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Surgery was basically taught in two manners. One was that of an apprenticeship with the local barber surgeons who typically controlled the education and who got to practice in their locality. They were derided as the empiricists by their learned counterparts but generally seem to have been able to perform most minor surgeries at a decent price.In France an ordinance of 1372 authorized barbers to treat “boils, tumors, and open wounds, if the wounds are not fatal,” This, undoubtedly merely recognized an existing practice. The barbers even took over the major therapeutic modality of blood letting. In dress the barber-surgeons were distinguished from the surgeons in that the former wore a short rather than a long robe.It is also noteworthy that among these (barber) surgeons there was specialization to the point that even learned surgeons generally left some surgeries to the barber surgeons. Think of things like removing bladder stones or couching cataract.It was during the Late Middle Ages that surgery also gained acceptance as a separate branch of formal university taught medicine. Students had to be literate in latin and were taught a variety of medical texts from the Ancient Greeks down to Arabs and contemporary Europeans. They were in some way privileged compared to surgeons from the rest of the planet because Christianity held fewer taboo’s against autopsies and dissections. It is not entirely clear but it seems like students had to attend a dissection at least once to get a good grasp of what the inside of a body actually looked liked.The below painting would have been unthinkable in much of the rest of the worldUniversity taught surgeons generally had an extensive training and on top of that some places instituted the practice of only allowing licences surgeons to perform. The licence usually being granted by a small body consisting of other surgeons who could question and possibly observe the skill.In the 13th century the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick tried to impose some form of certification and licencing in his dominions;No doctor shall practice after the completion of the five year period who has not practiced for an entire year under the direction of an experienced doctor. During the period of five years the masters shall teach in the schools the authenticated books of both Hippocrates and Galen, and shall instruct in the theory as well as in the practice of medicine. Moreover, we decree as a measure for the public health that no surgeon shall be admitted to practice who does not present testimonials from masters in the faculty of medicine, stating that he has studied for at least a year in that field of medicine which develops skill in surgery, in particular, that he has learned in the schools the anatomy of human bodies, and that he is proficient in that field of medicine without which incisions cannot be safely made nor fractures healed. The Shift of Medical Education into the Universities…In Paris in 1270 the medical curriculum required six years without a liberal arts degree and five and a half years with one. By 1350 having a Master of Arts degree saved 12 months from the period of medical training. At the end of the 14th century virtually all Paris medical graduates also were masters of Arts (3). At Bologna academic study was a little shorter: five years without a liberal arts degree and four years with this qualification…The other important members of the healing arts were the apothecaries and the herbalists. The latter were held to be inferior, as barbers were inferior to surgeons. Physicians were particularly concerned about the training and practices of the apothecaries because they were dependent on their services for the supply of medications. Inspection of apothecary shops was included among the ordinances of Frederick II early in the 13th century; it became required in Paris in 1353 (8, 20). Because most medicines were botanicals it seems a natural evolution that in England the early apothecaries largely were members of the guild of spicerers-spice merchants. This was still true well after 1312 when an organization of apothecaries already existed in London. As early as 1313 there was a court apothecary, one Odin the Spicer (26). In some ways the apothecaries had to be more learned than the surgeons or barbers, because they had to be able to read Latin, both to fill prescriptions and also, when available, to employ references. In France an apothecary’s apprenticeship lasted four years; its duration in England is uncertain. These practioners, like the physicians whom they served, largely remained in the cities, while the relatively untrained herbalists practiced in the countryside.Now the medical licencing appears in different places centuries apart but it was generally in place by the 15th and 16th century.Not that things always went that smoothly…Medical practice in fifteenth-century England is often seen as suffering from the low status and unregulated practice of which Thomas Linacre later complained. Unlike in many European cities, the provision of physic was uncontrolled, and while urban guilds oversaw surgery as a manual art, no comprehensive system of medical organisation or regulation existed. However, in a remarkable episode of the 1420s, a group of university-trained physicians and elite surgeons associated with Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, briefly established just such a system. While their efforts initially secured approval for a national scheme, it was only in the City of London that they succeeded in implementing their