European Journal Of English Language And Literature Studies Vol: Fill & Download for Free

This pertains mostly to vocabulary, somewhat to reading comprehension.VocabularyTo prepare for the SAT, I got a book, published by ETS, the College Boards company, of words that were used in past tests. They were in alphabetical order, with a few synonyms and a sample sentence for each vocabulary word. I just went through them all, for 30 minutes a day, covering up the answer column then checking if I were correct; no insight on pronunciation, and since the first volume was A - O (vol. 2 was missing), I still am not as good with P - Z!It worked for the SAT and retention in long-term memory too. By "long-term", I mean years, maybe even decades.ComprehensionLess painful for an adult, and something I did simultaneously at the time, was to read a lot of English and European literature. Long form periodicals, e.g. The New Republic were good. The weekly New York Times book reviews were effective also. I like the London Review of Books now.If interested in current events rather than literature Platt's oil blog, Small Wars Journal, U.S. Dept. of Labor book reviews or (supposedly) repressive foreign regime websites with most posts being about serious topics and written by attorneys are great. I'd recommend Dawn (Pakistan) and FARS (not IR Press TV!) or Tehran Times, both Iran. There are no advertisements. The writing is more sophisticated, and grammatically correct, than the BBC. There is no religious content. Russia Today (RT) isn't as good, plus they hammer you with propaganda lately.See Improving one's English by Ellie Kesselman on Trenchant comments for a little more detail.

Alright, I am a little disappointed that all the answers so far just keep on praising the upstarts Viṣṇu and Śiva who only gained in prominence in relatively modern Hinduism. They are okay, but the real cool gods are in the Vedas.There are a few strong contenders from among Vedic deities, but I think the coolest Hindu god has to be Indra — Dēvarāja (king of gods), Svarga adʰipati (lord of the heavens), Vajrapāṇī (wielder of the thunderbolt) and Vr̥trahan (dragon-slayer).A modern rendition of the king of gods, Índra (source)Indra was the most important god in Vedic Hinduism. The oldest scriptures of Hinduism — the R̥gvēda — forms part of a larger collection of old texts, collectively called the Vedas. Contemporary scholarship dates the earliest parts of the R̥gvēda to somewhere around 1500 BCE, which makes it near contemporary to some of the preserved Hittite texts, and thus, among the oldest written records in any Indo-European language. Only the earliest layers of Hittite and Mycenæan Greek in Linear B are from an earlier date.In the R̥gvēda, Indra was supreme. Of the 1208 hymns of the collection, some 289 are dedicated to him alone — more than any other god. Agni, to whom is dedicated 218 hymns, comes a distant second.In contemporary Hinduism, however, the character of Indra is but a shadow of his former self. He retains his position as the king of gods, but is often portrayed as a trickster and a paranoid ruler, subordinated by superior gods. His feats of courage are reinterpreted as tales of deceitful victory. That’s why most of the answers to this question do not mention him: most modern Hindus are unaware of his status in the earliest layers of Hinduism. In post-Vedic times, minor gods like Śiva and Viṣṇu gained prominence over the likes of Indra and Agni, and this readjusted hierarchy remains active to this day. To contrast, Viṣṇu — the Supreme deity of certain later Vaishnavite cults — has just 6 hymns dedicated to him in the R̥gvēda, while Śiva is never even mentioned by that name (though an earlier form of him, called Rudra, has 5 hymns in praise of him).Before I go on, let me warn my readers to not look for consistency in religion. That’s the worst thing one can do. Religious texts aren’t about a coherent story line. Oftentimes, the stories and facts depicted will contradict themselves. There are various reasons for this. First, hey, come on!! Religion is about faith, not a consistent narrative. You want an internally consistent, logical theory of anything, leave us alone and go read a math post or something. Secondly, and more importantly, these stories were not written by a single person, nor at a single place or time, but over a course of generations, by different people, possibly in different tribes. The ancient Aryans arguably had various versions of these stories going about in oral traditions, of which only a single version was properly codified, and passed down. Not all the constituent parts of the final codified project are from the same source either. The different hymns may have come from different tribal and/or chronological sources. We can only be grateful that we have as much of this material preserved as we have. In most other parts of the world, such ancient literary treasures have been irretrievably lost.So, with that out of the way, let’s get back to what is it that makes Indra cool. Well, I’ll let the authors of the R̥gvēda Saṁhitā answer that for me.The birth of IndraThere is no clear consensus in the Vedic hymns as to Indra’s parentage, or origins, but the manner of his birth is always dramatically portrayed. In the few passages that allude to his parentage, his father is invariably Dyauṣ, a personification of the sky, and etymological cognate to Greek Zeús, English Tíw (whence Tuesday) and Roman Jovis (Jūpiter = Jovis patēr). For example, hymn 17 of the fourth maṇḍala mentionsThy father is considered to be the