Slavs, serving in the Atilla’s army together with his German subjects, with the coming of Ruriks to govern the Slavs. The Hunnish period lasted for 130 years, from c. 420 to c. 558, impacting the Slavic tribes. The following 250-year period of life in the Avar Kaganate from 558 to 805 also must have shaped and impacted the Slavic tribes. In the Indo-European scheme of the Russian historiography this period does not exist. Did Slavs come out more indigenous after 250 years of Avaric rule than, say, Volga Bolgars after 250 years of the Slavic rule? There is no research on the Avar period, moreover, neither the Avar nor Hunnish periods ever existed in the Slavic history, as far as the Russian historiography is concerned. The following period of the Khazarian rule, when the Eastern Slavs were members of the Khazarian Kaganate, and their Scandinavian mercenary rulers were in the service of the Khazarian state, also conveniently does not exist. Also does not exist the Bolgar period, when the Eastern Slavs were members of the Bolgarian Kaganate and its remnant Beilyks. In the Imperial period, that ended in 1917, the history of the peoples did not exist, and the history of the territories started from the time of their conquest. In the Soviet period, the contents of the official Russian history remained about the same, with added spice of civilization benefits, generosity, and friendship that the Russian conquerors showered on the subjected peoples.In the Soviet Russia the handling of the history on a number of occasions led to a country-wide crises, when the old books had to be expediently destroyed in all libraries, homes and schools in the country, while the new versions were hurriedly written or approved or published. By the time Orwell published his “1984”, it has already happened, and many times after that. The earliest records of the historical manipulations trace back to the 1500, when the emerging Moscow kingdom clamed the Lithuanian lands. In the Imperial period, the re-creation of the history became a full-blown trade. In the Soviet period, it reached a state of an art carried by industrial methods. The re-invention of the history was always inspired by the ruling officialdom, soon permeating the whole society, when the population was shaped mostly in the primary and secondary school systems. In the later Imperial period, the local historical and archeological societies had a chance to document facts inconsistent with the official historiography. In the Soviet period, any remnants of the independent thought were eradicated, usually together with their carriers. In these conditions, a concept of a peer review was distorted to a caricature. The heavy jelly of the official historiography gripped both the reviewed and the reviewer. In most cases, the rules of behavior were not stated, they had to be understood with the guts.In the upper echelons of the scientific establishment, a heavy handed system of pre-qualifications, tests in the politically correct subjects, and august referrals remains to ensure that only conformist scholars had the opportunity for the scientific research. The ability to research and publish is rigidly linked to the ability to conform to the correct line. This is a backbone of the Russian historical science, and it encompasses the contributory sciences of archeology, linguistics, numismatics, anthropology, culture, literature etc. In the absence of a free research, the science industry was flooded by quasi-scientific research, which became an accepted norm for a scientific carrier. In the Scythian studies, the politically correct line is the Indo-European attribution, and any personal development is possible only toiling the correct path, facts or no facts notwithstanding.Generations of scientists of all disciplines participated in the Russian Scythian studies. Initially, the Indo-European classification of the Scythians had a weak justification, and it had to develop against the accepted beliefs based on the evidence of the contemporaries. At the same time, it was fitting well into the German and Russian nationalist agenda, providing a pedigree of traceability extending beyond the Bronze Age. In the last 160 years, which passed since 1837, was developed the linguistical and anthropological evidence necessary to convert a maverick idea into a postulate widely accepted by the scientific community.The 1949 work of V. Abaev was a cardinal contribution to the factual material(4). The scientific value of the work is well defined by the words of the author himself, that in Scythian language "all we cannot explain with the help of Iranian, actually cannot be explained at all". Disavowing that work would send much of the Indo-European theory crushing. On the other hand, linking the glorious past of the ancient Great Power with a contemporary obscure ethnical group within the Russian multiethnic powder keg was a