plans. The detailed ordinances of the collegiate ‘commonalty’ they founded provide a unique insight into their attitudes. Drawing on continental models, they attempted to control all medicine within the city by establishing a hierarchy of practitioners, preventing illicit and incompetent practice, and offering treatment to even the poorest Londoners. Yet they failed to appreciate the vested interests of civic politics: achieving these aims meant curtailing the rights of the powerful Grocers and the Barbers, a fact made clear by their adjudication of a case involving two members of the Barbers’ Company, and the Barbers’ subsequent riposte—a mayoral petition that heralded the commonalty’s end. Its founder surgeons went on to revitalise their Surgeons’ Fellowship, which continued independently of the Barbers until a merger in 1540; in contrast, the physicians withdrew from civic affairs, and physic remained entirely unregulated until episcopal licensing was instituted in 1511.…The right of regulation of surgery [in London] that was claimed in the ordinances of 1423, however, represented a direct attack on the Barbers. In much the same manner as the Drapers continued to assert their right of search and inspection of the Taylors’ cloth under the authority of their ordinances approved by the mayor and aldermen, so the 1423 ordinances gave the surgeons of the new commonalty the right to judge the work of the surgeons of the Barbers’ Company. The application of the 1421 proposals within the City would have been doomed to failure had the Barbers objected to the selection of Surgeons as the arbiters of licensing, for the royal ordinances would have been regarded as an infringement upon civic privilege. But, by moving to institute their ordinances through the authority of the Mayor, the commonalty initially circumvented opposition from the Barbers.…Not only physic, but also surgery, was to be regulated: ‘The lords of the king’s council at the time should have the power, by authority of the same parliament, to assign and designate an ordinance and punishment for such people as shall henceforth meddle in and exercise the practice of the said arts and are not skilled or licensed in them’. Those allowed to practise were defined separately, ‘as befits the same arts’, as ‘physicians in the universities, and surgeons among the masters of that art’. The initiative for the petition may have come from physicians, but the lords in parliament, drawing upon their experience in the French wars, had seen the virtue of applying these regulations also to surgery.Medical Practice, Urban Politics and Patronage: The London ‘Commonalty’ of Physicians and Surgeons of the 1420sNow to a modern medical student things like having to attend or perform a dissection and having to get a license to practice seem like standard things but they were actually rather novel at the time. To a degree though it paid dividends and by the late 16th and early 17th century the stereotype of all Europeans being doctors/surgeons was well established in Asia. In times of need Persian Shah’s, Mughal Emperors and Japanse Daimyo’s seem to have opted for European surgeons if they were around.

Homeschooling is more "accepted" in the US society than in India. I am not saying its mainstream in either of the places - but numbers are dismal in India - some 1000 students are homeschooled as opposed to 1.8 million in US (Figures from HSLDA website). That leads to a lot of differences between the homeschooling scene in India vs US. For example, legal issues of home schooling,or how well accepting are higher-education institutions etc. Let me take this in a more specific manner.Reasons behind homeschoolingIn India - its primarily about “unschooling” - the education system is not at par with what parents want their kids to learn and hence they teach the kids at home. On the other hand, in US people do this for various reasons other than unschooling:Religious reasons - While Christian families want their kids to learn everything in biblical context, atheists parents don’t want their kids to be affected by increasing level of religious discourse in school curriculum.Some parents feel that School environment is not good for their kids - especially with the school shootings being in news. Another example - in the Bay Area schools have a requirement of vaccinating the kids and the parents who want to opt out of it decide to homeschool their kids insteadLegality/support from governmentUS has laws (state level) for supporting homeschooling. Some states provide school curriculum (even a desktop computer is setup for them) to the homeschooled kids. There are states that have made schooling compulsory for ages 6-14, but allow the parents who plan to homeschool to send a letter of intent saying that they choose to homeschool their kids. So homeschooling is very "well defined" legally. India is a very different story in this matter. In India there is some confusion regarding homeschooling, especially after the RTE bill was passed. Government has dilly-dallied on its own stand whether the RTE makes homeschooling illegal or not. The homeschooling community is fighting hard on this.Which is more expensive - homeschooling or the traditional schooling?Homeschooling means the parents have to pay for school curriculum, tutor fees etc. However, it turns out to cheaper in India than in the US. I will tell you why.90% in US are in public schooling system which is free - but in India 60% are in public - and mostly coming from rural area. In urban areas it would rather be that 90% of kids are in private schools - so in india private schooling is the norm