mighty Heaven; the progenitor of Indra was an excellent workman, in that he begat the noisy wielder of the stout thunderbolt, who is immovable as is the earth from its seat.The identity of his mother, though, is harder to pinpoint. The strongest contender is probably Pr̥tʰvī, the Earth mother, since Indra’s birth is described as thunder tearing out of the Earth and the Sky, as evidenced in the same hymn,Heaven trembled at the birth of thine effulgence; Earth trembled at the fear of thy displeasure. The steadfast mountains shook in agitation.Further evidence of this is hymn 22 whereBefore the high god, at his birth, heaven trembled, earth, many floods and all the precipices. The strong one bringeth nigh the bull's two parents.Notice how in these passages, and in others, the birth of Indra serves as an allegory for the coming of violent thunderstorms. This is how the Vedic Aryans viewed the mighty storm god — he was the personification of raging storms, for in hymn 6 of the first maṇḍala,Giving light unto darkness, and shape unto the shapeless (i. e. illumining the darkness of the night or the gray of the morning with lightning-flashes) thou wast born together with the dawn.Coming back to the topic of his mother, there are several other passages that mention her as an entity, but few explicitly name her. For instance, in one hymn, Indra violently bursts forth from his mother’s womb killing her. [In other hymns, she doesn’t die.]In later Hindu texts, Indra is identified as an Āditya, a son of the limitless Aditi, but the R̥gvēda makes no mention of this, even though other gods are explicitly given identities as Āditya-s.Young Indra, fresh from birth, was battle ready. Not only is his birth described as the abrupt beginning of thunderstorms, but more explicitly, he is seen as as a warmonger eager for fights, as in hymn 45 of the eighth maṇḍala,The new-born Vr̥tra-slayer asked his mother, as he seized his shaft, “Who are the mighty ones? What are they called?”Then Śavasī answered, “He shall as it were fight with his forehead against a mountain, whoever desires to do battle with thee.”Interestingly, here Indra’s mother is described as this character, Śavasī. Also, this constant drive to prove one’s martial prowess is seen a lot in the old Indo-Iranian mythos. Various characters in the Ossetian (Scythian) Nart Sagas display exactly the same behavior. For instance, in one story the hero (Nart) Soslan rues, “In the land of the Narts, it is true that nobody could measure up to me.” So, he travels to a distant land, where he encounters an old woman, and asks,“I come from the land of the Narts. I am seeking someone with powers greater than my own.”There are many other instances like this in the stories of the Narts, and indeed, the Vedas.Indra, the dragon-slayerAs evidenced before, the storm god Indra is also the god of battles and war. Of all his acts of bravery, none was as important as freeing the rains and rivers from their captivity at the hands of the demon Vr̥tra. This act earned him the title Vr̥trahan — slayer of Vr̥tra.Indra, the dragon-slayer (source)Vr̥tra literally means coverer or concealer, but carries the image of a dragon or snake, Ahi. Several verses record Indra’s killing of this monster. Among the most detailed is hymn 32 of the first maṇḍala (my favorite passage), the first few lines of which are,I will declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the thunder-wielder. He slew the dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents.He slew the dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭr̥ fashioned. Like lowing kine in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean.Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Sōma and in three sacred beakers drank the juices. The rider of clouds grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons.As vividly depicted here, the new-born Indra drank large amounts of the ritual drink Sōma, and with his weapon the thunderbolt, forged by Tvaṣṭr̥, he slays the dragon. The hymn goes on to detail how the mighty dragon foolishly challenges Indra, and is torn into pieces by him. The waters that Vr̥tra imprisoned, thus freed, then fell as rain and filled the seven mighty rivers of India (sapta sindʰu).This story, repeated various times in the R̥gvēda, no doubt a central theme in the religious corpus of the Vedic Hindus, is taken to be an allegory (or even an explanation) for rainfall. Vr̥tra is the cloud that holds rains captive. And Indra is lightning personified — thunder and lightning signalling the bursting of rains and the consequent flooding of rivers.A little more detail about the fight is offered in hymn 30 of the second maṇḍala,Aloft he stood above the airy region, and against Vr̥tra shot his deadly missile. Enveloped in a cloud he rushed upon him. Indra subdued the foe with sharpened weapons.Vr̥tra surrounded himself in mist, and as another passage reveals, lashes out winds and hail at Indra, but the king of gods slays him in the end.The position as the king of the Heavens was offered to Indra specifically for this task, since other gods were unable to face the demon snake. Hymn 19 of the fourth maṇḍala begins,O thunder-wielding Indra, all the gods here, the helpers swift to listen, and both the worlds elected, thee the mighty.Perhaps more clearly in hymn 20 of the second maṇḍala,Unto Indra, the gods gave without reserve the chief command in the battle for the water-floods; when they had put the thunderbolt into his hands, having slain his enemies, he possessed himself of the brazen castles.And again, hymn 