significant achievement by the ruling plutocracy. It was well timed with the politically correct task of the day, that is to substantiate scientifically the deportation of the number of ethnic, mostly Türkic, people from the territories conquered by the Russian Empire in the previous century. V. Abaev’s work was a living proof that from the ancient historical times the Indo-European population inhabited the Northern Pontic and Caspian territories, and the deported nations were late migrants who took possession of the territory belonging to the autochthonous population. It was published 6 years after the Russian rulers assigned to all Russian historians a task of re-writing the history, de-linking the population of the Northern Caucasus, Kama and Volga region from the ancient inhabitants, and re-associating with to the popularly hated Tatar-Mongol invaders.About the scientific validity of the work not much can be said. Any notion of a peer review in Russia cannot be taken seriously. The obscurity of the Ossetian language, and a vacuum in the studies of its linguistic history, make it unlikely that peers will ever review the Ossetian theory. The Iranians, found to be speaking the Scythian language, are completely mum on the subject. The other significant Iranian speaking groups, like Pashtuns, are also silent. So, it is left to those Indo-European scholars of the Iranian languages to explain the etymology of the Ossetian/Iranian Scythian vocabulary, and provide the incontestable proof to the scientific community at large. And the mightily supported Indo-European theory, untested, unchallenged and un-peer reviewed, for now stands. The verdict reads "North-East Middle Iranian language". For a side observer, that should mean that a random contemporary speaker of the "North-East Middle Iranian language" should at least get a clue hearing another "North-East Middle Iranian language" speaker. Ossetians would not manage to squeeze in this category, with their 80% lexically non-IE language, and 100% phonetically, morphologically, and sintaxically non-IE language. Finns have better chances understanding Greeks.The flow of quasi-scientific research papers linking the known Scythian vocabulary to this or that obscure language, found in some mountain valley with few speakers, still proliferates, without a chance for a second opinion due to the absence of experts in that language, or the studies of the underlying language itself. Frequently, these works tell more about the writer than about the subject of the work. I. Pyankov, for example, attributes to the Irano-Scythians the plural suffix ty/ta, evidently without having even a rudimentary acquaintance with the fact that this suffix, for example, is also a Türkic suffix. Specifically, in modern Turkish it is a place case suffix, denoting the case "where something is/has been/will be' or 'where something occurs/has occurred/will occur", and used after ch, f, h, k, p, s, sh, or t, as in 'kitapta' - in the book or 'jipte' - in the jip. So, even without the well-known uncertainty caused by the fluidity of the vowels, the linguistic argumentation is presumptuous. But I. Pyankov proceeds to classify the Scythian language as the Iranian type based on a presence in the contemporary group vocabulary of a single letter t (5). This quasi-scientific process is mirrored in the science of physical anthropology, in Russian called simply the anthropologyScythian images are known from the earliest historical times well into the first millennia A.D. Scythians looked European. They looked enough European to qualify for the Indo-European pedigree. And from here flows their ancestry. By a reverse projection, the Afanasevo, 2500-1700 BC, and Andronovo, 1700-1200 BC, populations are swept into the Indo-European fold, creating a cradle for all Indo-Europeans and filling in the blanks for the Indo-European dissemination. True, the Scythians did not look any more Indo-European than the European Finns, Basks, Albanians, Etruscans and other patently non Indo-European inhabitants of Europe. Here the historical linguistics comes to aid. The physical anthropology shows Scythians as Caucasians, and the linguistics shows them as Indo-European Caucasians. In other words, they are Iranian Ossetians. Iranian Ossetians from Sea to shining Sea.The archeological expeditions uncovered sufficient remains to produce detailed anthropological studies. Some remains were found frozen and in perfect condition for the scientific studies. The Russian anthropology is built on the concepts of J. Blumenbach, 1752 - 1840, who proposed a system for classifying humans into five different races based on the anatomy, and E. Hooton, 1887 – 1954, who framed it in a very descriptive format with careful measurements and anatomical details. And the super task of the Russian anthropological and archeological studies is to show the autochthony of the Indo-European