while in US public school is the norm. Which means, in india we are anyway spending a lot on education sending kids in private school and hence home schooling turns out to be a cheaper option. Comparatively in US its costlier than the free public education.Homeschoolers in Higher Education system?Generally US colleges are opening up more and more to homeschooled kids. You wont find many homeschooled in Indian higher education scene - most end up applying to US colleges for Undergrad/post-grad studies.You can go through the references below for this answer.nces.ed.govIn fall 2015, about 50.1 million students will attend public elementary and secondary schools.An additional 4.9 million students are expected to attend private schoolsfactly.inclose to 14 crore (140 million) children enrolled in Government Schoolstimesofindia.indiatimes.coma national survey has revealed that almost 23 crore children are studying in 13 lakh schools across the country.www.hslda.orgEstimated number of homeschoolers in India: 500-1000 childrentimesofindia.indiatimes.comIn cities like Mumbai and Pune, many parents have stopped sending children to regular schools.All of them have different reasons for choosing this system.For agriculturist Vivek Kariappa, it was the realization that conventional schooling is biased against the rural system.for many, dislike for the conventional system made them opt for homeschooling.There are also children with learning disorders for whom homeschooling is a better option.www.hslda.orgThe new report concludes that approximately 1,770,000 students are homeschooled in the United Statestimesofindia.indiatimes.comIn an important reversal of stand, the Centre has admitted that the Right to Education Act doesn't allow home schoolingThe U-turn by the Centre came on a petition filed by a student who argued that individuals had the right to choose their mode of education.http://nces.ed.govThe most common reason parents gave as the most important for homeschooling their children in 2007 was a desire to provide religious or moral instruction: 36 percent of parents cited this reason, followed by a concern about school environment (21 percent), dissatisfaction with academic instruction (17 percent), and “other reasons” (14 percent) (indicator 6)www.homeschool.comIn November of 2003, the U.S. Department of Education sent an official letter to all universities, which stated that the admission of homeschooled students to college would not jeopardize federal assistanceToday, a majority of colleges in America evaluate homeschooled applicants using the same requirements as those for traditionally schooled students.

A sketch of what the layout of Seneca Village would have looked like. (Seneca Village destroyed to make way for Central Park)Seneca Village was supposed to be a sanctuary.Created in 1825, the village spanned from 82nd to 89th street, along what is now Central Park’s western edge. The village was home to thousands of freed African American slaves, who had come to New York City seeking refuge. Seneca Village became a safe haven for Black property owners who sought to not be limited to the slums of the Five Points in Lower Manhattan where poorer African Americans lived.[1] By 1855, the village consisted of approximately 225 residents, made up of roughly two-thirds African-Americans, one-third Irish immigrants[2] , who following the potato famine of the 1840s and 50s,made their way to New York City in hope of escaping the perils of starvation and death, and a small number of individuals of German descent.[3]However, after just 20 years, the thriving black community that had made its home there were forced off their property by New York so that the city could embark on one of its most recognizable attractions – the creation of Central Park and free additional land for the affluent white residents of Upper Manhattan to build a park.In the mid 19th century, New York City decided it needed a park. The city was growing fast, and everyone was conscious that this was one metric on which its rivals in Europe had the upper hand. In 1845, the editor of the New York Evening Post wrote a special Independence Day editorial, enviously praising Britain’s acres of parks, noting: "These parks have been called the lungs of London."[4]According to the Louise Chipley Slavicek, author of New York’s Central Park, the pro-park lobby were largely “affluent merchants, bankers and landowners”, who wanted a “fashionable and safe public place where they and their families could mingle and promenade”.[5]Uncovering the Stories of Seneca VillageAnd so in 1851, Ambrose Kingsland, the city’s mayor, agreed to create one.[6] By 1854, the city had chosen generous chunk of land in the centre of the island between what is now 59th and 106th streets, and construction on the park began. (It was later extended four blocks further north). The park is still there today, and everyone loves it: despite centuries of urban development, the park has remained an anchoring chunk of green space among the ever-denser Manhattan streets.By the time the decision to create a park was made, there wasn’t enough empty space left in Manhattan. So the city chose a stretch of land where the largest settlement was Seneca Village, population 264, and seized the land under the law of eminent domain, through which the government can take private land for public purposes.[7] Residents protested to the courts many times, against both the order and the level of compensation being offered for their land; eventually, though, all were forced to leave.Map of the lands included in the Central Park, from a topographical survey, June 17th, 1856; [Also:] Plan for the improvement of the Central Park, adopted by the Commissioners, June 3rd, 1856.