20 of the sixth maṇḍala,Even as the power of Dyauṣ, to thee, O Indra, all Asura sway was by the gods entrusted, when thou, impetuous, leagued with Viṣṇu, slewest Vr̥tra the dragon who enclosed the waters.In this passage Viṣṇu makes a little cameo. Elsewhere, it is said that Viṣṇu gave Indra Sōma to drink before the fight.When the fight begins, all other gods flee the scene, abandoning Indra, but it mattered not. From the perspective of Indra’s unnamed mother, hymn 18 of the fourth maṇḍala mentions,Then to her mighty child the mother turned her, saying, my son, these deities forsake thee. Then Indra said, about to slaughter Vr̥tra …Likewise, hymn 82 of the eighth maṇḍala gives,When in their terror all the gods shrank from the dragon's furious might, fear of the monster fell on them.Then he was my defender, then, invincible, whose foe is not, the Vr̥tra-slayer showed his might.And hymn 85 of the same maṇḍala,Flying in terror from the snort of Vr̥tra, all deities who were thy friends forsook thee.So, Indra … in all these battles thou shalt be the victor.And then, Indra slew the dragon, following which all gods and goddesses rejoice in a Sōma-induced frenzy.Other acts of IndraIndra slays many other minor demons throughout the narrative of the R̥gvēda Saṁhitā, none of them having as much significance as the battle with Vr̥tra. I will, however, mention one more, since that story is recounted a few times in the texts, which I am embellishing with details . The demon Namući, rain-imprisoner (as explained much later by the grammarian Pāṇini), had diluted Sōma using brandy. Indra vowed revenge, but he had a contract with the demon that they will not kill each other at night or day, nor will they use anything wet or dry to battle. So, Indra slays him at dawn by cutting his head off with foam — neither dry nor wet. The dying Namući still considers this treachery and calls Indra mitradruh (violator of contract) and mitrahan (slayer of contract).Also of note is that Indra is the father of Jayantī, through his wife Śaćī. Jayantī is married to sage Śukra — the spiritual guide of the Asura-s (demons in later Hinduism; in the R̥gvēda, the Asura-s were not necessarily demons, for they included Mitra and Varuṇa) and one who knew the key to immortality.In the great Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābʰārata, Indra is said to have fathered Vālī and Arjuna, respectively.ImageryAs seen from his battles with Vr̥tra, Indra is armed with the thunderbolt Vajra. In fact, he is the thunderbolt personified. Moreover, for slaying Namući, he uses foam, and he is also seen with a bow and arrows. Some hymns also mention a curious net of his. In Sanskrit, being the rain god, Indra was associated with the rainbow, which is named after him as Indradʰanuṣ (Indra’s bow), a name preserved in many modern Indo-Aryan languages. Morgenstierne also lists indrã as the word for rainbow in Kalasha and as indrõ in Kati (a Nuristani language). Certain dialects of Kashmiri (restricted to some Pandit families I’m told) use the word Yander zal (Indra’s net) to refer to the rainbow, while Sindhi uses Indlaṭʰ (Indra’s stick).The R̥gvēda mentions a horse of his, but later myths seat him atop a white elephant called Airāvata.Indra atop Airāvata (source)In post-Vedic HinduismWith the rise in popularity of gods like Viṣṇu, Śakti and Śiva, Indra’s character lost its spot as the chief deity among Hindus. The Vedas were never officially disbanded in Hinduism, but the stories and rituals therein lost their significance. Indra’s acts were reinterpreted as cowardice, and he is frequently portrayed as needing protection from other gods or from mortal heroes to preserve his kingdom in the heavens.For example, while in the R̥gvēda he battles right after his tumultuous birth with the Vajra forged by Tvaṣṭr̥, in the Purāṇa-s, he is actually overthrown from his heavenly throne by Vr̥tra. So, upon Viṣṇu’s advice, he gets Vajra made from the ribs of the sage Dadʰīći, which he then uses to slay Vr̥tra.Indra does make brief cameos in the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābʰārata, as mentioned before, and elsewhere, but is nowhere as central as he was in the R̥gvēda.The only exceptions to this are in sects of Hinduism at the fringes of Indo-Aryan territory which have retained many of the Vedic traditions that mainstream Hinduism has lost. Indr still is the one of the main gods of the Kalash tribals of northern Pakistan. Morgenstierne writes that[Indr] is usually remote, but during the Puṣa-naṭ (v. Ćaumos), he approaches men, and is invoked with libations of wine … Thunder arises when he is playing polo. Imagined in human form, he is called Indra-wir, [and] is mounted on a horse.A line dedicated to Indra from hymns sung during the festival of Ćaumos (Sanskrit: Ćaturmasya) isIndras pośāṭāni nāzī ṣiṣāri!Give me the dirt from Indr’s hooves!Kalash people during the Ćaumos winter festival (source)Parallels of Indra elsewhere in Indo-European culturesWhile thunder gods like Indra are all too common among old Indo-European cultures, including Zeus, Thor and Perun, an exact etymological parallel of Indra has not been found outside of Indo-Iranian. The only possible cognate I know of is the pagan Lithuanian goddess Indraja. However, I have seen no attempts or studies discussing them together.In the Avesta (the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism), Indra is a minor demon (Daêva), as recounted in Vendidad 19.43,He exhorted, he dissuaded, he took courage, he lost courage, the Evil Spirit full of destruction, the greatest among the old gods. (There were) the old god Indra, the old god Sâurwa, the old god Nâŋhaiθya, the old gods Taurwi and Zairi, Wrath with the bloody club, the old god Evil-fashioner, the Winter set in place by the old gods, dangerous, destructive Senility—it makes for bad deceit, the old god Bûiti, the old god Drivel, the old god Deceit, the old god Pustule, the old god Cutter, the worst old god of them all.