and, if a slightest hint can be found, of the Slavic population in the region of the study. In the Scythian region, the silent craniums are either Mongoloids and therefore Ural-Altaics, or Caucasoids and therefore Indo-Europeans. They cannot be non-Indo-European Caucasoids. The archeological dating and cultural classification make the Caucasoid finds to speak Iranian or Slavic. Thus the anthropology supports the Indo-European theory. Even in the cases when no faithfully described artifacts indicate an Indo-Iranism, the title and preamble of the publication invariably attribute the artifacts to the Indo-Iranism.A crucial role in the Indo-Iranian attribution is given to Veda. Everywhere, where the Caucasian remains are found, works the irrefutable logical chain of the site-artifact-Veda-Iranian language. The Caucasians are determined by their noses. A flat face produces a Mongoloid, and a flaring nose produces a Caucasian, invariably an Iranian/Ossetian speaking. An Iranian Caucasian, taking a Mongoloid wife, produces a Caucasian Iranian/Ossetian speaking male offspring, and a Mongoloid daughter of unattributable descent. The expeditions, investigating the Scythian territories, like a lasting Khoresmian Expedition, invariably discover a layer of the Caucasian Iranian speaking stock, proving over again the Ossetian nature of the Scythians. Never mind that Ammianus called the Persians subnigri. Never mind that the definitely Europoid Scythians were often depicted with thin beards (H. Schoppa 1933, 21-22). In 443 AD the Alans of Sapaudia (Lyon) showed a Mongoloid strain. Never mind individuals of the South Siberian type were among the Sarmatians at Kalinovka in the Volga region. There must be Iranian black subnigri and white subnigri, Iranian Mongoloids and Iranian South Siberians. They've got to fit the Iranian doctrine. And like in the other instances, most of the Slavic ends were frequently produced using non-Slavic people in the service of the Slavic-dominated state.The review of the politically correct scientific half-truths and outright falsifications would not be complete without addressing the treatment of the unsuitable facts.Time to time the life brings to light a fact that contradicts the official theory. In Russia, the facts can be disposed of by explaining them away, silencing them, ignoring them, or destroying them. One example of explaining away is the attribution of a fact to an import, like the nomadic animal art copied from the advanced Iranian/Greek/Mediterranean settled population. The silencing is best done by hiding it, like the Scythian artifacts hidden in the storage of Hermitage, to hide the splendor and skill of the population preceding the Slavic migrants. The inscriptions can be ignored, to retain the concept of the illiteracy of the nomadic population, invariably repeated in every publication. And the destruction continues on an industrial scale, some by design, some by shear negligence. Cities and kurgans are being ploughed over, records and bones destroyed, samples not analyzed, results not published, the hand written records and collections of the pre-Soviet time archeological societies lost and destroyed. Whatever are the means, the official theory remains unscathed. The former USSR and now the Russian Academy of Sciences has a long history of never acknowledging the evidence that contradicts the official stance. Historically, it was not an enviable preposition for a Russian scientist: either silence, or else.The dissenters, who exist in all societies and in all times, had to either remain silent, or pay a heavy toll. Here again existed a circus air, when even the loyal followers could be labeled dissenters upon a turn in the official position. Like in the Imperial times, in the Soviet time some dissent always survived in a camouflaged form, masked as poetry, novels, anti anti-official assertions, and other innocently looking works. Usually the camouflage was supported by a loyal lip service in the beginning paragraphs. Not infrequently, both the august referent and the author worked in tandem disguising the true substance of the work.The Iranian/Ossetian Scythian theory has all the traits of a politically correct theory. It is built on a thinnest foundation of an obscure language, and is not supported by the evidence and foresight connected with what is usually called a scientific theory. The cultural heritage, traceable for millennia among other peoples of the world, has not been shown to display links between the Ossetian, Pashtu, or other Iranian speaking peoples, and the details of the Scythian life described by the ancient writers. No traces, specific to the Scythian nomadism of the historical period, found their parallels in the historically documented Indo-European societies. It is well shown in the work of a prominent export on nomadism A. Khazanov(6).The extensive Indo-European ethnology