(Can You Help Find the Descendants of Seneca Village?)Seneca Village was first started by Andrew Williams and Epiphany Davis, two prominent black abolitionists, who managed to find a white man to sell his land to black people.[8]Mr. Andrew Williams, a 25 year old bootblack or boot-shiner was the first free African American man to purchase land in New York City in 1825.[9] Charging anywhere from 3 – 5 cents a shine, he worked hard, saved his earnings and purchased three lots of (Central Park) land for $125.00 ($113,000 in today’s money) from a white cartman by the name of John Whitehead.[10]In 1824, a white couple John and Elizabeth Whitehead bought and subdivided land in what is now Manhattan’s Upper West Side.[11]Andrew Williams (Seneca Village destroyed to make way for Central Park)It was unheard of for African Americans to be able to purchase land. However, for whatever reason, Mr. Whitehead was willing to sell it not only to Mr. Williams, but also to the many that would follow. In no time, Mr. Whitehead sold off his farm acreage.At the time, it was rare for black people, slaves or not, to be able to purchase land, though there were a few who would sell to them. Williams and Davis were prominent members of the New York African Society for Mutual Relief[12],as well as the AME Zion Church. Williams was joined by trustees for the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church who bought six lots of land near 86th Street designated for a ‘colored’ cemetery. [13] Epiphany Davis, a Black store clerk and trustee of the church, paid $578 for 12 lots.[14]A 19th century map of part of the settlement, marked with names of some residents. (A Handrawn Map of Seneca Village, the 1800's Settlement in New York's Central Park)By the end of the 1820s there were nine houses in Seneca Village.[15] This number would continue to grow throughout the 1830s as African Americans from neighboring York Hill moved to the area. They were displaced to make room for the Croton Reservoir on 42nd Street and Fifth Avenue – a storage unit for the water gathered by the Croton Aqueduct – after William Mathews sold his land to the government for the project.[16] Providing fresh water to the city, the reservoir was eventually torn down in the 1890s.The people of Seneca Village lived in homes ranging to one to three stories and were spread out which was in stark contrast to the crowded homes of poorer black people in the city. Slowly, the community started to take shape. Homes were built, some with barns and stables. Soon, three churches were erected, as well as a school.The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church was established by Reverend Richard Allen in 1801 and was the most prominent African church in the country.[17]The African Union Methodist Church opened in 1837 when William Mathews a deacon purchased land on 85th street.The church buried African Americans in Seneca Village until 1852 when a law prohibiting burials south of 86th Street was enacted.[18] They had had at least two burials between 85th and 86th but were forced to bury their loved ones in the Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn the following years. Colored School #2 was located in the church’s basement indicating that a majority of the children of Seneca Village pursued education.[19]The First African Methodist Episcopal Church Branch Militant opened its doors in Seneca Village on August 4, 1853. A box put into a cornerstone contained a Bible, hymn book, the church’s rules, a letter with the names of its five trustees and copies of newspapers The Tribune and The Sun.[20]The prospect of owning land in Seneca Village was exciting for more than one reason. Owning land meant voting rights, as well as refuge from the slums of lower Manhattan.[21] Despite New York State’s abolishment of slavery in 1827[22] , discrimination was still prevalent throughout New York City, and severely limited the lives of African-Americans. Seneca Village’s remote location likely provided a refuge from this climate. It also would have provided an escape from the unhealthy and crowded conditions of the City, and access to more space both inside and outside the home.New-York Historical SocietyCompared to other African-Americans living in New York, residents of Seneca Village seem to have been more stable and prosperous — by 1855, approximately half of them owned their own homes.[23] With property ownership came other rights not commonly held by African-Americans in the City — namely, the right to vote. In 1821, New York State required African-American men to own at least $250 (roughly $6,180) in property and hold residency for at least three years to be able to vote. Of the 100 black New Yorkers eligible to vote in 1845, 10 lived in Seneca Village.[24]The fact that many residents were property owners contradicts some common misperceptions during the mid-19th century that the people living on the land slated for the Park were poor squatters living in shanties.[25] While some residents lived in shanties and in crowded conditions, most lived in two-story homes. Census records show that residents were employed, with African-Americans typically employed as laborers and in service jobs, the main options for them at the time.[26] Records also show that most children who lived in Seneca Village attended school.Albro and Mary Joseph Lyons, prominent residents of Seneca Village (Double ambrotype portrait of Albro Lyons, Sr. and Mary Joseph Lyons)Seneca Village also served as a stop on the Underground Railroad.