[Note how he is called an “old god”.] Interestingly, however, the cognate of his epithet Vr̥trahan appears as the name of a major deity in the Younger Avestan texts, Vərəθraγna (Modern Persian: Bahrâm). Vərəθraγna possesses many of the martial qualities of Vr̥trahan Indra. While the Avesta does not explicitly mention any dragon-slaying on Vərəθraγna’s part, Armenian legends preserve the story of Vahagn the dragon-slayer. Once again, it must be stressed that Indra and Vərəθraγna are different entities in the Avesta, whereas in the R̥gvēda, they are one.Main references:I have mostly followed the organization ofPerry, Edward Delavan: Indra in the Rig-Veda; Journal of the American Oriental Society (1885)The translations of the R̥gvēda passages are fromRig-Veda (translation by Ralph T.H. Griffith)The translation of the passage from the Vendidad is fromSkjærvø, Prods Oktor: An Introduction to ZoroastrianismAdditional References:Gnoli, G. & P. Jamzadeh: Bahrâm (Vərəθraγna); Encyclopaedia Iranica III/5Gonda, Jan: A History of Indian Literature, Vol. 1: Vedic Literature; Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden (1975)May, Walter, John Colarusso & Tamirlan Salbiev: Tales of the Narts: Ancient Myths and Legends of the Ossetians; Princeton (2016)Morgenstierne, Georg: The Kalasha Language: Texts and Translations, Vocabulary and Grammar; Ishi Press International (1973, 2006)

The majority of “Berbers” ( as you call them) were brought to N. Africa as SLAVES.Europeans were taken off English, French, Portuguese, Spanish and American ships and were brought to Africa’s “Barbary coastal states’ such as Tunisia, Algeria, Libya , Egypt and Morocco as SLAVES by Indigenous African Muslim Tribesman (“Moors”) and Arab Muslim Tribesman!Now, I realise that our resident hard core white supremacist will not this find this answer sexy, but it's what it is so suck it up!White SlaveryA Meccan merchant (right) and his Circassian slave. Entitled, ‘Vornehmner Kaufmann mit seinem cirkassischen Sklaven’ [Distinguished merchant and his circassian slave] by Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, ca. 1888.For other uses, see White slavery (disambiguation).See also: Slavery in medieval Europe, Slavery in Africa, and Slave narrative § North African slave narrativesPart of a series onSlaveryWhite slavery, white slave trade, and white slave traffic refer to the chattel slavery of White Europeans by non-Europeans (such as indigenous North Africans (“Moors”) and the Muslim world), as well as by Europeans themselves, such as the Viking thralls or European Galley slaves. From Antiquity, European slaves were common during the reign of Ancient Rome and were prominent during the Ottoman Empire into the early modern period. In Feudalism, there were various forms of status below the Freeman that is known as Serfdom (such as the bordar, villein, vagabond and slave) which could be bought and sold as property and were subject to labor and branding by their owners or demesne. Under Muslim rule, the African slave traders that included Caucasian captives were often fueled by raids into European territories or were taken as children in the form of a blood tax by the families of citizens of conquered territories to serve the empire for a variety of functions. In the mid 1800s, the term 'white slavery' was used to describe the Christian slaves that were sold into the Barbary slave trade.Modern use of the term can also include sexual slavery, forced prostitution and human trafficking.The phrase "white slavery" was used by Charles Sumner in 1847 to describe the chattel slavery of Christians throughout the Barbary States and primarily in the Algiers, the capitol of Ottoman Algeria. It also encompassed many forms of slavery, including the European concubines often found in Turkish harems.The term was also used from the beginning of the twentieth century when most of the countries of Europe signed in Paris in 1904 an International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic aimed at combating the sale of women who were forced into prostitution in the countries of continental Europe. In the early twentieth century, the term was used against the forced prostitution and sexual slavery of girls who worked in Chicago brothels.White Slave Trade Slavic SlavesMain articles: Volga trade route and Trade route from the Varangians to the GreeksThe Rus trading slaves with the Khazars: Trade in the East Slavic Camp by Sergei Ivanov (1913)The Volga trade route was established by the Varangians (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Russia in the early 9th century. About 10 km (6 mi) south of the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga, they established a settlement called Ladoga (Old Norse: Aldeigjuborg).It connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as Baghdad. The route functioned concurrently with the Dnieper trade route, better known as the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and lost its importance in the 11th century.Saqaliba refers to Slavic slaves, kidnapped from the coasts of Europe or in wars, as well as white mercenaries in the medieval Muslim