documents such cultural attributes as dress, food, drinks, conservation of produce, family relationships, housing, sanitary traditions, military traditions, societal organization, cosmological concepts, literary traditions, mythological and folk tale traditions, art, and a myriad of other traits. In many cases, the prominence of these traits far exceeds the significance of the other characteristics. For example, the Scythian mercenaries were a major, if not the only, force in the armies of a number of the states, during almost a millennia period. The Scythian warriors in the Scythian conical hats, Scythian boots, Scythian pants, on the Scythian horses and with Scythian composite bows are shown innumerable times in the historical records and became a staple image of the generic Scythian. The Ossetian ethnography of the historical period would have to come up with at least a remote echo of these mercenary military traditions wearing Ossetian conical hats, Ossetian boots, Ossetian pants, riding the Ossetian horses and with Ossetian composite bows. In the absence of such ethnological links, the Indo-European theory would remain a murky propaganda myth. The so-called universal acceptance can become a scientific concept only when the multidisciplinary evidence converges to the same conclusion.The anthropological studies of the ethnography should have traceable, statistically significant, links between the Scythian and Indo-European populations. The genetic make-up of the populations is a powerful tool that will be used for the studies that are practically non-existent now.(7). The blood type, predominating in the Indo-European people, should be visibly present in the Scythian population(8). The absence of such studies in Russia is explained by the insufficient funds and a shortage of specialists, to the convenience of the supporters of the status quo. The anthropological aspect of the archeological research should extend beyond the fossilized nose angle criteria anthropology, to be complemented by the dental, skeletal, foramental and other telltale traits of the physical anthropology. The absence of the multidisciplinary studies, which, in the vision of Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza would include the “paleoanthropology, archeology, ecology, history, demography, sociology, cultural and physical anthropology, linguistics, toponomastics and anthroponymy”, does not give much credence to the “universal acceptance” by the scientific community of the preposition that the Scythians were unambiguously Indo-European.The search for Indo-European roots, whether explicit or implicit, is a substantial driving force subsidizing the expensive archeological research. Without a doubt, the Sakian and Scythian studies would have been on a much smaller scale if they did not have the Indo-European connotations. The financial participation of the Western scientific organizations in many cases was the major incentive in the planning of the direction for the archeological research. It is possible that the acceptance of the alternate concept would substantially dry up the research funds available with the Indo-European preposition, depleting the field from the specialists and damaging the progress in the field. In this regard, the half-truths, misinformation, and twisted facts are a good tactic to maintain the interest in the Scythian field. So far, not a single sentence had been translated, etymologically meaningfully, using any reincarnation of the Indo-European languages. If the search for the Indo-European roots results in a conclusion truthfully proving the Indo-European theory, both the partisans of the Indo-European theory, and its opponents will benefit. And if it results in a conclusion inconsistent with the Indo-European theory, once again both the partisans of the Indo-European theory, and its opponents will benefit.References(1) A. Dovatur, Narody nashei strany v “Istorii” Gerodota (People of our state in the History by Herodotus), 1982(2) re K.Mullenchoff, see M. Zakiev, Problems Of The History And Language, 1995(3) K.Neumann, Die Hellene im Skythenlande (Berlin, 1855), Mongolian hypothesis(4) V.I.Abaev Ossetian language and folklore. M. L. 1949(5)I. Pyiankov, The Ethnicity Of The Sakas (Scythians), http://home.btconnect.com/CAIS/History/prehistory/saka.htm(6) A.Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, Cambridge University Press, 1984(7) http://www.balzan.it/english/pb1999/cavalli/paper.htm (Sforza)(8) http://anthro.palomar.edu/vary/vary_3.htm(9) Agusti Alemany, Sources On The Alans. Critical Compilation, 2000LinksAdditional LiteratureKuklina I.V., 1985. Scythian ethnography in the antique sources. L.Lyzlov А., 1787. Scythian history, composed and written in the year 1692. M.Semenov-Zuser S.A., 1947. Scythian problematics in the Russian science // Attempt in the historiography of the Scythians. Ch. 1. Kharkov.