[27] During its heyday, many of the village’s basements served as hiding places for people looking to escape slavery. The name of the city helped discern this as Lucius Anneaus Seneca[28] , a Roman philosopher and statesmen, whose book Seneca’s Moral was read carefully by many African American activists in abolition.[29] Prominent Underground Railroad abolitionist Albro Lyons owned land lived in Seneca Village so the possibly of a potential connection is further solidified.[30]Particularly after the Fugitive Slave Law was passed in 1850[31] ,a lot of people were being abducted on the street and being sent down South into slavery because they weren’t allowed to testify against themselves. A community like Seneca Village away from the city held attraction for the Underground Railroad. And if Seneca Village was actually a destination for slaves to escape to freedom, then the Irish who lived there were also complicit in making sure they stayed safe.[32]However, as the people of Seneca Village were thriving, the people of lower Manhattan were looking for other, more aesthetically pleasing things to do with the area it occupied. Lower Manhattan was overflowing with immigrants at the time, and the wealthy, affluent families were beginning to look for other places to make their homes.[33] The upper, eastern part of the island is where they started looking, directly across from Seneca Village. Once all of the affluent families started moving to the Upper East Side, they started wanting outdoor space.When Powerful White New Yorkers Demolished An Entire Black Village To Build Central ParkReal estate developers quickly jumped on the idea of an exclusive community bordering lush parklands and began looking into securing the area in the center of Manhattan — including the prime real estate that Seneca Village stood upon.The city government authorized the taking of land between 59th and 106th Streets between Fifth and Eighth Avenues in 1855 to adjust to the new demand. Land was flooded for the Central Park Lake and soil was brought in to cover the land and all the agriculture that had existed on it.[34]Many settlements had to be uprooted to make way for Central Park including Harsenville (though part remained intact), the Piggery District and the Convent of the Sisters of Charity.These areas were home to Dutch, Irish and farming villages. Nearly 7,500 lots of land home to roughly 1,600 people were displaced to make way for the grand park.[35]Martel’s New York Central Park by Pierre Martel, 1864When New York City decided to move the park to the Seneca Village and surrounding area, they gave the residents of the settlement two years to pack up their things and leave. The government also offered to buy the properties but often for much lower prices for what the land was actually valued for. It was hoped that the removal of the inhabitants '”will be effected with as much gentleness as possible'' while at the same time describing them as less than human”.[36]Andrew Williams filed an Affidavit of Petition to the Commissioners of Central Park in the State Supreme Court of New York where he detailed his annoyance with the low valuations the city placed on his property.[37] 1855-56 found Williams in court being offered $3,500 for his land which was worth more than $4,000.[38] The Government had enacted eminent domain (eminent domain refers to the power of the government to take private property and convert it into public use), to take his land and after supposedly offering him $3,500 ($99,000).[39] The Fifth Amendment provides that the government may only exercise this power if they provide just compensation to the property owners.[40] Williams was eventually forced to take $2,335 ($66,600) and leave immediately.[41]He rejected the lower offer and settled his claim for his land by using the rights afforded under the law of eminent domain to reclaim the land.Some of the Seneca Village residents were paid for their land, but most of them were not. Epiphany Davis lost over a hundred dollars as she was forced to give up her home.[42]The sign, acknowledging the area where Seneca Village once stood. (Local Ecologist)After it was obliterated in 1857, the story of Seneca Village was lost for more than a century. At the end of a Central Park plaque commemorating Seneca Village, there’s an apparently innocuous line, noting: “The residents and institutions of Seneca village did not re-establish their long-standing community in another location”.[43]In the years after the 1827 slave emancipation, the safest way to live as an African American was in a separate, “enclave” community.[44] As the village was destroyed, so was this safe haven for what based on census records was a “black middle class”.[45] Many of the residents stayed relatively local to New York (after the village was demolished), but what they did not do was stay together. And that’s what’s so tragic: it was a community, and then the community was gone.It wouldn’t be until 1992 when Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar published their book The Park and the People: A History of Central Park that the old town was brought to the public gaze.[46] Recently researchers have begun excavating the site on which it once stood, hoping to shed light on the lost village and give due credit to those who lived there. However, as of now, the only official artifact acknowledging the village’s existence is a small sign, dedicated to the people who once called it home.In the late 1990s the New York Historical Society launched Before Central Park: the Life and Death of Seneca Village which was an exhibit curated by Cynthia Copeland and Grady Turner. Wall, along with professors Nan Rothschild from Columbia University and Copeland, started the Seneca Village Project in 1998 working towards the ‘study of the village in an educational context and its commemoration.’