world, in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily and Al-Andalus. Saqaliba served, or were forced to serve, in a multitude of ways: servants, harem concubines, eunuchs, craftsmen, soldiers, and as Caliph's guards. In Iberia, Morocco, Damascus and Sicily, their military role may be compared with that of mamluks in the Ottoman Empire. In Spain, Slavic eunuchs were so popular and widely distributed that they became synonymous with Saqāliba.Crimean KhanateMain articles: History of slavery in Asia and Crimean KhanateSee also: Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic landsIn the time of the Crimean Khanate, Crimeans engaged in frequent raids into the Danubian principalities, Poland-Lithuania, and Muscovy. For each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10 percent or 20 percent. The campaigns by Crimean forces categorize into "sefers", declared military operations led by the khans themselves, and çapuls, raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers. For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Caffa was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.Tatar raiders enslaved between 1 and 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland-Lithuania over the period 1500–1700. Caffa (city on Crimean peninsula) was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.Barbary Slave TradeMain articles: Barbary slave trade and Barbary corsairsThe Barbary CoastGiulio Rosati, Inspection of New Arrivals, 1858–1917, Circassian beauties.The purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in the Barbary states.Slave markets flourished on the Barbary Coast of North Africa, in what is modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and western Libya, between the 15th and middle of the 18th century.These markets prospered while the states were nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, though, in reality, they were mostly autonomous. The North African slave markets traded in European slaves which were acquired by Barbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Netherlands, and as far afield as the Turkish Abductions in Iceland. Men, women, and children were captured to such a devastating extent that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned.1815 illustration of a British Captain horrified by seeing Christians worked as slaves in Algiers.According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 15th and 19th centuries. However, to extrapolate his numbers, Davis assumes the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates were constant for a 250-year period, stating:There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers - about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000."Davis' numbers have been challenged by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe and black people from west Africa.In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive, with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.Such observations, across the late 1500s and early 1600s observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.From bases on the Barbary coast, North Africa, the Barbary pirates raided ships traveling through the Mediterranean and along the northern and western coasts of Africa, plundering their cargo and enslaving the people they captured. From at least 1500, the pirates also conducted raids along seaside towns of Italy, Spain, France, England, the Netherlands and as far away as Iceland, capturing men, women and children. On some occasions, settlements such as Baltimore, Ireland were abandoned following the raid, only being resettled many years later. Between 1609 and 1616, England alone had 466 merchant ships lost to Barbary pirates.While Barbary corsairs looted the cargo of ships they captured, their primary goal was to capture people for sale as slaves or for ransom. Those who had family or friends who might ransom them were held captive, but not obliged to work; the most famous of these was the author Miguel de Cervantes, who was held for almost five years. Others were sold into various types of servitude. Attractive women or boys could be used as sex slaves. Captives who converted to Islam were generally freed, since enslavement of Muslims was prohibited; but this meant that they could never return to their native countries.16th- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.The markets declined after the loss of the Barbary Warsand ended in the 1830s, when the region was conquered by France.Christian Slavery in Muslim SpainMain article: Slavery in SpainAbraham Duquesne delivering Christian captives in Algiers after the Bombardment of Algiers (1683).During the Al-Andalus (also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia), the Moors controlled much of the peninsula. They imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the Reconquista in the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe, sparking significant reaction from many in Christian Spain and many Christians still living in Muslim Spain. Soon after, Muslims were successful, taking Christian captives of 30,000 from Spain. In the eighth century slavery lasted longer due to "frequent cross-border skirmishes, interspersed between periods of major campaigns". By the tenth century, in the eastern Mediterranean Byzantine Christian's were captured by Muslims. Many of the raids designed by Muslims were created for a fast captive of prisoners. Therefore, Muslims restricted the control in order to keep captives from fleeing. The Iberian peninsula served as a base for further exports of slaves into other Muslim regions in Northern Africa.Ottoman Slave TradeMain article: Ottoman slave tradeSlavery was a legal and a significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society.The main sources of slaves were war captives and organized enslavement expeditions in Africa, Eastern Europe and Circassia in the Caucasus. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves fell after large military operations Enslavement of Europeans was banned in the early 19th century, while slaves from other groups were allowed.Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. Sexual slavery was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.European SlaverySee also: Slavery in Ireland, Slavery in Britain, Slavery in Spain, and Slavery in RussiaRelief from Smyrna (present-day Izmir, Turkey) depicting a Roman soldier leading captives in chainsSlavery in Ancient RomeMain article: Slavery in ancient RomeFurther information: Slavery in the Byzantine EmpireThe Slave Market, by Gustave Boulanger(1882)In the Roman Republic and later Roman Empire, slaves accounted for most of the means of industrial output in Roman commerce. Slaves were drawn from all over Europe and the Mediterranean, including Gaul, Hispania, North Africa, Syria, Germania, Britannia, the Balkans, and Greece. Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy estimated at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest, at its peak.Slaves numbering in the tens of thousands were condemned to work in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal. Damnati in metallum ("those condemned to the mine") were convicts who lost their freedom as citizens (libertas), forfeited their property (bona) to the state, and became servi poenae, slaves as a legal penalty. Their status under the law was different from that of other slaves; they could not buy their freedom, be sold, or be set free. They were expected to live and die in the mines.Imperial slaves and freedmen (the familia Caesaris) worked in mine administration and management. In the Late Republic, about half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, though the most skilled were often free volunteers.Successful gladiators were occasionally rewarded with freedom. However, gladiators being trained warriors and having access to weapons, were potentially the most dangerous slaves. At an earlier time, many gladiators had been soldiers taken captive in war. Spartacus, who led the great slave rebellion of 73-71 BCE, was a rebel gladiator.The slaves imported in Italy were native Europeans, and very few of them were from outside Europe. This has been confirmed by biochemical analysis of 166 skeletons from three imperial-era cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome (where the bulk of the slaves lived), which shows that only one individual came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another two possibly did, but results are inconclusive. In the rest of the Italian peninsula, the fraction of non European slaves was much lower than that.Slavery Under Islamic RuleHistory of the Ottoman EmpireSocial structureCourt and aristocracyOttoman courtSlaveryDevshirmeMilletsMuslimsChristians ArmeniansBulgariansGreeksJewsGreat Fire of 1660Main articles: History of slavery in the Muslim world and Slavery in the Ottoman EmpireThe "pençik" or "penç-yek" tax, meaning "one fifth", was a taxation based on a verse of the Quran; whereby one fifth of the spoils of war belonged to God, to Muhammad and his family, to orphans, to those in need and to travelers. This eventually included slaves and war captives were given to soldiers and officers to help motivate their participation in wars.Main articles: Dhimmi, Dhimmitude, and JizyaChristians and Jews, known as People of the Book in Islam, were considered dhimmis in territories under Muslim rule, a status of second-class citizens that were afforded limited freedoms, legal protections, personal safety, and were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy". In order to keep these protections and rights, dhimmis were required to pay the Jizya and Kharaj taxes as an acknowledgement of Muslim rule. According to Abu Yusuf, Failure to pay this tax should render the dhemmi's life and property void and subject the dhemmi to forced conversion, enslavement, imprisonment or death. If anyone had agreed to pay the jizya, leaving Muslim territory for enemy land was punishable by enslavement if captured.Failure to pay the jizya was commonly punished by house arrest and some legal authorities allowed enslavement of dhimmis for non-payment of taxes.In South Asia, for example, seizure of dhimmi families upon their failure to pay annual jizya was one of the two significant sources of slaves sold in the slave markets of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal era. Main article: DevshirmeSee also: Kapi Agha, Ghilman, Mamluk, and SaqalibaThe Devshirme was a blood tax largely imposed in the Balkans and Anatoliain which the Ottoman Empire sent military to collect Christian boys between the ages of 8 to 18 that were taken from their families and raised to serve the empire.The tax was imposed by Murad I in the mid 1300s and lasted until the reign of Ahmet III in the early 1700s. From the mid to late 14th, through early 18th centuries, the devşirme–janissary system enslaved an estimated 500,000 to one million non–Muslim adolescent males.These boys would attain a great education and high social standing after their training and forced conversion to Islam.Basilike Papoulia wrote that "...the devsirme was the 'forcible