[47]Seneca Village destroyed to make way for Central ParkThe Seneca Village Project began excavating the location in Central Park where the community existed in 2011. They conducted studies of historical maps, soils, and ground penetrating radar which allowed for the pinpointing of locations where artifacts could be found.[48] With the excavations the Seneca Village Project was able to find the foundation walls and cellar deposits of the home of church porter William Godfrey Wilson, his wife Charlotte, and their eight children.[49] Included in the finds were a child’s shoe, a roasting pan, and a tea kettle.The collective was also able to pinpoint deposits from behind two houses that were buried in the ground and located in another part of the village.How America’s first black middle class village was destroyed to make way for Central ParkExcavations attempt to place Seneca Village in a much wider narrative, in which African Americans’ role in the nation's early public life has been erased. There’s been a denial that there were African Americans in New York City. In 1991, a slave burial ground was discovered during excavations to build a new office block north of City Hall – a reminder that nearly a quarter of the city’s population was black by the time of the American Revolution.[50]Archaeologists, historians and members of the African American community are trying to get knowledge of the Seneca Village into the New York City school curriculum[51] and other school curriculum because people don’t know about middle class African Americans.Fragments of crockery found during the Seneca Village dig. (New York destroyed a village full of African-American landowners to create Central Park)Another key part of the Seneca Village Project is an attempt to trace the genealogies of those who lived there, and find any living descendents.[52] So far, unfortunately, this has been unsuccessful. Researchers hoped that with a population of almost 300 people that there would be descendants of Seneca Village, able to share part of their family history. If you know someone who may be a descendant of Seneca Village, contact Diana Wall at [email protected] and/or Nan Rothschild at [email protected] continuance of a community made up of African-American landowners, in the middle of Manhattan, could have made for a very different New York – or even a very different United States – today. It’s a reminder that seemingly small decisions, like uprooting a certain community, or bulldozing a council estate, can change a city for good. You have to wonder whether all the mingling and promenading was worth it.Footnotes[1] Five Points District, New York City, New York (1830s-1860s)[2] The unknown Irish story of New York’s Seneca Village [3] The Story of Seneca Village[4] New York destroyed a village full of African-American landowners to create Central Park[5] New York City's Central Park[6] History Engine: Tools for Collaborative Education and Research[7] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.nyhistory.org/sites/default/files/Seneca_Village_NYHS.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiu5_rZvvTjAhWOG80KHWGGClsQFjAYegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw19LKMehXoJceMyWirg0Mwv[8] Before Park, Black Village; Students Look Into a Community's History[9] Andrew Williams: Census Entry[10] SENECA VILLAGE[11] Seneca Village: Page Three[12] The New York African Society for Mutual Relief (1808-1860)[13] African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Cemetery[14] https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://medium.com/%40interestingshit/the-sad-tale-behind-central-parks-destruction-of-seneca-village-346b8ee6ddc2&ved=2ahUKEwjlu6ClyPTjAhVEaM0KHT-qAc8QjjgwEHoECAgQAQ&usg=AOvVaw0JD56dyAGxg8sSQviuRiDc[15] Seneca Village: Black history in Central Park[16] Croton Reservoir[17] AME Zion Church — Harriet Tubman Home[18] Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895[19] https://www.jstor.org/stable/25617485?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents[20] Seneca Village: Page Five[21] The Story of Seneca Village[22] Slavery and Emancipation in New York[23] The Story of Seneca Village[24] Before Park, Black Village; Students Look Into a Community's History[25] Seneca Village: The Community that Died so Central Park Could Live[26] Seneca Village: How racism and white supremacy led to the creation of New York City's iconic Central Park[27] SENECA VILLAGE[28] Page on loebclassics.com[29] Did Stoicism Condemn Slavery?[30] Double ambrotype portrait of Albro Lyons, Sr. and Mary Joseph Lyons[31] Fugitive Slave Law of 1850[32] Irish Immigrants and the Underground Railroad[33] Ephemeral New York[34] The Lake[35] 160 Years of Central Park: A Brief History[36] A Village Dies, A Park Is Born[37] Little Known Black History Fact: Seneca Village[38] Death of Seneca Village[39] Eminent Domain[40] fifth amendment - Google Search[41] History of the Community[42] The Lost Village In New York City[43] Place Detail: Seneca Village[44] New-York Historical Society[45] Seneca Village: The Black Community That Was Destroyed To Create Central Park[46] The Park and the People[47] Before Central Park: The Life and Death of Seneca Village[48] Seneca Village destroyed to make way for Central Park[49] Seneca Village 2011 Excavation[50] African Burial Ground | [51] Marilyn Nelson's [52] Can You Help Find the Descendants of Seneca Village?