removal', in the form of a tribute, of children of the Christian subjects from their ethnic, religious and cultural environment and their transportation into the Turkish-Islamic environment with the aim of employing them in the service of the Palace, the army, and the state, whereby they were on the one hand to serve the Sultan as slaves and freedmen and on the other to form the ruling class of the State."Indentured ServitudeMain articles: Indentured servitude and Irish indentured servantsIn the modern era, many whites in England, Ireland and British North America were indentured servants, a form of slavery now banned by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.Between 50 and 67 percent of white immigrants to the American colonies, from the 1630s and American Revolution, had traveled under indenture.White Slave TrafficMain article: International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave TrafficThe International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic is a series of anti–human trafficking treaties, the first of which was first negotiated in Paris in 1904. It was one of the first multilateral treaties to address issues of slavery and human trafficking. The Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions and Practices Convention of 1926 and the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age of 1933 are similar documents.White Slave Traffic Act of 1910Main article: Mann ActTo battle sex trafficking in the United States, in 1910 the US Congress passed the White Slave Traffic Act (better known as the Mann Act), which made it a felony to transport women across state borders for the purpose of "prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose." As more women were being trafficked from foreign countries, the US began passing immigration acts to curtail aliens from entering the country such as the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924. Following the banning of immigrants during the 1920s, human trafficking was not considered a major issue until the 1990s.Criminal Law Amendment (White Slave Traffic) BillAn attempt was made to introduce a similar law into the UK between 1910 and 1913 as the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1912. Arthur Lee would state in the House of Commons: "the United Kingdom, and particularly England, is increasingly becoming a clearing-house and depot and dispatch centre of the white slave traffic, and the headquarters of the foreign agents engaged in the most expensive and lucrative phase of the business."South America was stated as the main destination for the trafficked girls. The Spectator commented that "the Bill has been blocked by a member [alluding to Frederick Booth ] or members who, for various reasons consider that it is not a measure which ought to be placed upon the statute book" as it would affect the liberty of the individual.See alsoTurkish AbductionsMamlukGuðríður SímonardóttirJan JanszoonÓlafur EgilssonRumeliaRumelia EyaletSeljuk Empire1926 Slavery ConventionSlavery in antiquityWhite slave propagandaWhite-Slave Traffic ActIrish slave mythReferences[edit]Jump up^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 4. I propose to consider the subject of White Slavery in Algiers, or perhaps is might be more appropriately called, White Slavery in the Barbary States. As Algiers was its chief seat, it seems to have acquired a current name for the place. This I shall not disturb; though I shall speak of white slavery, or the slavery of Christians, throughout the Barbary States.Jump up^ Sumner, Charles (1847). White Slavery in The Barbary States. A Lecture Before The Boston Mercantile Library Association, Feb. 17, 1847. Boston: William D. Ticknor and Company. p. 54. Among the concubines of a prince of Morocco were two slaves of the age of fifteen, one of English, and the other of French extraction. - Lampiere's Tour, p. 147. There is an account of "One Mrs. Shaw, an Irishwoman," in words hardly polite enough to be quoted. She was swept into the harem of Muley Shmael, who "forced her to turn moor";"but soon after, having taken a dislike to her, he gave her to a soldier." - Braithwaite's Morocco, p. 191.Jump up^ Brøndsted (1965), pp. 64–65Jump up^ The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery: A-K ; Vol. II, L-Z, by Junius P. RodriguezJump up^ Historical survey > Slave societiesJump up^ Galina I. Yermolenko (15 July 2010). Roxolana in European Literature, History and Culture. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-7546-6761-2. Retrieved 31 May 2012.Jump up^ Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by Mikhail Kizilov (2007). "Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate". The Journal of Jewish Studies. p. 2.Jump up^ Historical survey > Slave societiesJump up^ CaffaJump up^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800.[1]Jump up^ "When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed", Research News, Ohio State University^ Jump up to:a b Carroll, Rory; correspondent, Africa (2004-03-11). "New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-12-11.Jump up^ Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade". Routledge.Jump up^ Davis, Robert (17 Feb 2011). "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". BBC.Jump up^ Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003Jump up^ Diego de Haedo, Topografía e historia general de Argel, 3 vols., Madrid, 1927-29.Jump up^ Daniel Eisenberg, "¿Por qué volvió Cervantes de Argel?", in Ingeniosa invención: Essays on Golden Age Spanish Literature for Geoffrey L. Stagg in Honor of his Eighty-Fifth Birthday, Newark, Delaware, Juan de la Cuesta, 1999, ISBN 9780936388830, pp. 241-253, http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/por-qu-volvi-cervantes-de-argel-0/, retrieved 11/20/2014.Jump up^ The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804Jump up^ Trade and traders in Muslim Spain, Fourth Series, Cambridge University Press, 1996.Jump up^ Supply of Slaves^ Jump up to:a b Spyropoulos Yannis, Slaves and freedmen in 17th- and early 18th-century Ottoman Crete, Turcica, 46, 2015, p. 181, 182.Jump up^ Ottomans against Italians and Portuguese about (white slavery).Jump up^ Eric Dursteler (2006). Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean. JHU Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8018-8324-8.Jump up^ Wolf Von Schierbrand (28 March 1886). "Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars--in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2011.Jump up^ Madeline C. Zilfi Women and slavery in the late Ottoman Empire Cambridge University Press, 2010Jump up^ Santosuosso, Antonio (2001). Storming the Heavens. Westview Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8133-3523-0.Jump up^ Alfred Michael Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27–BC AD 235 (Oxford University Press, 2010), sect. 3.3.Jump up^ Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries, sect. 4.2.1.Jump up^ Alison Futrell, A Sourcebook on the Roman Games (Blackwell, 2006), p. 124.Jump up^ Prowse, Tracy L.; Schwarcz, Henry P.; Garnsey, Peter; Knyf, Martin; MacChiarelli, Roberto; Bondioli, Luca (2007). "Isotopic evidence for age-related immigration to imperial Rome". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 132 (4): 510–519. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20541. PMID 17205550.Jump up^ Killgrove, Kristina; Montgomery, Janet (2016). "Killgrove and Montgomery. "All Roads Lead to Rome: Exploring Human Migration to the Eternal City through Biochemistry of Skeletons from Two Imperial-Era Cemeteries (1st-3rd c AD)"". PLOS ONE. 11 (2): e0147585. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147585. PMC 4749291. PMID 26863610.Jump up^ Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton University Press. p. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3.Jump up^ Humphrey Fisher (2001), Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa. NYU Press. p. 47.Jump up^ Lewis, Bernard (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0195053265. [...] those who remained faithful to their old religions and lived as protected persons (dhimmis) under Muslim rule could not, if free, be legally enslaved unless they had violated the terms of the dhimma, the contract governing their status, as for example by rebelling against Muslim rule or helping the enemies of the Muslim state or, according to some authorities, by withholding payment of the Kharaj or the Jizya, the taxes due from dhimmis to the Muslim state.Jump up^ Mark R. Cohen (2005), Poverty and Charity in the Jewish Community of Medieval Egypt, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691092720, pp. 120–3; 130–8, Quotes: "Family members were held responsible for individual's poll tax (mahbus min al-jizya)"; "Imprisonment for failure to pay (poll tax) debt was very common"; "This imprisonment often meant house arrest... which was known as tarsim"Jump up^ I. P. Petrushevsky (1995), Islam in Iran, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-88706-070-0, pp 155, Quote - "The law does not contemplate slavery for debt in the case of Muslims, but it allows the enslavement of Dhimmis for non-payment of jizya and kharaj.(...) "Jump up^ Scott C. Levi (2002), "Hindu Beyond Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 12, Part 3 (November 2002): p. 282Jump up^ Perry Anderson (1979). Lineages of the Absolutist State. Verso. pp. 366–. ISBN 978-0-86091-710-6.Jump up^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together Worlds Apart. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 395. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.Jump up^ A. E. Vacalopoulos. The Greek Nation, 1453–1669, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1976, p. 41; Vasiliki Papoulia, The Impact of Devshirme on Greek Society, in War and Society in East Central Europe, Editor—in—Chief, Bela K. Kiraly, 1982, Vol. II, pp. 561—562.Jump up^ David Nicolle (1995-05-15), The Janissaries, p. 12, ISBN 9781855324138Jump up^ Some Notes on the Devsirme, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1966, V.L.Menage, (Cambridge University Press, 1966), 64.Jump up^ Galenson 1984: 1Jump up^ Candidate, Jo Doezema Ph.D. "Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women." Gender issues 18.1 (1999): 23-50.Jump up^ Donovan, Brian. White slave crusades: race, gender, and anti-vice activism, 1887-1917. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006.Jump up^ Hansard CRIMINAL LAW AMENDMENT (WHITE SLAVE TRAFFIC) BILL. HC Deb 10 June 1912 vol 39 cc571-627Jump up^ The Spectator 11 May 1912Categories:Greek slaves of the Ottoman EmpireSlaves of the Ottoman EmpireEthnic and racial stereotypesArabian slaves and freedmenSexual slaverySlavery lawSlavery by typeSearchMain pageContentsFeatured contentCurrent eventsRandom articleDonate to WikipediaWikipedia storeInteractionHelpCommunity portalRecent changesContact pageToolsWhat links hereRelated changesUpload fileSpecial pagesPermanent linkPage informationWikidata itemCite this pagePrint/exportCreate a bookDownload as PDFPrintable versionLanguagesFrançais日本語РусскийTürkç